122-474: The Red Book: Liber Novus is a folio manuscript so named due to its original red leather binding. The work was crafted by the Swiss psychiatrist Carl Gustav Jung between 1914 and about 1930. It follows, records and comments in fair copy on the author's psychological observations and experiments on himself between 1913 and 1916, and draws on working drafts contained in a series of notebooks or journals, now known as
244-442: A catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT) by an S -adenosyl methionine (SAM)-dependent mechanism. The resulting intermediate is then oxidized again by a hydroxylase enzyme, likely monophenol hydroxylase again, at carbon 5, and methylated by COMT. The product, methylated at the two meta positions with respect to the alkyl substituent, experiences a final methylation at the 4 carbon by a guaiacol-O-methyltransferase, which also operates by
366-427: A facsimile edition, complete with an English translation, three appendices, and over 1,500 editorial notes. Editions and translations in several other languages soon followed. In December 2012, Norton additionally released a "Reader's Edition" of the work; this smaller format edition includes the complete translated text of The Red Book along with the introduction and notes prepared by Sonu Shamdasani , but it omits
488-540: A neurosis is". Initially, Jung had aspirations of becoming a preacher or minister. There was a strong moral sense in his household and several of his family were clergymen. Jung had wanted to study archaeology, but his family could not afford to send him further than the University of Basel, which did not teach it. After studying philosophy in his teens, Jung decided against the path of religious traditionalism and decided to pursue psychiatry and medicine. His interest
610-447: A "psychoanalytical Jung" and not the theory of analytical psychology, for which he became famous in the following decades. Nonetheless, it was their publication which, Jung declared, "cost me my friendship with Freud". Another disagreement with Freud stemmed from their differing concepts of the unconscious. Jung saw Freud's theory of the unconscious as incomplete and unnecessarily negative and inelastic. According to Jung, Freud conceived
732-502: A SAM-dependent mechanism. This final methylation step results in the production of mescaline. Phenylalanine serves as a precursor by first being converted to L -tyrosine by L-amino acid hydroxylase . Once converted, it follows the same pathway as described above. Mescaline was first synthesized in 1919 by Ernst Späth from 3,4,5-trimethoxybenzoyl chloride. Subsequent to this, numerous approaches utilizing different starting materials have been developed. Notable examples include
854-527: A biosynthetic pathway involving m - O -methylation and aromatic hydroxylation. Tyrosine and phenylalanine serve as metabolic precursors towards the synthesis of mescaline. Tyrosine can either undergo a decarboxylation via tyrosine decarboxylase to generate tyramine and subsequently undergo an oxidation at carbon 3 by a monophenol hydroxylase or first be hydroxylated by tyrosine hydroxylase to form L-DOPA and decarboxylated by DOPA decarboxylase . These create dopamine, which then experiences methylation by
976-619: A copy of which he later sent to Freud—who had already purchased a copy. Preceded by a lively correspondence, Jung met Freud for the first time in Vienna on 3 March 1907. Jung recalled the discussion between himself and Freud as interminable, unceasing for 13 hours. Six months later, the then 50-year-old Freud sent a collection of his latest published essays to Jung in Zurich. This marked the beginning of an intense correspondence and collaboration that lasted six years. In 1908, Jung became an editor of
1098-553: A decade of active publication, interspersed with overseas travels. Constance Long arranged for Jung to deliver a seminar in Cornwall in 1920. Another seminar was held in 1923, this one organized by Jung's British protégé Helton Godwin Baynes (known as "Peter") (1882–1943), and another in 1925. In 1935, at the invitation of his close British friends and colleagues, H. G. Baynes , E. A. Bennet and Hugh Crichton-Miller , Jung gave
1220-506: A few days. Paul Jung, Carl's father, was the youngest son of noted German-Swiss professor of medicine at Basel , Karl Gustav Jung (1794–1864). Paul's hopes of achieving a fortune never materialised, and he did not progress beyond the status of an impoverished rural pastor in the Swiss Reformed Church . Emilie Preiswerk, Carl's mother, had also grown up in a large family, whose Swiss roots went back five centuries. Emilie
1342-485: A few weeks later. The group traveled through Kenya and Uganda to the slopes of Mount Elgon , where Jung hoped to increase his understanding of "primitive psychology" through conversations with the culturally isolated residents of that area. Later he concluded that the major insights he had gleaned had to do with himself and the European psychology in which he had been raised. One of Jung's most famous proposed constructs
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#17327903998271464-700: A head detached from the neck and floating in the air in front of the body. Jung had a better relationship with his father. Jung's mother left Laufen for several months of hospitalization near Basel, for an unknown physical ailment. His father took Carl to be cared for by Emilie Jung's unmarried sister in Basel, but he was later brought back to his father's residence. Emilie Jung's continuing bouts of absence and depression deeply troubled her son and caused him to associate women with "innate unreliability", whereas "father" meant for him reliability, but also powerlessness. In his memoir, Jung would remark that this parental influence
1586-442: A likely result of monoamine oxidase (MAO) degradation . However, the enzymes mediating the oxidative deamination of mescaine are controversial. MAO, diamine oxidase (DAO), and/or other enzymes may be involved or responsible. The previously reported elimination half-life of mescaline was originally reported to be 6 hours, but a new study published in 2023 reported a half-life of 3.6 hours. The higher estimate
1708-484: A period of introspection, a psychotic breakdown or simply as a period of madness. Anthony Storr , reflecting on Jung's own judgment that he was "menaced by a psychosis " during this time, concluded that the period represented a psychotic episode. According to Sonu Shamdasani , Storr's opinion is unsustainable in light of currently available documentation. Jung himself stated that: "To the superficial observer, it will appear like madness". It appears that Jung had anticipated
1830-487: A permanent 'senior' doctor at the hospital and became a lecturer Privatdozent in the medical faculty of Zurich University. In 1904, he published with Franz Riklin their Diagnostic Association Studies , of which Freud obtained a copy. In 1909, Jung left the psychiatric hospital and began a private practice in his home in Küsnacht . Eventually, a close friendship and strong professional association developed between
