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63-597: Lingeer (also: Linger or Linguère ) was the title given to the mother or sister of a king in the Serer kingdoms of Sine , Saloum , and previously the Kingdom of Baol ; and the Wolof kingdoms of Cayor , Jolof , Baol and Waalo in pre-colonial Senegal . The word "Lingeer" means "queen" or " princess " in Serer and Wolof language . The Lingeer was considered the “great princess of royal courts.” These kingdoms utilized

126-562: A bilineal system, as a candidate for kingship could not succeed to the throne if he was not a member of the reigning materlineage, and thus, the Lingeer's maternal lineage was highly significant. In similarity, a candidate could not succeed to the throne as king if he was not a member of the noble reigning patriclans. That was particular so among the Serer who retained much of their old culture, customs and traditional religion where women played

189-407: A fetus develops from the viable zygote , resulting in an embryo . Gestation occurs in the woman's uterus until the fetus (assuming it is carried to term ) is sufficiently developed to be born. In humans, gestation is often around 9 months in duration, after which the woman experiences labor and gives birth. This is not always the case, however, as some babies are born prematurely , late, or in

252-555: A " mommy track " rather than being entirely " career women ". Mothers may be stay at home mothers or working mothers . In recent decades there has been an increase in stay at home fathers too. Social views on these arrangements vary significantly by culture: in Europe for instance, in German-speaking countries there is a strong tradition of mothers exiting the workforce and being homemakers. Mothers have historically fulfilled

315-454: A Lingeer character. Djibril Diop Mambety's Hyènes (1992) features the character Linguere Ramatou as its protagonist. Her first name is an alternate spelling of Lingeer and she has in fact been described as a royal of sorts: film scholars write that she is “an outcast-cum-queen who sits contemplating the horizon”. All crowned Serer lingeers of Sine are buried at Tioupane , Diakhao (in modern-day Senegal). The historic village of Tioupane

378-591: A Lingeer who had been recently deposed by a new king. Together, they defeated and killed the king. They then proceeded to select a new candidate, royal by birth, but also potentially more malleable to their control. Historians have cited instances in which the Lingeer's role extended into negotiating the relationship between the Wolof and Serer kingdoms. One such example involves the Lingeer Djembet (many variations: Jembet, Njembot Mbodj ). In 1833, Djembet married

441-496: A field of grain for their Lingeer. Many noble families sent forth their daughters to be followers of the Lingeer; however, captives often filled this role as well. The Lingeer was accompanied by a female géwél , a professional singer or musician, regionally known as a griot . The géwél sang listeners to sleep at night and awakened them in the morning. The types of songs sung to honor a Lingeer's sovereignty include: taggate, màdd, woy u lingeer, and buur. The power position that

504-547: A genetic mother, who provides the ovum, and a gestational (or surrogate) mother, who carries the child to term. The possibility for lesbian and bisexual women in same-sex relationships to become mothers has increased over the past few decades due to technological developments. Modern lesbian parenting originated with women who were in heterosexual relationships who later identified as lesbian or bisexual, as changing attitudes provided more acceptance for non-heterosexual relationships. Other ways for such women to become mothers

567-492: A history of domestic abuse are slightly more likely to commit filicide. Mothers are more likely to commit filicide than fathers when the child is 8 years old or younger. Matricide is most frequently committed by adult sons. In the United States in 2012, there were 130 matricides (0.4 per million people) and 383 filicides (1.2 per million), or 1.4 incidents per day. Throughout history, mothers have been depicted in

630-466: A mother fills many similar biological functions as a human mother. Many other mammal mothers also have numerous commonalities with humans. The behavior and role of mothers in non-human species is most similar in species most closely related to humans. This means great apes are most similar, then the broader superfamily of all apes , then all primates . Lingeer Fatim Beye Lingeer Ndoye Demba , maternal granddaughter of Lingeer Fatim Beye,

693-457: A mother has been referred to as "matrescence". The adjective "maternal" refers to a mother and comparatively to "paternal" for a father . The verb "to mother" means to procreate or to sire a child, or to provide care for a child, from which also derives the noun "mothering". Related terms of endearment are mom ( mama , mommy ), mum ( mummy ), mumsy , mamacita ( ma , mam ) and mammy . A female role model that children can look up to

