114-645: Mount Tambora , or Tomboro , is an active stratovolcano in West Nusa Tenggara , Indonesia . Located on Sumbawa in the Lesser Sunda Islands , it was formed by the active subduction zones beneath it. Before 1815 , its elevation reached more than 4,300 metres (14,100 feet) high, making it one of the tallest peaks in the Indonesian archipelago. Tambora violently erupted in a series of eruptions beginning 5 April 1815, culminating in
228-477: A hajji and killing him. This is expressed in a poem written around 1830: Bunyi bahananya sangat berjabuh Ditempuh air timpa habu Berteriak memanggil anak dan ibu Disangkanya dunia menjadi kelabu Asalnya konon Allah Taala marah Perbuatan sultan Raja Tambora Membunuh tuan haji menumpahkan darah Kuranglah pikir dan kira-kira Its noise reverberated loudly Torrents of water mixed with ash descended Children and mothers screamed and cried Believing
342-512: A seismograph . There has been no significant increase in seismic activity since the 1880 eruption. Monitoring is continuously performed inside the caldera, with a focus on the parasitic cone Doro Api Toi . The directorate created a disaster mitigation map for Mount Tambora, which designates two zones for an eruption: a dangerous zone and a cautious zone. The dangerous zone identifies areas that would be directly affected by pyroclastic flows, lava flows or pyroclastic falls. It includes areas such as
456-465: A "dry fog", was observed in the northeastern United States. It was not dispersed by wind or rainfall, and it reddened and dimmed sunlight to an extent that sunspots were visible to the naked eye. Areas of the northern hemisphere suffered extreme weather conditions and 1816 became known as the " year without a summer ". Average global temperatures decreased about 0.4 to 0.7 °C (0.7 to 1.3 °F), enough to cause significant agricultural problems around
570-747: A 4-inch thick ash layer can weigh 120-200 pounds and can get twice as heavy when wet. Wet ash also poses a risk to electronics due to its conductive nature. Dense clouds of hot volcanic ash can be expelled due to the collapse of an eruptive column , or laterally due to the partial collapse of a volcanic edifice or lava dome during explosive eruptions . These clouds are known as pyroclastic surges and in addition to ash , they contain hot lava , pumice , rock , and volcanic gas . Pyroclastic surges flow at speeds over 50 mph and are at temperatures between 200 °C – 700 °C. These surges can cause major damage to property and people in their path. Lava flows from stratovolcanoes are generally not
684-866: A broad band from Newcastle on the New South Wales coast north and west to Queensland and the Top End to southwestern Western Australia. It is rarely seen in Sydney, where populations have declined since the late 1950s, though it is being recorded in suitable habitats, such as Homebush Bay and Kurnell in small numbers, and is a vagrant to the Illawarra region. It is rare in South Australia, and not present in Victoria and Tasmania. Population densities range from 2.3 birds per 1 hectare (2.5 acres) in
798-448: A clear, rolling, musical call, rendered as sweet-sweet-quarty-quarty , which is very loud for the size of the bird. Both sexes call, usually early in the morning, though the male calls throughout the day during the breeding season. The alarm call is a harsh ke-ke given several times at short intervals. The brown honeyeater is found in a wide range of wooded habitats, and is widespread across Australia. The nominate race ranges across
912-418: A closed magma chamber. Inside the chamber, at depths of 1.5 to 4.5 kilometres (0.93 to 2.80 mi), cooling and partial crystallization of the magma exsolved high-pressure magmatic fluid . Overpressure of the chamber of about 4,000 to 5,000 bars (58,000 to 73,000 psi) was generated as temperatures ranged from 700 to 850 °C (1,292 to 1,562 °F). In 1812, the crater began to rumble and generated
1026-428: A clutch of two or three. The female incubates the eggs and broods the chicks alone, but both sexes feed the young and remove faecal sacs . The fledging period is thirteen or fourteen days, with around 44% of nests, where the outcome was known, successfully fledging young. Nests are known to be predated by green tree ants , which attack the newly hatched nestlings, and by the pied currawong , which takes young from