1952-422: A possibility of emerging, just as one does when taking mescaline . Jung initially recorded his "visions", or "fantasies", or "imaginations" —all terms used by Jung to describe his activity—in a series of six journals now known collectively as the " Black Books ". This journal record begins on 12 November 1913, and continues with intensity through the summer of 1914; subsequent entries were added up through at least
2074-495: A relatively low and barely psychoactive amount. It appears that patients who receive traditional treatments with San Pedro ingest sub-psychoactive doses and do not experience psychedelic effects. Botanical studies of peyote began in the 1840s and the drug was listed in the Mexican pharmacopeia . The first of mescal buttons was published by John Raleigh Briggs in 1887. Mescaline was first isolated and identified in 1896 or 1897 by
2196-550: A religious organization, regardless of race. Synthetic mescaline, but not mescaline derived from cacti, was officially decriminalized in the state of Colorado by ballot measure Proposition 122 in November 2022. While mescaline-containing cacti of the genus Echinopsis are technically controlled substances under the Controlled Substances Act , they are commonly sold publicly as ornamental plants . In
2318-518: A research scientist at the Burghölzli psychiatric hospital, in Zurich , under Eugen Bleuler . Jung established himself as an influential mind, developing a friendship with Sigmund Freud , founder of psychoanalysis , conducting a lengthy correspondence paramount to their joint vision of human psychology. Jung is widely regarded as one of the most influential psychologists in history. Freud saw
2440-740: A series of lectures at the Tavistock Clinic in London, later published as part of the Collected Works . In 1938, Jung was awarded an honorary degree by the University of Oxford . At the tenth International Medical Congress for Psychotherapy held at Oxford from 29 July to 2 August 1938, Jung gave the presidential address, followed by a visit to Cheshire to stay with the Bailey family at Lawton Mere. In 1946, Jung agreed to become
2562-786: A short epilogue: "To the superficial observer, it will appear like madness." Jung worked on his text and images in the Red Book using a calligraphic pen, multicoloured ink, and gouache paint. The text is written in German but includes quotations from the Vulgate in Latin, a few inscriptions and names written in Latin and Greek, and a brief marginal quotation from the Bhagavad Gita given in English. The initial seven folios (or leaves) of
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#17327903998272684-490: A somewhat altered meaning. The collective unconscious is not so much a 'geographical location', but a deduction from the alleged ubiquity of archetypes over space and time. In November 1912, Jung and Freud met in Munich for a meeting among prominent colleagues to discuss psychoanalytical journals. At a talk about a new psychoanalytic essay on Amenhotep IV , Jung expressed his views on how it related to actual conflicts in
2806-405: A stone, which he had painted into upper and lower halves, and hid the case in the attic. Periodically, he would return to the mannequin, often bringing tiny sheets of paper with messages inscribed on them in his own secret language. He later reflected that this ceremonial act brought him a feeling of inner peace and security. Years later, he discovered similarities between his personal experience and
2928-405: A student by reading Psychopathia Sexualis by Richard von Krafft-Ebing . In 1900, Jung completed his degree and started work as an intern (voluntary doctor) under the psychiatrist Eugen Bleuler at Burghölzli Hospital. It was Bleuler who introduced him to the writings of Freud by asking him to write a review of The Interpretation of Dreams (1899). In the early 1900s psychology as a science
3050-400: A suicidal psychosis that precipitated his writing of his Red Book, his seven-volume personal diaries that were only published partially and posthumously in 2009. Eleven years later, in 2020, they were published in their entirety as his Black Books. Jung described his 1912 book as "an attempt, only partially successful, to create a wider setting for medical psychology and to bring the whole of
3172-658: A visit in nearby Zurich, an incident Jung referred to as "the Kreuzlingen gesture". Shortly thereafter, Jung again traveled to the US and gave the Fordham University lectures, a six-week series, which were published later in the year as Psychology of the Unconscious , subsequently republished as Symbols of Transformation . While they contain remarks on Jung's dissenting view on the libido, they represent largely
3294-588: A watershed in the acceptance of psychoanalysis in North America. This forged welcome links between Jung and influential Americans. Jung returned to the United States the next year for a brief visit. In 1910 Freud proposed Jung, "his adopted eldest son, his crown prince and successor", for the position of lifetime President of the newly formed International Psychoanalytical Association . However, after forceful objections from his Viennese colleagues, it
3416-502: Is a substituted phenethylamine derivative . It is closely structurally related to the catecholamine neurotransmitters dopamine , norepinephrine , and epinephrine . The drug is relatively hydrophilic with low fat solubility . Its predicted log P ( XLogP3 ) is 0.7. Mescaline is biosynthesized from tyrosine which, in turn, is derived from phenylalanine by the enzyme phenylalanine hydroxylase. In Lophophora williamsii ( Peyote ), dopamine converts into mescaline in
3538-434: Is believed to be due to small sample numbers and collective measurement of mescaline metabolites. Mescaline appears to have relatively poor blood–brain barrier permeability due to its low lipophilicity. However, it is still able to cross into the central nervous system and produce psychoactive effects at sufficienty high doses. Active metabolites of mescaline may contribute to its psychoactive effects. In
3660-488: Is currently held, along with other valuable and private items from Jung's archive, in a bank vault in Zurich . During Jung's life, several people saw his Red Book — it was often present in his office — but only a very few individuals who were personally trusted by him had the opportunity to read it. After Jung's death in 1961, his heirs held the book as a private legacy, and refused access to it by scholars or other interested parties. After many years of careful deliberations,
3782-533: Is kinship libido. Jung defined this as an instinctive feeling of belonging to a particular group or family and Jung believed it was vital to the human experience and used this as an endogamous aspect of the libido and what lies amongst the family. This is similar to a Bantu term called Ubuntu that emphasizes humanity and almost the same meaning as kinship libido, which is, "I am because you are." In December 1937, Jung left Zurich again for an extensive tour of India with Fowler McCormick. In India, he felt himself "under