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756-582: A political career. In the Serer Kingdoms of Sine and Saloum , the Lingeer held significant power and was crowned Lingeer by the Maad a Sinig and Maad Saloum (King of Sine and Saloum respectively) after his own coronation ceremony. In the economic realm, like her Wolof counterpart, the Lingeer of Serer societies controlled several villages, the contributions of which she was free to utilize. The inhabitants of such villages would traditionally cultivate

819-484: A significant role compared to the Wolof who adopted Islam. Various Lingeers have been noted for their resistance efforts to colonial conquest. Although the royal title Lingeer was generally given to the mother or sister of the king, and sometimes the first wife of the king (the "Lingeer-Awo" ), the title could also mean a royal princess . In this case, it meant a woman who could trace royal descent from both her paternal and maternal line . In Wolof and Serer tradition,

882-442: A strong social stigma . Historically, this stigma not only applied to the mother, but also to her child. This continues to be the case in many parts of the developing world today, but in many Western countries the situation has changed radically, with single motherhood being much more socially acceptable now. For more details on these subjects, see Legitimacy (family law) and single parent . The total fertility rate (TFR), that is,

945-566: A variety of art works, including paintings, sculptures and written texts, that have helped define the cultural meaning of 'mother', as well as ideals and taboos of motherhood. Fourth century grave reliefs on the island of Rhodes depicted mothers with children. Paintings of mothers with their children have a long tradition in France . In the 18th century, these works embodied the Enlightenment's preoccupation with strong family bonds and

1008-466: A vast grouping of Saharan immigrants that established a commercial network linking Senegambia with North Africa and the western Sahara. In these instances, the Idaw al-Hajj served as the queen's religious advisors. While many of the Lingeer are no longer known of, some of these women made their way into the historical record for their leadership and, in later cases, resistance to colonial incursions. One of

1071-562: A woman other than the biological parent, especially if she fulfills the main social role in raising the child. This is commonly either an adoptive mother or a stepmother (the biologically unrelated partner of a child's father ). The term " othermother " or "other mother" is also used in some contexts for women who provide care for a child not biologically their own in addition to the child's primary mother. Adoption, in various forms, has been practiced throughout history, even predating human civilization. Modern systems of adoption, arising in

1134-471: A woman who could trace royal descent on both her paternal and maternal line automatically became a Lingeer. The male equivalent was Garmi (a man who could trace royal descent on both his paternal and maternal line). It is from these Lingeers (a woman of pure royal blood) that a king would seek to marry. The king himself was a member of the Garmi class. Historians are careful to not understate her influence in

1197-408: Is Mary Kelly's Post-Partum Document . Bypassing typical themes of tenderness or nostalgia, this work documents in extensive detail the challenges, complexities and day-to-day realities of the mother-child relationship. Other artists have addressed similar aspects of motherhood that fall outside dominant ideals, including maternal ambivalence, desire, and the pursuit of self-fulfillment.   While

1260-475: Is a female whose biological relationship to a child is alleged but has not been established. A stepmother is a non-biological female parent married to a child's preexisting parent, and may form a family unit but generally does not have the legal rights and responsibilities of a parent in relation to the child. A father is the male counterpart of a mother. Women who are pregnant may be referred to as expectant mothers or mothers-to-be. The process of becoming

1323-461: Is a woman who bears a child that came from another woman's fertilized ovum on behalf of a couple unable to give birth to children. Thus the surrogate mother carries and gives birth to a child that she is not the biological mother of. Surrogate motherhood became possible with advances in reproductive technologies , such as in vitro fertilization . Not all women who become pregnant via in vitro fertilization are surrogate mothers. Surrogacy involves both

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1386-428: Is better suited to support very young children in their efforts to understand speech (in context of the reference English) than fathers. Since the 1970s, in vitro fertilization has made pregnancy possible at ages well beyond "natural" limits, generating ethical controversy and forcing significant changes in the social meaning of motherhood. This is, however, a position highly biased by Western world locality: outside