1140-850: A dark cloud. A moderate-sized eruption on 5 April 1815 was followed by thunderous detonation sounds that could be heard in Ternate on the Molucca Islands , 1,400 kilometres (870 mi) from Mount Tambora. On the morning of 6 April 1815, volcanic ash began to fall in East Java , with faint detonation sounds lasting until 10 April. What was first thought to be the sound of firing guns was heard on 10 and 11 April on Sumatra island (more than 2,600 kilometres (1,600 mi) away), and possibly over 3350 km (2060 miles) away in Thailand and Laos . The eruptions intensified at about 7:00 p.m. on
1254-479: A fast moving mudflow . Lahars are typically about 60% sediment and 40% water. Depending on the abundance of volcanic debris the lahar can be fluid or thick like concrete. Lahars have the strength and speed to flatten structures and cause great bodily harm, gaining speeds up to dozens of kilometers per hour. In the 1985 eruption of Nevado del Ruiz in Colombia , Pyroclastic surges melted snow and ice atop
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#17327878408251368-546: A few cases as the descent down the steep wall is difficult and dangerous, subject to earthquakes, landslides and rockfalls. Moreover, only relatively short stays on the caldera floor had been possible because of logistical problems, so that extensive studies had been impossible. The investigation program of Georesearch Volcanedo on the caldera floor included researching the visible effects of smaller eruptions which had taken place since 1815, gas measurements, studies of flora and fauna and measurement of weather data. Especially striking
1482-515: A final intermediate composition . When the magma nears the top surface, it pools in a magma chamber within the crust below the stratovolcano. The processes that trigger the final eruption remain a question for further research. Possible mechanisms include: These internal triggers may be modified by external triggers such as sector collapse , earthquakes , or interactions with groundwater . Some of these triggers operate only under limited conditions. For example, sector collapse (where part of
1596-424: A number of breeding pairs, all nests were at least 20 metres (66 ft) apart. The same nesting territories are occupied each year; however, it is not known if the territories, or the nests, are used by the same birds each year. The breeding season varies markedly across the brown honeyeater's range, with breeding recorded in one location or another in every month of the year. Breeding can occur two or more times
1710-460: A range of habitats from mangroves to eucalypt woodlands. It is seasonally nomadic within its local area, following flowering food plants. While it usually forages alone, it also feeds in small groups, or flocks of mixed honeyeater species. Nectar and insects form its diet. It occupies the same breeding territory each year, and lays two or three eggs in a cup-shaped nest woven from grass and soft bark. Both sexes contribute to nest building and feeding
1824-769: A result of intraplate volcanism on oceanic islands far from plate boundaries. Examples are Teide in the Canary Islands , and Pico do Fogo in Cape Verde . Stratovolcanoes in the East African Rift include Ol Doinyo Lengai in Tanzania, and Longonot in Kenya. Subduction zone volcanoes form when hydrous minerals are pulled down into the mantle on the slab. These hydrous minerals, such as chlorite and serpentine , release their water into
1938-466: A shorter tail. In L. i. nupta the differences between the sexes are even slighter than in the nominate race. The nondescript brown honeyeater has a noteworthy song, usually described in superlatives. "A glorious voice, easily the best songster among Australian honeyeaters," is how one study of West Australian birds noted. "As a singer it has no superior among the honeyeater family, or for that matter, among Australian birds," said another report. It has
2052-461: A significant threat to humans or animals because the highly viscous lava moves slowly enough for everyone to evacuate. Most deaths attributed to lava are due to related causes such as explosions and asphyxiation from toxic gas . Lava flows can bury homes and farms in thick volcanic rock which greatly reduces property value. However, not all stratovolcanoes erupt viscous and sticky lava . Nyiragongo , near Lake Kivu in central Africa ,