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3904-636: Is no evidence of it showing addiction or dependence . The monoamine-releasing effects of mescaline are likely related to its structural similarity to substituted amphetamines and related compounds. Tolerance builds with repeated usage, lasting for a few days. Mescaline causes cross-tolerance with other serotonergic psychedelics such as LSD and psilocybin . The LD 50 of mescaline has been measured in various animals: 212–315 mg/kg i.p. (mice), 132–410 mg/kg i.p. (rats), 328 mg/kg i.p. (guinea pigs), 54 mg/kg in dogs, and 130 mg/kg i.v. in rhesus macaques . For humans,
4026-461: The Black Books . Jung produced these beginning in 1913 and continued until 1917. Despite being considered as the origin of Jung's main oeuvre , it was probably never intended for conventional publication and the material was not published nor made otherwise accessible for study until 2009. In October 2009, with the cooperation of Jung's estate, The Red Book was published by W. W. Norton in
4148-479: The LD 50 of mescaline has been reported to be approximately 880 mg/kg. It has been said that it would be very difficult to consume enough mescaline to cause death in humans. Mescaline is a relatively low- potency psychedelic, with active doses in the hundreds of milligrams and micromolar affinities for the serotonin 5-HT 2A receptor. For comparison, psilocybin is approximately 20-fold more potent (doses in
4270-822: The Philemon Foundation . In the United States, on the occasion of the publication in October 2009, the Rubin Museum of Art in New York City displayed the original book along with three of Jung's original "Black Book" journals and several other related artifacts. The exhibition was open from 7 October 2009 to 25 January 2010. The Red Book was subsequently exhibited at the Hammer Museum in Los Angeles from April 11 – June 6, 2010. It formed
4392-683: The Supreme Court ruled that the state of Oregon could ban the use of mescaline in Native American religious ceremonies. The Religious Freedom Restoration Act (RFRA) in 1993 allowed the use of peyote in religious ceremony, but in 1997, the Supreme Court ruled that the RFRA is unconstitutional when applied against states. Many states, including the state of Utah , have legalized peyote usage with "sincere religious intent", or within
4514-529: The Swiss army and was on active duty for several extended periods between 1914 and 1918 during World War I . Jung referred to his imaginative or visionary venture during these years as "my most difficult experiment". This experiment involved a voluntary confrontation with the unconscious through wilful engagement of what Jung later termed "mythopoetic imagination". In his introduction to Liber Novus , Shamdasani explains: From December 1913 onward, he carried on in
4636-492: The Terry Lectures at Yale University , later published as Psychology and Religion . In October 1925, Jung embarked on his most ambitious expedition, the "Bugishu Psychological Expedition" to East Africa. He was accompanied by his English friend, "Peter" Baynes and an American associate, George Beckwith . On the voyage to Africa, they became acquainted with an English woman named Ruth Bailey, who joined their safari
4758-479: The Vedagiriswarar Temple where he had a conversation with a local expert about the symbols and sculptures on the gopuram of this temple. He later wrote about this conversation in his book Aion . Jung became seriously ill on this trip and endured two weeks of delirium in a Calcutta hospital. After 1938, his travels were confined to Europe. Jung became a full professor of medical psychology at
4880-621: The collective unconscious were inspired, in part, by these early experiences combined with his later research. At the age of 12, shortly before the end of his first year at the Humanistisches Gymnasium in Basel, Jung was pushed to the ground by another boy so hard he momentarily lost consciousness. (Jung later recognized the incident was indirectly his fault.) A thought then came to him—"now you won't have to go to school anymore". From then on, whenever he walked to school or began homework, he fainted. He remained at home for
5002-438: The serotonin 5-HT 2A receptor . Its EC 50 Tooltip half-maximal effective concentration at the serotonin 5-HT 2A receptor is approximately 10 μM and at the serotonin 5-HT 2B receptor is greater than 20 μM. How activating the 5-HT 2A receptor leads to psychedelic effects is still unknown, but it is likely that somehow it involves excitation of neurons in the prefrontal cortex . In addition to
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5124-465: The 1930s. Biographer and psychoanalyst Barbara Hannah , who was close to Jung throughout the last three decades of his life, compared Jung's imaginative experiences recounted in his journals to the encounter of Menelaus with Proteus in the Odyssey . Jung, she said, "made it a rule never to let a figure or figures that he encountered leave until they had told him why they had appeared to him." After
5246-484: The 1990s. Mescaline has a wide array of suggested medical usage, including treatment of depression, anxiety, PTSD, and alcoholism . However, its status as a Schedule I controlled substance in the Convention on Psychotropic Substances limits availability of the drug to researchers. Because of this, very few studies concerning mescaline's activity and potential therapeutic effects in people have been conducted since
5368-497: The German chemist Arthur Heffter and his colleagues. He showed that mescaline was exclusively responsible for the psychoactive or hallucinogenic effects of peyote. However, other components of peyote, such as hordenine , pellotine , and anhalinine , are also active . Mescaline was first synthesized in 1919 by Ernst Späth . In 1955, English politician Christopher Mayhew took part in an experiment for BBC 's Panorama , in which he ingested 400 mg of mescaline under
5490-493: The Jungs remained shareholders in a thriving business that ensured the family's financial security for decades. Emma Jung, whose education had been limited, evinced considerable ability and interest in her husband's research and threw herself into studies and acted as his assistant at Burghölzli. She eventually became a noted psychoanalyst in her own right. The marriage lasted until Emma died in 1955. They had five children: None of
5612-570: The Kiowa and Comanche people. These religious practices, incorporated legally in the United States in 1920 as the Native American Church, have since spread as far as Saskatchewan, Canada. In traditional peyote preparations, the top of the cactus is cut off, leaving the large tap root along with a ring of green photosynthesizing area to grow new heads. These heads are then dried to make disc-shaped buttons. Buttons are chewed to produce