1449-540: Is defined by WHO as "the death of a woman while pregnant or within 42 days of termination of pregnancy, irrespective of the duration and site of the pregnancy, from any cause related to or aggravated by the pregnancy or its management but not from accidental or incidental causes". About 56% of maternal deaths occur in Sub-Saharan Africa and another 29% in South Asia . In 2006, the organization Save

1512-424: Is from Middle English moder, from Old English mōdor, from Proto-Germanic *mōdēr (cf. East Frisian muur, Dutch moeder, German Mutter), from Proto-Indo-European *méh₂tēr (cf. Irish máthair, Tocharian A mācar, B mācer, Lithuanian mótė). Other cognates include Latin māter, Greek μήτηρ, Common Slavic *mati (thence Russian мать (mat')), Persian مادر (madar), and Sanskrit मातृ (mātṛ). In zoology , particularly in mammals ,

1575-559: Is linked to old Serer royalty and just one of many of the Serer matriclans . Caaka Mbar was the son of Bakar Mbooj the founder of the Mbooj paternal dynasty of Waalo and an early holder of the royal title Brak . Ndoye Demba's marriage to one of the earliest Braks established the Joos Maternal Dynasty which lasted for nearly 600 years. As of c. 1367, this maternal dynasty provided many Braks of Waalo. Brak Yerim Mbanyik

1638-401: Is sometimes referred to as a mother-figure . Biological motherhood for humans , as in other mammals , occurs when a pregnant female gestates a fertilized ovum (the "egg"). A female can become pregnant through sexual intercourse after she has begun to ovulate . In well-nourished girls, menarche (the first menstrual period ) usually takes place around the age of 12 or 13. Typically,

1701-707: Is the reflection of the historical heroines of the Senegalese past such as the heiress of the Waalo throne, Lingeer Jombot who was in charge of the political affairs of the Waalo region and was succeeded by her sister Nade Yalla, wife of Maroso, the Prince of Kajoor”. In artistic Serer expression, especially in oral poetry and the culture of the traditional griotte, performers depict the Lingeer character as playing an important role in their society's functioning. Films such as Abderrahmane Sissako ’s Timbuktu (2014) feature

1764-494: Is the state of not having children. Childlessness may have personal, social or political significance. Childlessness may be voluntary childlessness , which occurs by choice, or may be involuntary due to health problems or social circumstances. Motherhood is usually voluntary, but may also be the result of forced pregnancy , such as pregnancy from rape . Unwanted motherhood occurs especially in cultures which practice forced marriage and child marriage . Mother can often apply to

1827-729: Is through adopting, foster parenting or in vitro fertilization. Transgender women may have biological children with a partner by utilizing their sperm to fertilize an egg and form an embryo. For transgender women, there is currently no accessible way to carry a child. However, research is being done on uterus transplants , which could potentially allow transgender women to carry and give birth to children through Caesarean section . Other types of motherhood include adoption or foster parenting. However, adoption agencies often refuse to work with transgender parents or are reluctant to do so. The social roles associated with motherhood are variable across time, culture, and social class. Historically,

1890-643: The Jolof Empire ) and Maad a Sinig Maysa Wali Jaxateh Manneh (var : Manyeasa Wali Dione ) who was the first Guelowar to rule in Sine or any of the Serer countries . Some sources note that, she was once married to Maad a Sinig Maysa Wali thereby linking this matriclan to a rather significant part of Serer medieval history , i.e. the constitutional change in Sine which shaped its medieval to 20th century history . The marriage of Lingeer Fatim Beye to one of

1953-561: The Joos Maternal Dynasty in the Wolof kingdom of Waalo as the region's queen and Princess of Sine . Lingeer Fatoumata Sall was the mother of the possibly mythical monarch Ndiadiane Ndiaye , who was emperor of the Jolof in the 1360s. The Lingeer's role sometimes extended to overthrowing the current king. In 1673, Ndyai Sal or Sar , a marabout of likely Tukuloor descent, was offered marriage and military alliance from

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2016-531: The Virgin Mary , an archetypal mother and a key historical basis for depictions of mothers in western art from the European Renaissance onwards. Mothers depicted in dominant art works are also primarily white, heterosexual, middle class and young or attractive. These ideals of motherhood have been challenged by artists with lived experience as mothers. An example in western contemporary art