2166-451: A single central vent formed before the 1815 eruption, which follows a stratovolcano shape. The diameter at the base is 60 kilometres (37 mi). The volcano frequently erupted lava, which descended over steep slopes. Tambora has produced trachybasalt and trachyandesite rocks which are rich in potassium . The volcanics contain phenocrysts of apatite , biotite , clinopyroxene , leucite , magnetite , olivine and plagioclase , with
2280-403: A stem for large single flowers, and, in the case of Banksia flowers, perch on unopened florets at the top of the inflorescence. Insects were most often gleaned from leaves or bark, and sometimes caught by sallying or taken from the ground. Insects eaten include beetles , flies , ants , wasps , and bees . The brown honeyeater is more active in the early morning than at other times of
2394-575: A stormier winter, and the Elbe and Ohře Rivers froze over a period of twelve days in February 1816. As a result, prices of wheat , rye , barley and oats rose dramatically by 1817. This climate anomaly has been cited as a reason for the severity of the 1816–19 typhus epidemic in southeast Europe and the eastern Mediterranean. In addition, large numbers of livestock died in New England during
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#17327878408252508-400: A team of Georesearch Volcanedo Germany followed the way used by Zollinger and explored this way for the first time since 1847. Because of the length of the distance to be travelled on foot, the partly very high temperatures and the lack of water it was a particular challenge for the team of Georesearch Volcanedo. Resettlement of the area began in 1907, and a coffee plantation was established in
2622-431: A wingspan of 18–23 centimetres (7.1–9.1 in), and an average weight of 9–11 grams (0.32–0.39 oz). The female is slightly smaller than the male, but the sexes differ only slightly in appearance. The head, back, rump, and upper tail-coverts are brown, and the wings a darker brown. The only distinguishing features are a small yellow patch behind the eye, which is indistinct in some birds, and dull yellow-olive panels in
2736-473: A year, if conditions are favourable. The nest is built in a variety of vegetation types, usually in dense foliage in the fork of a horizontal branch, often near water, and rarely more than 2 metres (6.6 ft) above ground. The nest is a small, deep, round cup, woven from small pieces of grass and soft bark, especially Melaleuca bark, bound with spider web and lined with plant down, such as from Banksia s, or with cow-hair or wool. Both sexes contribute to
2850-447: Is basaltic lava flows . Radiocarbon dating has established that Mount Tambora had erupted three times during the current Holocene epoch before the 1815 eruption, but the magnitudes of these eruptions are unknown. Their estimated dates are 3910 BC ± 200 years, 3050 BC and 740 AD ± 150 years. An earlier caldera was filled with lava flows starting from 43,000 years BC; two pyroclastic eruptions occurred later and formed
2964-531: Is a passive release of gas during periods of dormancy. As per the above examples, while eruptions like Mount Unzen have caused deaths and local damage, the impact of the June 1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo was seen globally. The eruptive columns reached heights of 40 km and dumped 17 megatons of SO 2 into the lower stratosphere . The aerosols that formed from the sulfur dioxide (SO 2 ), carbon dioxide (CO 2 ), and other gases dispersed around
3078-533: Is a species of bird in the family Meliphagidae . It belongs to the honeyeaters , a group of birds which have highly developed brush-tipped tongues adapted for nectar feeding. Honeyeaters are found mainly in Australia , New Guinea , and parts of Indonesia , but the brown honeyeater is unique in that it also occurs on the island of Bali , making it the only honeyeater to be found west of the Wallace Line ,
3192-491: Is estimated to have had a Volcanic Explosivity Index of 7. It had 4–10 times the energy of the 1883 Krakatoa eruption . An estimated 100 cubic kilometres (24 cu mi) of pyroclastic trachyandesite was ejected, weighing approximately 1.4×10 kg . This has left a caldera measuring 6 to 7 kilometres (3.7 to 4.3 mi) across and 600 to 700 metres (2,000 to 2,300 ft) deep. The density of fallen ash in Makassar
3306-581: Is from the Latin word meaning 'indistinct, obscure'. Vigors and Horsfield were working from the bird collection of the Linnean Society in London, and they said of the brown honeyeater specimen, "It is however in very bad condition, and scarcely admits of a description." Later included in the "catch-all" genus Gliciphila , the brown honeyeater is now classified as a member of the genus Lichmera , from