5734-721: The San Pedro have a long history of use in South America, from Peru to Ecuador. While religious and ceremonial peyote use was widespread in the Aztec empire and northern Mexico at the time of the Spanish conquest, religious persecution confined it to areas near the Pacific coast and up to southwest Texas. However, by 1880, peyote use began to spread north of South-Central America with "a new kind of peyote ceremony" inaugurated by
5856-567: The Skies (1959), which analyzed the archetypal meaning and possible psychological significance of the reported observations of UFOs . In 1961, he wrote his last work, a contribution to Man and His Symbols entitled "Approaching the Unconscious" (published posthumously in 1964). Jung died on 6 June 1961 at Küsnacht after a short illness. He had been beset by circulatory diseases . Among his principal distinctions are honorary doctorates from: In addition, he was: Jung's thought derived from
5978-463: The Unconscious in 1912 that led to the final break with Freud. The letters they exchanged show Freud's refusal to consider Jung's ideas. This rejection caused what Jung described in his posthumously-published autobiography, Memories, Dreams, Reflections (1962) as a "resounding censure". Everyone he knew dropped away from him, except two of his colleagues. After the Munich congress he was on the verge of
6100-688: The United Kingdom, mescaline in purified powder form is a Class A drug. However, dried cactus can be bought and sold legally. Mescaline is considered a schedule 9 substance in Australia under the Poisons Standard (February 2020) . A schedule 9 substance is classified as "Substances with a high potential for causing harm at low exposure and which require special precautions during manufacture, handling or use. These poisons should be available only to specialised or authorised users who have
6222-705: The United States, mescaline was made illegal in 1970 by the Comprehensive Drug Abuse Prevention and Control Act , categorized as a Schedule I hallucinogen. The drug is prohibited internationally by the 1971 Convention on Psychotropic Substances . Mescaline is legal only for certain religious groups (such as the Native American Church by the American Indian Religious Freedom Act of 1978) and in scientific and medical research. In 1990,
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#17327903998276344-496: The University of Basel in 1943, but resigned after a heart attack the next year to lead a more private life. In 1945, he began corresponding with an English Roman Catholic priest, Father Victor White , who became a close friend, regularly visiting the Jungs at the Bollingen estate. Jung became ill again in 1952. Jung continued to publish books until the end of his life, including Flying Saucers: A Modern Myth of Things Seen in
6466-426: The age of 38, Jung experienced a horrible "confrontation with the unconscious". He saw visions and heard voices. He worried at times that he was "menaced by a psychosis" or was "doing a schizophrenia". He decided that it was valuable experience and, in private, he induced hallucinations or, in his words, a process of " active imagination ". He recorded everything he experienced in small journals, which Jung referred to in
6588-403: The approximately 600 pages bound in the Red Book folio. About a third of the manuscript material he had written was never entered into the Red Book. Inside the book there are now 205 completed pages of text and illustrations (including the loose parchment sheets), all by Jung's hand: 53 full-page images, 71 pages with both text and artwork, and 81 pages entirely of calligraphic text. The Red Book
6710-544: The arguments of the likes of Storr and Jung biographer Paul Stern and, in riposte, would likely have regarded the analyses of Storr and Stern as superficial. During the years Jung engaged with his "nocturnal work" on Liber Novus , he continued to function in his daytime activities without apparent impairment. He maintained a busy professional practice, seeing on average five patients a day. He carried out research, lectured, wrote, and remained active in professional associations. Throughout this period he also served as an officer in
6832-442: The book simply as the "Red Book", he had the top of the spine of the book embossed in gilt with the book's formal title, Liber Novus ("The New Book"). Jung subsequently interleaved the seven original parchment sheets at the beginning of the bound volume. After receiving the bound volume in 1915, he began transcribing his text and illustrations directly onto the bound pages. Over the next many years, Jung ultimately filled only 191 of
6954-484: The book — which contain what is now entitled Liber Primus (the 'First Book') of Liber Novus — were composed on sheets of parchment in a highly illuminated medieval style. However, as Jung proceeded with work on the parchment sheets, it became apparent that their surface was not holding his paint properly and that his ink was bleeding through. These first seven leaves (fourteen pages, recto and verso) now show heavy chipping of paint, as will be noted on close examination of
7076-402: The brain, producing hallucinogenic effects. It occurs naturally in several species of cacti . It is also reported to be found in small amounts in certain members of the bean family, Fabaceae , including Senegalia berlandieri (syn. Acacia berlandieri ), although these reports have been challenged and have been unsupported in any additional analyses. As shown in the accompanying table,
7198-402: The calligraphic folio of the Red Book for sixteen years, he never completed the task. Only approximately two-thirds of Jung's manuscript text was transcribed into the Red Book by 1930, when he abandoned further work on the detailed transcriptions. The published edition of The Red Book: Liber Novus includes all of Jung's manuscript material prepared for Liber Novus , and not merely the portion of
7320-540: The centre of a major display and conference at the Library of Congress from June 17 – September 25, 2010. Subsequently, The Red Book was the focus of museum displays in Zurich , Geneva , Paris , and other major cities. Carl Gustav Jung Carl Gustav Jung ( / j ʊ ŋ / YUUNG ; German: [kaʁl ˈjʊŋ] ; 26 July 1875 – 6 June 1961) was a Swiss psychiatrist , psychotherapist , psychologist and pioneering evolutionary theorist who founded
7442-472: The children continued their father's career. The daughters, Agathe and Marianne, assisted in publishing work. During his marriage, Jung engaged in at least one extramarital relationship: his affair with his patient and, later, fellow psychoanalyst Sabina Spielrein . A continuing affair with Toni Wolff is also alleged. Jung and Freud influenced each other during the intellectually formative years of Jung's life. Jung had become interested in psychiatry as
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#17327903998277564-501: The classical education he received at school and from early family influences, which on the maternal side were a combination of Reformed Protestant academic theology with an interest in occult phenomena. On his father's side was a dedication to academic discipline emanating from his grandfather, the physician, scientist and first Basel Professor of Medicine, Karl Gustav Jung , a one time student activist and convert from Catholicism to Swiss Reformed Protestantism. Family lore suggested there