2079-485: The "institution of motherhood" rather than diverse lived experiences. At the same time, art concerning motherhood has been historically marginalized within the feminist art movement , though this is changing with an increasing number of feminist publications addressing this topic. The institution of motherhood in western art is often depicted through "the myth of the all-loving, all-forgiving and all-sacrificing mother" and related ideals. Examples include works featuring

2142-479: The 20th century, tend to be governed by comprehensive statutes and regulations . In recent decades, international adoptions have become more and more common. Adoption in the United States is common and relatively easy from a legal point of view (compared to other Western countries). In 2001, with over 127,000 adoptions, the US accounted for nearly half of the total number of adoptions worldwide. A surrogate mother

2205-461: The Children has ranked the countries of the world, and found that Scandinavian countries are the safest places to give birth, whereas countries in sub-Saharan Africa are the least safe to give birth. This study argues a mother in the bottom ten ranked countries is over 750 times more likely to die in pregnancy or childbirth , compared to a mother in the top ten ranked countries, and a mother in

2268-514: The Lingeer occupied was a bi- and sometimes tri-cameral one: her leadership activities were carried out at the highest tier, as a co-monarch. In the case of a conflict between a Lingeer and the king, a Lingeer would sometimes create new political alliances. Towards the end of the seventeenth century, a relationship was established throughout many Wolof lands between the Lingeers and the Idaw al-Hajj ,

2331-537: The Serer Kingdom of Sine and entered the Wolof Kingdom of Waalo via the maternal granddaughter of Lingeer Fatim Beye ( Lingeer Ndoye Demba ). The Serer princess - Lingeer Ndoye Demba, originated from Sine where she was married off to the king of Waalo. Although established in Waalo in c. 1367 by Lingeer Ndoye Demba following her marriage to the king of Waalo (Caaka Mbaar Mbooj ), this Serer family

2394-468: The Western world, in-vitro fertilization has far less prominence, importance or currency compared to primary, basic healthcare, women's basic health, reducing infant mortality and the prevention of life-threatening diseases such as polio , typhus and malaria . Traditionally, and still in most parts of the world today, a mother was expected to be a married woman, with birth outside of marriage carrying

2457-615: The black female body and of maternity and slavery in the US, the latter of which is often characterized by the "extreme passivity and devalued love" typically associated with motherhood. The proverbial "first word" of an infant often sounds like "ma" or "mama". This strong association of that sound with "mother" has persisted in nearly every language on earth, countering the natural localization of language. Familiar or colloquial terms for mother in English are: In many other languages, similar pronunciations apply: The modern English word

2520-459: The bottom ten ranked countries is 28 times more likely to see her child die before reaching their first birthday. The most recent data suggests that Italy , Sweden and Luxembourg are the safest countries in terms of maternal death and Afghanistan , Central African Republic and Malawi are the most dangerous. Childbirth can be a dangerous process in the absence of effective measures to reduce death. When none of these measure are taken,

2583-415: The case of gestational surrogacy . A biological mother is the female genetic contributor to the creation of the infant, through sexual intercourse or egg donation . A biological mother may have legal obligations to a child not raised by her, such as an obligation of monetary support. An adoptive mother is a female who has become the child's parent through the legal process of adoption . A putative mother

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2646-510: The case of stillbirth , do not survive gestation. Usually, once the baby is born, the mother produces milk via the lactation process. The mother's breast milk is the source of antibodies for the infant's immune system , and commonly the sole source of nutrition for newborns before they are able to eat and digest other foods; older infants and toddlers may continue to be breastfed, in combination with other foods, which should be introduced from approximately six months of age. Childlessness

2709-430: The competing maternal dynasties of the country ( Joos , Tedyek and Loggar ). Lingeer Fatim Beye was a member of the Serer ethnic group and the matriarch of the Joos Maternal Dynasty of Waalo . The Joos Maternal Dynasty ( Serer proper  : Joos Fadiou or Dioss Fahou/Fadiou ) was a Serer maternal dynasty in the Wolof Kingdom of Waalo. Fatim Beye was a contemporary of Ndiadiane Ndiaye (founder of