3420-410: Is listed below. The explosion was heard 2,600 kilometres (1,600 mi) or 3,350 kilometres (2,080 mi) away, and ash deposits were registered at a distance of at least 1,300 kilometres (810 mi). A pitch of darkness was observed as far away as 600 kilometres (370 mi) from the mountain summit for up to two days. Pyroclastic flows spread to distances of about 20 kilometres (12 mi) from
3534-587: Is located 340 kilometres (210 mi) north of the Java Trench system and 180 to 190 kilometres (110 to 120 mi) above the upper surface of the active north-dipping subduction zone . Sumbawa Island is flanked to the north and south by oceanic crust . The convergence rate of the Australian Plate beneath the Sunda Plate is 7.8 centimetres (3.1 in) per year. Estimates for the onset of
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3648-431: Is long, slender, and curved slightly downwards, well adapted for probing deep tubular flowers. The gape in the male is black when breeding, and pale yellow at other times. The gape of the female is always pale yellow, and in the juvenile it is bright yellow and swollen. The iris is brown, and the feet and legs grey-black. The appearance of the various subspecies is uniform, with other races similar in size and plumage to
3762-476: Is often felsic , having high to intermediate levels of silica (as in rhyolite , dacite , or andesite ), with lesser amounts of less viscous mafic magma . Extensive felsic lava flows are uncommon, but can travel as far as 8 km (5 mi). The term composite volcano is used because the strata are usually mixed and uneven instead of neat layers. They are among the most common types of volcanoes; more than 700 stratovolcanoes have erupted lava during
3876-537: Is seasonally nomadic across its local area in response to flowering food plants. For example, there are marked increases in numbers in Toowoomba in southeast Queensland during winter, and in the Northern Territory the range contracts during the dry season . It is commonly found among mangroves in coastal areas including black mangroves ( Rhizophora mucronata ). It is often in woodlands that merge into
3990-463: Is shocking to behold. There were still on the road side the remains of several corpses, and the marks of where many others had been interred: the villages almost entirely deserted and the houses fallen down, the surviving inhabitants having dispersed in search of food. ... Since the eruption, a violent diarrhoea has prevailed in Bima, Dompo, and Sang’ir, which has carried off a great number of people. It
4104-543: Is supposed by the natives to have been caused by drinking water which has been impregnated with ashes; and horses have also died, in great numbers, from a similar complaint. —Lt. Philips, ordered by Sir Stamford Raffles to go to Sumbawa A moderate tsunami struck the shores of various islands in the Indonesian archipelago on 10 April, with waves reaching 4 metres (13 ft) in Sanggar at around 10 p.m. A tsunami causing waves of 1 to 2 metres (3.3 to 6.6 ft)
4218-598: Is the Flores Sea and to the south is the 86 kilometres (53 mi) long and 36 kilometres (22 mi) wide Saleh Bay . At the mouth of Saleh Bay there is an islet called Mojo. Besides the seismologists and vulcanologists who monitor the mountain's activity, Mount Tambora is an area of interest to archaeologists and biologists . The mountain also attracts tourists for hiking and wildlife activities, though in small numbers. The two nearest cities are Dompu and Bima . There are three concentrations of villages around
4332-451: Is the most famous example of a hazardous stratovolcano eruption. It completely smothered the nearby ancient cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum with thick deposits of pyroclastic surges and pumice ranging from 6–7 meters deep. Pompeii had 10,000-20,000 inhabitants at the time of eruption. Mount Vesuvius is recognized as one of the most dangerous of the world's volcanoes, due to its capacity for powerful explosive eruptions coupled with
4446-450: Is typically between 700 and 1,200 °C (1,300-2,200 °F). Volcanic bombs are masses of unconsolidated rock and lava that are ejected during an eruption. Volcanic bombs are classified as larger than 64mm (2.5 inches). Anything below 64mm is classified as a volcanic block . When erupted Bombs are still molten and partially cool and solidify on their descent. They can form ribbon or oval shapes that can also flatten on impact with