7686-615: The concentration of mescaline in different specimens can vary largely within a single species. Moreover, the concentration of mescaline within a single specimen varies as well. Peyote has been used for at least 5,700 years by Indigenous peoples of the Americas in Mexico. Europeans recorded use of peyote in Native American religious ceremonies upon early contact with the Huichol people in Mexico. Other mescaline-containing cacti such as
7808-461: The conflict, who crossed their frontier to evade capture. Jung worked to improve the conditions of soldiers stranded in Switzerland and encouraged them to attend university courses. Jung emerged from his period of isolation in the late nineteen-tens with the publication of several journal articles, followed in 1921 with Psychological Types , one of his most influential books. There followed
7930-504: The development and founding of the international altruistic, self-help movement Alcoholics Anonymous on June 10, 1935, in Akron, Ohio , a quarter of a century after James' death and in Jung's sixtieth year. For six years, Jung and Freud cooperated in their work. In 1912, however, Jung published Psychology of the Unconscious , which made manifest the developing theoretical divergence between
8052-508: The direct influence of a foreign culture" for the first time. In Africa, his conversations had been strictly limited by the language barrier, but in India, he was able to converse extensively. Hindu philosophy became an important element in his understanding of the role of symbolism and the life of the unconscious, though he avoided a meeting with Ramana Maharshi . He described Ramana as being absorbed in "the self". During these travels he visited
8174-412: The early 1970s. Mescaline induces a psychedelic state comparable to those produced by LSD and psilocybin , but with unique characteristics. Subjective effects may include altered thinking processes, an altered sense of time and self-awareness, and closed- and open-eye visual phenomena. Prominence of color is distinctive, appearing brilliant and intense. Recurring visual patterns observed during
8296-520: The effects or soaked in water to drink. However, the taste of the cactus is bitter, so modern users will often grind it into a powder and pour it into capsules to avoid having to taste it. The typical dosage is 200–400 milligrams of mescaline sulfate or 178–356 milligrams of mescaline hydrochloride. The average 76 mm (3.0 in) peyote button contains about 25 mg mescaline. Some analyses of traditional preparations of San Pedro cactus have found doses ranging from 34 mg to 159 mg of total alkaloids,
8418-697: The elder Freud and Jung , which left a sizeable correspondence . In late summer 1909, the two sailed for the U.S., where Freud was the featured lecturer at the twentieth anniversary celebration of the founding of Clark University in Worcester, Massachusetts , the Vicennial Conference on Psychology and Pedagogy, September 7–11. Jung spoke as well and received an honorary degree. It was during this trip that Jung first began separating psychologically from Freud, his mentor, which occurred after intense communications around their individual dreams. And it
8540-492: The elder daughter of a wealthy industrialist in eastern Switzerland, Johannes Rauschenbach-Schenck. Rauschenbach was the owner, among other concerns, of IWC Schaffhausen —the International Watch Company, manufacturer of luxury time-pieces. Upon his death in 1905, his two daughters and their husbands became owners of the business. Jung's brother-in-law— Ernst Homberger —became the principal proprietor, but
8662-407: The era of the time. "Personality Number 2" was a dignified, authoritative, and influential man from the past. Though Jung was close to both parents, he was disappointed by his father's academic approach to faith. Some childhood memories made lifelong impressions on him. As a boy, he carved a tiny mannequin into the end of the wooden ruler from his pencil case and placed it inside the case. He added
8784-439: The estate of C. G. Jung finally decided in 2000 to allow publication of the work, and thereafter began preparations for it. The decision to publish was apparently aided by representations made by London-based scholar Sonu Shamdasani, who had already discovered substantial private transcriptions of portions of The Red Book in archival repositories. Editorial work and preparation for publication were underwritten by major funding from
8906-487: The evolutionary past of humanity and his belief that an ancient evolutionary layer in the psyche, represented by early fossil hominins, is still evident in the psychology of modern humans. In 1900, Jung moved to Zürich and began working at the Burghölzli psychiatric hospital under Eugen Bleuler . Bleuler was already in communication with the Austrian neurologist Sigmund Freud . Jung's dissertation , published in 1903,
9028-411: The facsimile edition reproductions. In 1915, Jung commissioned the folio-sized volume to be bound in crimson leather. The bound volume contained approximately 600 blank pages of paper of weight and quality suitable for ink and paint. The folio-sized volume, 11.57 inches (29.4 cm) by 15.35 inches (39.0 cm), is bound in fine red leather with gilt accents. Though Jung and others usually referred to
9150-457: The facsimile reproduction of Jung's original calligraphic manuscript. While the work has in past years been commonly referred to as "The Red Book", Jung did emboss a formal title on the spine of his leather-bound folio: his chosen title for the work was Liber Novus - Latin for "New Book". His manuscript is now increasingly cited as Liber Novus , and under this title implicitly includes draft material intended for but never finally transcribed into
9272-529: The final break in the relationship came in 1913, it was to have far reaching consequences. Jung retreated from many of his professional activities to reconsider intensely his personal and professional path. The creative activity that produced Liber Novus came in this period, from 1913 to about 1917. Its genesis coincided with the gathering storm clouds of World War I , its outbreak and engulfing conflict. Biographers and critics have disagreed whether these years in Jung's life should be seen as "a creative illness",
9394-640: The final disposition of what he called the Liber Novus or Red Book . Sonu Shamdasani , a historian of psychology from London, tried for three years to persuade Jung's resistant heirs to have it published. Ulrich Hoerni, Jung's grandson who manages the Jung archives, decided to publish it when the necessary additional funds needed were raised through the Philemon Foundation . Up to September 2008, fewer than about two dozen people had ever seen it. In 2007, two technicians for DigitalFusion, working with New York City publishers W. W. Norton & Company , scanned