2772-446: The country of their birth. As an early ancestor of the Joos Maternal Dynasty, with royal ties to two pre-colonial Senegambian kingdoms from the start of their constitutional change, Lingeer Fatim Beye is regarded as one of the most significant female personalities of Serer and Senegambian dynastic history. Her descendants went on to shape Senegambian medieval to 19th century history. The Joos Maternal Dynasty originated from

2835-452: The earliest known Lingeer is Lingeer Fatim Beye ( c. 1335), the matriarch of the Joos Maternal Dynasty . She was a Serer Princess and Queen of Sine . She was once married to King Maad a Sinig Maysa Wali . She is an early ancestor of all the Joos who went on to rule Waalo , such as her granddaughter Lingeer Ndoye Demba (c. 1367). Lingeer Ndoye Demba, also of Serer origin, established

2898-616: The existing Virgin Mary archetype while subverting its norms around sexuality by centering her identity as a lesbian. Rather than attempting to make her experience of motherhood fit into existing norms, Opie's photographs are "non-traditional and non-apologetic representations". In her 2020 photography collection, Solana Cain explored the meaning of joy for Black mothers to challenge the lack of images in mainstream media that represent Black motherhood. Renee Cox's Yo Mama series of nude self-portraits challenge historical representations of both

2961-825: The ideal of maternal self-sacrifice and the 'good mother' forms an important part of many works of art relating to the Holocaust , other women's Holocaust and post-Holocaust art has engaged more deeply with mothers' trauma, taboos, and the experiences of second and third-generation Holocaust survivors. For example, works by first-generation survivors of the Holocaust such as Ella Liebermann-Shiber and Shoshana Neuman have depicted mothers abandoning and suffocating their children in an effort to stay alive themselves. Increasingly diverse representations of motherhood can be found in contemporary works of art. Catherine Opie's self-portrait photographs, including of herself nursing, reference

3024-568: The king of Trarza (in Mauritania ), Mohamed El-Habib. This political marriage provided the couple with control over the Waalo and the Trarza . The alliance was prompted not by the threat of Moorish expansion – a position encouraged by the opposition – but rather to construct a more resistant bloc against colonial invasion. The marriage faced a not insignificant amount of opposition within Waalo, yet

3087-474: The massacre inflicted upon them at Troubang. In reporting this tradition, Gravrand did not notice that this is actually a description of the 1867 (or 1865) Battle of Kansala although the departure of the Guelowar can probably be explained by a war or a conflict of succession. It was the Serer nobility to which Lingeer Fatim Beye's family were a member of, who granted them asylum after their escape from Kaabu,

3150-738: The maternal death rate has been estimated as being within the order of magnitude of 1,500 deaths per 100,000 births. Modern medicine has greatly alleviated the risk of childbirth. In modern Western countries the current maternal mortality rate is around 10 deaths per 100,000 births. Nearly all world religions define tasks or roles for mothers through either religious law or through the glorification of mothers who served in substantial religious events. There are many examples of religious law relating to mothers and women. Major world religions which have specific religious law or religious texts that comment on mothers include: Christianity , Judaism , and Islam . Some examples of honoring motherhood include

3213-527: The most historical personalities of 14th century Senegambian royalty agrees pretty much with the general consensus regarding Serer-Guelowar relations. It was a union based on marriage among the upper echelons Serer and Guelowar society. According to Henry Gravrand , the defeat of the Guelowars by the Ñaancos at the Battle of Troubang in(1335) at Kaabu , spearheaded their migration to Serer territory after

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3276-632: The number of children born per woman, differs greatly from country to country. The TFR in 2013 was estimated to be highest in Niger (7.03 children born per woman) and lowest in Singapore (0.79 children/woman). In the United States , the TFR was estimated for 2013 at 2.06 births per woman. In 2011, the average age at first birth was 25.6 and 40.7% of births were to unmarried women. A maternal death

3339-513: The other Serer historic and sacred grounds, the burial site of Tioupane has been added to the list of sites of historic importance by the Senegalese Ministry of Culture (2006 decree). Mother A mother is the female parent of a child . A woman may be considered a mother by virtue of having given birth , by raising a child who may or may not be her biological offspring , or by supplying her ovum for fertilisation in