4560-403: Is very dangerous because its magma has an unusually low silica content , making it much less viscous than other stratovolcanoes. Low viscosity lava can generate massive lava fountains , while lava of thicker viscosity can solidify within the vent, creating a volcanic plug . Volcanic plugs can trap gas and create pressure in the magma chamber, resulting in violent eruptions. Lava
4674-824: The Holocene Epoch (the last 11,700 years), and many older, now extinct, stratovolcanoes erupted lava as far back as Archean times. Stratovolcanoes are typically found in subduction zones but they also occur in other geological settings. Two examples of stratovolcanoes famous for catastrophic eruptions are Krakatoa in Indonesia (which erupted in 1883 claiming 36,000 lives) and Mount Vesuvius in Italy (which erupted in 79 A.D killing an estimated 2,000 people). In modern times, Mount St. Helens (1980) in Washington State , US, and Mount Pinatubo (1991) in
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4788-1046: The Kakadu National Park , to 0.26 birds per hectare in Wellard in Western Australia. L. i. ocularis is found in New Guinea , the Torres Strait Islands , and Cape York intergrading with the nominate race along the Gulf of Carpentaria river system. L. i. melvillensis inhabits the Tiwi Islands , while L. i. limbata is found in Bali and the Lesser Sundas , and L. i. nupta on the Aru Islands . The brown honeyeater
4902-579: The Philippines have erupted catastrophically, but with fewer deaths. Stratovolcanoes are common at subduction zones , forming chains and clusters along plate tectonic boundaries where an oceanic crust plate is drawn under a continental crust plate (continental arc volcanism, e.g. Cascade Range , Andes , Campania ) or another oceanic crust plate ( island arc volcanism, e.g. Japan , Philippines , Aleutian Islands ). Stratovolcanoes also occur in some other geological settings, for example as
5016-431: The cagebird trade by the local people. Orange-footed scrubfowl are hunted for food. This bird exploitation has resulted in population declines, and the yellow-crested cockatoo is nearing extinction on Sumbawa island. A commercial logging company began to operate in the area in 1972, posing a threat to the rain forest. The company holds a timber-cutting concession for an area of 20,000 hectares (49,000 acres), or 25% of
5130-891: The magma is too viscous to allow easy escape of volcanic gases . As a consequence, the tremendous internal pressures of the trapped volcanic gases remain and intermingle in the pasty magma . Following the breaching of the vent and the opening of the crater, the magma degasses explosively. The magma and gases blast out with high speed and full force. Since 1600 CE , nearly 300,000 people have been killed by volcanic eruptions . Most deaths were caused by pyroclastic flows and lahars , deadly hazards that often accompany explosive eruptions of subduction-zone stratovolcanoes. Pyroclastic flows are swift, avalanche-like, ground-sweeping, incandescent mixtures of hot volcanic debris, fine ash , fragmented lava , and superheated gases that can travel at speeds over 150 km/h (90 mph). Around 30,000 people were killed by pyroclastic flows during
5244-443: The mantle which decreases its melting point by 60 to 100 °C. The release of water from hydrated minerals is termed " dewatering ", and occurs at specific pressures and temperatures for each mineral, as the plate descends to greater depths. This allows the mantle to partially melt and generate magma . This is called flux melting . The magma then rises through the crust , incorporating silica-rich crustal rock, leading to
5358-634: The shoshonite range for alkaline series. Since the 1815 eruption, the lowermost portion contains deposits of interlayered sequences of lava and pyroclastic materials. Approximately 40% of the layers are represented in the 1-to-4 m-thick (3.3-to-13.1 ft) lava flows. Thick scoria beds were produced by the fragmentation of lava flows. Within the upper section, the lava is interbedded with scoria, tuffs , pyroclastic flows and pyroclastic falls . Tambora has at least 20 parasitic cones and lava domes , including Doro Afi Toi , Kadiendi Nae , Molo and Tahe . The main product of these parasitic vents