9516-462: The first Honorary President of the newly formed Society of Analytical Psychology in London, having previously approved its training programme devised by Michael Fordham . During the period of Jung's collaboration with Freud , both visited the US in 1909 to lecture at Clark University, Worcester, Massachusetts where both were awarded honorary degrees. In 1912 Jung gave a series of lectures at Fordham University, New York which were published later in
9638-655: The following: In plants, mescaline may be the end-product of a pathway utilizing catecholamines as a method of stress response, similar to how animals may release such compounds and others such as cortisol when stressed. The in vivo function of catecholamines in plants has not been investigated, but they may function as antioxidants , as developmental signals, and as integral cell wall components that resist degradation from pathogens. The deactivation of catecholamines via methylation produces alkaloids such as mescaline. In humans, mescaline acts similarly to other psychedelic agents. It acts as an agonist, binding to and activating
9760-689: The help of music. An unusual but unique characteristic of mescaline use is the "geometrization" of three-dimensional objects. The object can appear flattened and distorted, similar to the presentation of a Cubist painting. Mescaline elicits a pattern of sympathetic arousal, with the peripheral nervous system being a major target for this substance. According to a research project in the Netherlands, ceremonial San Pedro use seems to be characterized by relatively strong spiritual experiences, and low incidence of challenging experiences. Mescaline, also known as 3,4,5-trimethoxyphenethylamine (3,4,5-TMPEA),
9882-464: The illuminated calligraphic volume that would subsequently become known as the Red Book . In 1917 he compiled a further supplementary manuscript of visionary material and commentary, which he entitled "Scrutinies". This also was apparently intended for transcription into his red folio volume, the "Red Book". Although Jung laboured on the decorated transcription of the corpus of manuscript material into
10004-458: The importance of the 4-position substituent with regard to receptor binding. About half the initial dosage is excreted after 6 hours, but some studies suggest that it is not metabolized at all before excretion. Mescaline appears not to be subject to metabolism by CYP2D6 and between 20% and 50% of mescaline is excreted in the urine unchanged, with the rest being excreted as the deaminated-oxidised - carboxylic acid form of mescaline,
10126-409: The main task of human development. He created some of the best known psychological concepts, including synchronicity , archetypal phenomena , the collective unconscious , the psychological complex , and extraversion and introversion . His belief that some alcoholics may recover if they have a 'spiritual or religious experience' indirectly influenced the later founding of Alcoholics Anonymous . Jung
10248-449: The major serotonin metabolite 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid (5-HIAA) at high doses in rodents. This finding suggests that mescaline may inhibit the reuptake and/or induce the release of serotonin at such doses. However, this possibility has not yet been further assessed or demonstrated. Besides serotonin, mescaline may also weakly induce the release of dopamine , but this is probably of modest significance. In accordance, there
10370-686: The manuscript with a 10,200-pixel scanner. It was published on 7 October 2009, in German with a "separate English translation along with Shamdasani's introduction and footnotes" at the back of the book. According to Sara Corbett, reviewing the text for The New York Times , "The book is bombastic, baroque and like so much else about Carl Jung, a willful oddity, synched with an antediluvian and mystical reality." The Rubin Museum of Art in New York City displayed Jung's Red Book leather folio, as well as some of his original "Black Book" journals, from 7 October 2009 to 15 February 2010. According to them, "During
10492-565: The mescaline experience include stripes, checkerboards, angular spikes, multicolor dots, and very simple fractals that turn very complex. The English writer Aldous Huxley described these self-transforming amorphous shapes as like animated stained glass illuminated from light coming through the eyelids in his autobiographical book The Doors of Perception (1954). Like LSD, mescaline induces distortions of form and kaleidoscopic experiences but they manifest more clearly with eyes closed and under low lighting conditions. Heinrich Klüver coined
10614-519: The newly founded Yearbook for Psychoanalytical and Psychopathological Research . In 1909, Jung travelled with Freud and Hungarian psychoanalyst Sándor Ferenczi to the United States; in September they took part in a conference at Clark University in Worcester , Massachusetts. The conference at Clark University was planned by the psychologist G. Stanley Hall and included 27 distinguished psychiatrists, neurologists, and psychologists. It represented
10736-482: The next six months until he overheard his father speaking hurriedly to a visitor, about the boy's future ability to support himself. They suspected he had epilepsy . Confronted with the reality of his family's poverty, he realized the need for academic excellence. He went into his father's study and began poring over Latin grammar . He fainted three more times, but eventually overcame the urge and did not faint again. This event, Jung later recalled, "was when I learned what
10858-496: The outbreak of World War I in August 1914, Jung perceived that his visionary experiences were not only of personal relevance, but were entwined with a nodal historical moment. In late-1914 and 1915 he compiled the visions jotted in the journals, along with his additional commentary on each imaginative episode, into a clean manuscript. This manuscript was the beginning of Liber Novus . In 1915 Jung began transcribing his draft text into
10980-524: The part of the unconscious that contains memories and ideas that Jung believed were inherited from ancestors. While he did think that libido was an important source for personal growth, unlike Freud, Jung did not believe that libido alone was responsible for the formation of the core personality. In 1912 these tensions came to a peak because Jung felt severely slighted after Freud visited his colleague Ludwig Binswanger in Kreuzlingen without paying him
11102-452: The period in which he worked on this book Jung developed his principal theories of archetypes, collective unconscious, and the process of individuation." Two-thirds of the pages bear Jung's illuminations and illustrations to the text. During World War I, Jung was drafted as an army doctor and soon made commandant of an internment camp for British officers and soldiers. The Swiss were neutral and obliged to intern personnel from either side of