3402-428: The pre-colonial period; the Lingeer is said to both make and unmake kings. In the Wolof state, the Lingeer's political significance traditionally included: control of some of the king's land, which they would administer by using captives; provision of food and maintenance for their retainers; and integration into the clan system. Members of the community needed to charm and persuade a Lingeer if they held hopes of acquiring

3465-708: The primary role in raising children, but since the late 20th century, the role of the father in child care has been given greater prominence and social acceptance in some Western countries. The 20th century also saw more and more women entering paid work. Mothers' rights within the workforce include maternity leave and parental leave . The social role and experience of motherhood varies greatly depending upon location. Mothers are more likely than fathers to encourage assimilative and communion-enhancing patterns in their children. Mothers are more likely than fathers to acknowledge their children's contributions in conversation. The way mothers speak to their children ( "motherese" )

3528-549: The relation between mothers and children. At the end of the nineteenth century, Mary Cassatt was a painter well known for her portraits of mothers. American poet, essayist and feminist Adrienne Rich has noted "the disjuncture between motherhood as patriarchal institution and motherhood as complexly and variously lived experience". The vast majority of works depicting motherhood in western art history have been created by artists who are men, with very few having been created by women or mothers themselves, and these often focus on

3591-427: The role of women was confined to some extent to being a mother and wife, with women being expected to dedicate most of their energy to these roles, and to spend most of their time taking care of the home. In many cultures, women received significant help in performing these tasks from older female relatives, such as mothers in law or their own mothers. Regarding women in the workforce , mothers are said to often follow

3654-541: The throne. One scholar attributes this choice to N’Daate Yaala's desire to not “break up the power of the unified kingdom.” The character of the Lingeer has been featured in Senegambian literature. Ginette Ba-Curry writes of the Lingeer presence in Cheikh Hamidou Kane 's novel Ambiguous Adventure : “The Most Royal Lady is a female figure belonging to pre-Islamic society, recalling the 'Linguere' ... She

3717-813: The veneration of the Blessed Virgin Mary as Mother of God and the multiple positive references to active womanhood as a mother in the Book of Proverbs . Hindu 's Mother Goddess and Demeter of ancient Greek pre-Christian belief are also mothers. History records many conflicts between mothers and their children. Some even resulted in murder , such as the conflict between Cleopatra III of Egypt and her son Ptolemy X . In modern cultures, matricide (the killing of one's mother) and filicide (the killing of one's son or daughter) have been studied but remain poorly understood. Psychosis and schizophrenia are common causes of both, and young, indigent mothers with

3780-428: Was carried through by Djembet in order to halt French political expansion in the region. In 1841, she chose the king to succeed Fara Penda Adam Sal upon his death. Ndaté Yalla Mbodj was the sister of Djembet and succeeded her in 1846. Her political action was similarly momentous and controversial; she is notable for her refusal of a French alliance. She prevented her son from contesting the accession of Djembet's son to

3843-505: Was given in marriage to the king of Waalo Brak Caaka Mbaar Mbooj ), in c. 1367. Lingeer Ndoye Demba went on to establish the Joos Maternal Dynasty in Waalo which lasted from the 14th century to 1855, the year Waalo fell to the French resulting in the disestablishment of the monarchy. From the 14th century to 1855, the Joos Maternal Dynasty provided many kings of Waalo but also contributed to its instability due to dynastic struggles between

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3906-522: Was the first king from this maternal dynasty . He was the son of Lingeer Ndoye Demba and Brak Caaka Mbar. The Braks themselves predated by the Lamanes , ruled over Waalo from the 14th century until the disestablishment of the monarchy in 1855 due to French colonialism . Although Lingeer Ndoye Demba is generally regarded as the ancestor of the Joos of Waalo, and Lingeer Fatim Beye as an early ancestor and matriarch, some sources suggests that Fatim Beye

3969-517: Was where the crowned lingeer, usually the Maad a Sinig 's mother, took residence. The Serer kings are buried elsewhere in Sine. Only the lingeers are buried in Tioupane. Non-crowned lingeers are also buried in Tioupane, but in a different section within the graveyard, away from the crowned lingeers. Like the graves of the Serer kings, the graves of the lingeers are also marked and there are historian on site that narrates their genealogy and history. Like

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