5472-443: The stratosphere , causing a global climate anomaly. Different methods have been used to estimate the ejected sulfur mass: the petrological method, an optical depth measurement based on anatomical observations, and the polar ice core sulfate concentration method, which calibrated against cores from Greenland and Antarctica . In the spring and summer of 1816, a persistent stratospheric sulfate aerosol veil, described then as
5586-411: The 10th. Three plumes rose and merged. Pieces of pumice of up to 20 centimetres (7.9 in) in diameter rained down at approximately 8 p.m., followed by ash at around 9–10 p.m. The eruption column collapsed, producing hot pyroclastic flows that cascaded down the mountain and towards the sea on all sides of the peninsula , wiping out the village of Tambora. Loud explosions were heard until
5700-581: The 1815 eruption. In 2020, the population of the country reached 270 million people, of which 56% concentrated on the island of Java . An event as significant as the 1815 eruption would impact about eight million people. Seismic activity in Indonesia is monitored by the Directorate of Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation with the monitoring post for Mount Tambora located at Doro Peti village. They focus on seismic and tectonic activity by using
5814-616: The 1902 eruption of Mount Pelée on the island of Martinique in the Caribbean . During March and April 1982, El Chichón in the State of Chiapas in southeastern Mexico , erupted 3 times, causing the worst volcanic disaster in that country's history and killied more than 2,000 people in pyroclastic flows . Two Decade Volcanoes that erupted in 1991 provide examples of stratovolcano hazards. On 15 June, Mount Pinatubo erupted and caused an ash cloud to shoot 40 km (25 mi) into
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#17327878408255928-581: The 1930s in the Pekat village on the northwestern slope. A dense rain forest of Duabanga moluccana trees had grown at an altitude of 1,000 to 2,800 metres (3,300 to 9,200 ft). It covers an area up to 80,000 hectares (200,000 acres). The rain forest was discovered by a Dutch team, led by Koster and de Voogd in 1933. From their accounts, they started their journey in a "fairly barren, dry and hot country", and then they entered "a mighty jungle" with "huge, majestic forest giants". At 1,100 metres (3,600 ft),
6042-485: The 1982 eruption of Galunggung in Java , British Airways Flight 9 flew into the ash cloud, causing it to sustain temporary engine failure and structural damage. Although no crashes have happened due to ash, more than 60, mostly commercial aircraft , have been damaged. Some of these incidents resulted in emergency landings. Ashfalls are a threat to health when inhaled and are also a threat to property. A square yard of
6156-585: The 5,321 m (17,457 ft) high Andean volcano. The ensuing lahar killed 25,000 people and flooded the city of Armero and nearby settlements. As a volcano forms, several different gases mix with magma in the volcanic chamber. During an eruption the gases are then released into the atmosphere which can lead to toxic human exposure. The most abundant of these gases is H 2 O ( water ) followed by CO 2 ( carbon dioxide ), SO 2 ( sulfur dioxide ), H 2 S ( hydrogen sulfide ), and HF ( hydrogen fluoride ). If at concentrations of more than 3% in
6270-923: The Black Sands and Brown Tuff formations, the last of which was emplaced between about 3895 BC and 800 AD. In 1812, Mount Tambora became highly active, with its maximum eruptive intensity occurring in April 1815. The magnitude was 7 on the Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI) scale, with a total tephra ejecta volume of up to 1.8 × 10 cubic metres. Its eruptive characteristics included central vent and explosive eruptions, pyroclastic flows, tsunamis and caldera collapse. This eruption had an effect on global climate. Volcanic activity ceased on 15 July 1815. Activity resumed in August 1819—a small eruption with "flames" and rumbling aftershocks , and
6384-532: The Greek word meaning 'to lick' or 'to dart the tongue', following Schodde (1975), Sibley and Monroe (1990) and Christidis and Boles (1994). As well as the nominate race Lichmera indistincta indistincta , a number of other subspecies are recognised: ocularis (derived from the Medieval Latin word oculus meaning 'eye'), melvillensis (named for Melville Island where it is found), limbatus (from