11224-415: The practices associated with totems in indigenous cultures , such as the collection of soul-stones near Arlesheim or the tjurungas of Australia. He concluded that his intuitive ceremonial act was an unconscious ritual, which he had practiced in a way that was strikingly similar to those in distant locations which he, as a young boy, knew nothing about. His observations about symbols, archetypes , and
11346-582: The psychic phenomena within its purview". The book was later revised and retitled Symbols of Transformation in 1952. Jung spoke at meetings of the Psycho-Medical Society in London in 1913 and 1914. His travels were soon interrupted by the war, but his ideas continued to receive attention in England primarily through the efforts of Constance Long who translated and published the first English volume of his collected writings. In 1913, at
11468-513: The psychoanalytic movement. While Jung spoke, Freud suddenly fainted and Jung carried him to a couch. Jung and Freud personally met for the last time in September 1913 for the Fourth International Psychoanalytical Congress in Munich. Jung gave a talk on psychological types, the introverted and extraverted type in analytical psychology . It was the publication of Jung's book The Psychology of
11590-440: The red leather folio proper. Jung was closely associated with his senior colleague from Vienna Sigmund Freud for a period of approximately six years, beginning in 1907. Over those years, their relationship produced many fruitful exchanges, but also cemented and highlighted each man's attachment to his convictions as to the nature and dynamics of the human psyche . Inevitably, their collaboration became increasingly fractious. When
11712-417: The same procedure: deliberately evoking a fantasy in a waking state, and then entering into it as into a drama. These fantasies may be understood as a type of dramatized thinking in pictorial form.... In retrospect, he recalled that his scientific question was to see what took place when he switched off consciousness. The example of dreams indicated the existence of background activity, and he wanted to give this
11834-423: The school of analytical psychology . He was a prolific author, illustrator, and correspondent, and a complex and controversial character, perhaps best known through his "autobiography" Memories, Dreams, Reflections . Jung's work has been influential in the fields of psychiatry , anthropology , archaeology , literature , philosophy , psychology , religious studies and evolutionary theory. He worked as
11956-420: The serotonin 5-HT 2A and 5-HT 2B receptors, mescaline is also known to bind to the serotonin 5-HT 2C receptor and a number of other targets . Mescaline lacks affinity for the monoamine transporters , including the serotonin transporter (SERT), norepinephrine transporter (NET), and dopamine transporter (DAT) (K i = >30 μM). However, mescaline has been found to increase levels of
12078-554: The singular as his Black Book , considering it a "single integral whole", even though some of these original journals have a brown cover. The material Jung wrote was subjected to several edits, hand-written and typed, including another, "second layer" of text, his continual psychological interpretations during the process of editing. Around 1915, Jung commissioned a large red leather-bound book, and began to transcribe his notes, along with painting, working intermittently for sixteen years. Jung left no posthumous instructions about
12200-430: The skills necessary to handle them safely. Special regulations restricting their availability, possession, storage or use may apply." In Canada, France, The Netherlands and Germany, mescaline in raw form and dried mescaline-containing cacti are considered illegal drugs. However, anyone may grow and use peyote, or Lophophora williamsii , as well as Echinopsis pachanoi and Echinopsis peruviana without restriction, as it
12322-414: The supervision of psychiatrist Humphry Osmond . Though the recording was deemed too controversial and ultimately omitted from the show, Mayhew praised the experience, calling it "the most interesting thing I ever did". Studies of the potential therapeutic effects of mescaline started in the 1950s. The mechanism of action of mescaline, activation of the serotonin 5-HT 2A receptors , became known in
12444-461: The tens of milligrams) and lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) is approximately 2,000-fold more potent (doses in the tens to hundreds of nanograms). There have been efforts to develop more potent analogues of mescaline. Difluoromescaline and trifluoromescaline are more potent than mescaline, as is its amphetamine homologue trimethoxyamphetamine (TMA). Escaline and proscaline are also both more potent than mescaline, showing
12566-491: The term "cobweb figure" in the 1920s to describe one of the four form constant geometric visual hallucinations experienced in the early stage of a mescaline trip: "Colored threads running together in a revolving center, the whole similar to a cobweb". The other three are the chessboard design, tunnel, and spiral. Klüver wrote that "many 'atypical' visions are upon close inspection nothing but variations of these form-constants." As with LSD, synesthesia can occur especially with
12688-502: The text transcribed by Jung himself into the calligraphic folio volume. In 1957, near the end of his life, Jung spoke to Aniela Jaffé about the Red Book and the process which gave rise to it. In that interview he stated: The years ... when I pursued the inner images, were the most important time of my life. Everything else is to be derived from this. It began at that time, and the later details hardly matter anymore. My entire life consisted in elaborating what had burst forth from
12810-622: The two. Consequently, their personal and professional relationship fractured—each stating the other was unable to admit he could be wrong. After the culminating break in 1913, Jung went through a difficult and pivotal psychological transformation, exacerbated by the outbreak of the First World War. Henri Ellenberger called Jung's intense experience a "creative illness" and compared it favorably to Freud's own period of what he called neurasthenia and hysteria . In 1903, Jung married Emma Rauschenbach (1882–1955), seven years his junior and
12932-410: The unconscious and flooded me like an enigmatic stream and threatened to break me. That was the stuff and material for more than only one life. Everything later was merely the outer classification, scientific elaboration, and the integration into life. But the numinous beginning, which contained everything, was then. In 1959, after having left the book more or less untouched for about 30 years, Jung wrote
13054-495: The unconscious solely as a repository of repressed emotions and desires. Jung's observations overlap to an extent with Freud's model of the unconscious, what Jung called the " personal unconscious ", but his hypothesis is more about a process than a static model and he also proposed the existence of a second, overarching form of the unconscious beyond the personal, that he named the psychoid—a term borrowed from neo-vitalist philosopher and embryologist Hans Driesch (1867–1941)—but with