6498-500: The Latin for 'fringed') and nupta (from the Latin nubere meaning 'to marry'). The Indonesian honeyeater (subspecies limbatus ) was previously considered a distinct species due to its disjunct range, but is now treated as a subspecies of L. indistincta by major taxonomic authorities. A 2017 genetic study using both mitochondrial and nuclear DNA confirms the close relationship between the two, their lineages having diverged recently (in
6612-819: The air, when breathed in CO 2 can cause dizziness and difficulty breathing. At more than 15% concentration CO 2 causes death. CO 2 can settle into depressions in the land, leading to deadly, odorless pockets of gas. SO 2 classified as a respiratory, skin, and eye irritant if come into contact with. It is known for its pungent egg smell and role in ozone depletion and has the potential to cause acid rain downwind of an eruption. H 2 S has an even stronger odor than SO 2 as well as being even more toxic. Exposure for less than an hour at concentrations of over 500 ppm causes death. HF and similar species can coat ash particles and once deposited can poison soil and water. Gases are also emitted during volcanic degassing, which
6726-748: The air. It produced large pyroclastic surges and lahar floods that caused a lot of damage to the surrounding area. Pinatubo , located in Central Luzon just 90 km (56 mi) west-northwest of Manila , had been dormant for six centuries before the 1991 eruption. This eruption was one of the 2nd largest in the 20th century. It produced a large volcanic ash cloud that affected global temperatures, lowering them in areas as much as .5 °C. The volcanic ash cloud consisted of 22 million tons of SO 2 which combined with water droplets to create sulfuric acid . In 1991 Japan's Unzen Volcano also erupted, after 200 years of inactivity. It's located on
6840-538: The biogeographical boundary between the Australian-Papuan and Oriental zoogeographical regions. It is a medium-small brownish bird, with yellow-olive panels in the tail and wing, and a yellow tuft behind the eye. It is widespread across western, northern and eastern Australia, New Guinea and surrounding islands, and the Lesser Sundas of Indonesia. Throughout this range, the brown honeyeater occupies
6954-422: The brown honeyeater feeding primarily on nectar, and taking some insects. Main sources of nectar include flowering mistletoe and mangroves, bloodwood , woollybutt , cajeput , and Banksia and Grevillea species. Nectar is primarily taken from flowers with cups of stamens , brush-shaped inflorescences , or tubular flowers. The brown honeyeater will hover above small flowers while extracting nectar, perch on
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#17327878408257068-502: The brown honeyeater is frequently on the wing, hovering over flowers and pursuing insects in flight. The brown honeyeater feeds mainly in the foliage and flowers in the canopy of trees and shrubs, though it does use all levels of the habitat including the ground. It feeds singly and in pairs, but will gather in small groups or in mixed-species feeding flocks with other honeyeaters, such as banded , yellow-tinted , black-chinned and rufous-throated . Observations of foraging birds record
7182-439: The caldera and its surroundings, a span of up to 58.7 square kilometres (14,500 acres) where habitation is prohibited. The cautious zone consists of land that might be indirectly affected, either by lahar flows and other pumice stones. The size of the cautious area is 185 square kilometres (46,000 acres), and includes Pasanggrahan, Doro Peti, Rao, Labuan Kenanga, Gubu Ponda, Kawindana Toi and Hoddo villages. A river, called Guwu, at
7296-519: The caldera floor during the 19th and 20th centuries. The last eruption was recorded in 1967. However, it was a gentle eruption with a VEI of 0, which means it was non-explosive. Another very small eruption was reported in 2011. In August 2011, the alert level for the volcano was raised from level I to level II after increased activity was reported in the caldera, including earthquakes and steam emissions. Before 1815, Mount Tambora had been dormant for several centuries, as hydrous magma cooled gradually in
7410-423: The caldera floor from the crater rim. In 2013, a German research team (Georesearch Volcanedo Germany) for the first time carried out a longer expedition into this caldera, about 1300 m deep, and with the help of a native team climbed down the southern caldera wall, reaching the caldera floor while experiencing extreme conditions. The team stayed in the caldera for nine days. People had reached the caldera floor only in