13176-664: The year as Psychology of the Unconscious . Jung made a more extensive trip westward in the winter of 1924–5, financed and organized by Fowler McCormick and George Porter. Of particular value to Jung was a visit with Chief Mountain Lake of the Taos Pueblo near Taos, New Mexico . Jung made another trip to America in 1936, receiving an honorary degree at Harvard and giving lectures in New York and New England for his growing group of American followers. He returned in 1937 to deliver
13298-584: The younger Jung not only as the heir he had been seeking to take forward his "new science" of psychoanalysis, but as a means to legitimize his own work: Freud and other contemporary psychoanalysts were Jews facing rising antisemitism in Europe, and Jung was Christian . Freud secured Jung's appointment as president of Freud's newly founded International Psychoanalytical Association . Jung's research and personal vision, however, made it difficult to follow his older colleague's doctrine and they parted ways. This division
13420-403: Was 9, Jung's sister Johanna Gertrud (1884–1935) was born. Known in the family as "Trudi", she became a secretary to her brother. Jung was a solitary and introverted child. From childhood, he believed that, like his mother, he had two personalities—a modern Swiss citizen and a personality more suited to the 18th century. "Personality Number 1", as he termed it, was a typical schoolboy living in
13542-479: Was agreed Jung would be elected to serve a two-year term of office. While Jung worked on his Psychology of the Unconscious: a study of the transformations and symbolisms of the libido , tensions manifested between him and Freud because of various disagreements, including those concerning the nature of libido . Jung de-emphasized the importance of sexual development and focused on the collective unconscious:
13664-494: Was an artist , craftsman , builder, and prolific writer. Many of his works were not published until after his death and some remain unpublished. Carl Gustav Jung was born 26 July 1875 in Kesswil , in the Swiss canton of Thurgau , as the first surviving son of Paul Achilles Jung (1842–1896) and Emilie Preiswerk (1848–1923). His birth was preceded by two stillbirths and that of a son named Paul, born in 1873, who survived only
13786-572: Was at least a social connection to the German polymath , Johann Wolfgang Goethe , through the latter's niece, Lotte Kestner, known as "Lottchen" who was a frequent visitor in Jung senior's household. Mescaline Mescaline , also known as mescalin or mezcalin , as well as 3,4,5-trimethoxyphenethylamine , is a naturally occurring psychedelic protoalkaloid of the substituted phenethylamine class, known for its hallucinogenic effects comparable to those of LSD and psilocybin . It binds to and activates certain serotonin receptors in
13908-416: Was captured—it combined the biological and spiritual, exactly what he was searching for. In 1895 Jung began to study medicine at the University of Basel. Barely a year later, his father Paul died and left the family near destitute. They were helped by relatives who also contributed to Jung's studies. During his student days, he entertained his contemporaries with the family legend that his paternal grandfather
14030-622: Was during this visit that Jung was introduced to the elder philosopher and psychologist William James , known as the "Father of American psychology," whose ideas Jung would incorporate into his own work. Jung connected with James around their mutual interests in mysticism , spiritualism and psychical phenomena . James wrote to a friend after the conference stating Jung "left a favorable impression," while "his views of Freud were mixed." James died about eleven months later. The ideas of both Jung and James, on topics including hopelessness, self-surrender and spiritual experiences, were influential in
14152-473: Was painful for Jung and resulted in the establishment of Jung's analytical psychology, as a comprehensive system separate from psychoanalysis. Scholar Yosef Hayim Yerushalmi believed Jung's later antisemitic remarks may be a clue to the schism. Among the central concepts of analytical psychology is individuation —the lifelong psychological process of differentiation of the self out of each individual's conscious and unconscious elements. Jung considered it to be
14274-418: Was six months old. Tensions between father and mother had developed. Jung's mother was an eccentric and depressed woman; she spent considerable time in her bedroom, where she said spirits visited her at night. Though she was normal during the day, Jung recalled that at night his mother became strange and mysterious. He said that one night he saw a faintly luminous and indefinite figure coming from her room, with
14396-498: Was still in its early stages, but Jung became a qualified proponent of Freud's new "psycho-analysis". Freud needed collaborators and pupils to validate and spread his ideas. Burghölzli was a renowned psychiatric clinic in Zurich and Jung's research had already gained him international recognition. Jung sent Freud a copy of his Studies in Word Association in 1906. The same year, he published Diagnostic Association Studies ,
14518-538: Was the "handicap I started off with". Later, these early impressions were revised: "I have trusted men friends and been disappointed by them, and I have mistrusted women and was not disappointed." After three years of living in Laufen, Paul Jung requested a transfer. In 1879 he was called to Kleinhüningen, next to Basel, where his family lived in a parsonage of the church. The relocation brought Emilie Jung closer into contact with her family and lifted her melancholy. When he
14640-562: Was the illegitimate son of Goethe and his German great-grandmother, Sophie Ziegler . In later life, he pulled back from this tale, saying only that Sophie was a friend of Goethe's niece. It was during this early period, when Jung was an assistant at the Anatomical Institute at Basel University, that he took an interest in palaeoanthropology and the revolutionary discoveries of Homo erectus and Neanderthal fossils. These formative experiences contributed to his fascination with
14762-534: Was the youngest child of a distinguished Basel churchman and academic, Samuel Preiswerk (1799–1871), and his second wife. Samuel Preiswerk was an Antistes , the title given to the head of the Reformed clergy in the city, as well as a Hebraist , author, and editor, who taught Paul Jung as his professor of Hebrew at Basel University . Jung's father was appointed to a more prosperous parish in Laufen when Jung
14884-582: Was titled On the Psychology and Pathology of So-Called Occult Phenomena . It was based on the analysis of the supposed mediumship of Jung's cousin Hélène Preiswerk, under the influence of Freud's contemporary Théodore Flournoy . Jung studied with Pierre Janet in Paris in 1902 and later equated his view of the complex with Janet's idée fixe subconsciente . In 1905, Jung was appointed as
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