7524-492: The caldera of the volcano takes approximately 14 hours with several stops ( pos ) en route to the top. The trail leads through dense jungle with wildlife such as Elaeocarpus , Asian water monitor , reticulated python , hawks , orange-footed scrubfowl , pale-shouldered cicadabird ( Coracina dohertyi ), brown and scaly-crowned honeyeater , yellow-crested cockatoo , yellow-ringed white-eye , helmeted friarbird , wild boar , Javan rusa and crab-eating macaques . Tambora
7638-415: The caldera, deep in jungle, 5 kilometres (3.1 mi) from shore. The team excavated 3 metres (9.8 ft) of deposits of pumice and ash. The scientists used ground-penetrating radar to locate a small buried house which contained the remains of two adults, bronze bowls, ceramic pots, iron tools and other artifacts. Tests revealed that objects had been carbonized by the heat of the magma . Sigurdsson dubbed
7752-416: The caldera, which at 1,950 metres (6,400 ft) is reachable only by hiking. This location is only one hour from the caldera, and usually serves as a base camp from which volcanic activity can be monitored. The second route starts from Pancasila village at the northwest of the mountain and is only accessible on foot. The 16 kilometres (9.9 mi) hike from Pancasila at 740 metres (2,430 ft) elevation to
7866-492: The day; flying more when visiting flowers at the time when nectar is most abundant. Its body mass decreases during the night, and then increases during the day with the greatest increase occurring during the important first hour of early morning foraging. It seems to make up around half of the overnight water loss during this hour. The energy that the brown honeyeater can potentially get from nectar exceeds its requirements in all seasons except winter, when it needs to be selective in
7980-422: The eruption to ascend the summit, which was still covered by smoke. As Zollinger climbed, his feet sank several times through a thin surface crust into a warm layer of powder-like sulfur . Some vegetation had regrown, including trees on the lower slope. A Casuarina forest was noted at 2,200 to 2,550 metres (7,220 to 8,370 ft), while several Imperata cylindrica grasslands were also found. In August 2015
8094-584: The eruption, and the notes of Sir Stamford Raffles , Governor-General of the Dutch East Indies during the event. Tanguy pointed out that there may have been additional victims on Bali and East Java because of famine and disease, and estimated 11,000 deaths from direct volcanic action and 49,000 from post-eruption famine and epidemics. Oppenheimer (2003) estimated at least 71,000 deaths, and numbers as high as 117,000 have been proposed. The 1815 eruption released 10 to 120 million tons of sulphur into
8208-518: The exact composition of the phenocrysts varying between different rock types. Orthopyroxene is absent in the trachyandesites of Tambora. Olivine is most present in the rocks with less than 53 percent SiO 2 , while it is absent in the more silica-rich volcanics, characterised by the presence of biotite phenocrysts. The mafic series also contain titanium magnetite and the trachybasalts are dominated by anorthosite -rich plagioclase. Rubidium , strontium and phosphorus pentoxide are especially rich in
8322-535: The find the " Pompeii of the East", and media reports referred to the "Lost Kingdom of Tambora". Sigurdsson intended to return to Tambora in 2007 to search for the rest of the villages, and hopefully to find a palace. Many villages in the area had converted to Islam in the 17th century, but the structures uncovered so far do not show Islamic influence. Based on the artifacts found, such as bronzeware and finely decorated china possibly of Vietnamese or Cambodian origin,
8436-540: The flank of a volcano collapses in a massive landslide) can only trigger the eruption of a very shallow magma chamber . Magma differentiation and thermal expansion also are ineffective as triggers for eruptions from deep magma chambers . In recorded history , explosive eruptions at subduction zone ( convergent-boundary ) volcanoes have posed the greatest hazard to civilizations. Subduction-zone stratovolcanoes, such as Mount St. Helens , Mount Etna and Mount Pinatubo , typically erupt with explosive force because
8550-410: The folded wings and tail. The brown honeyeater's sexual dimorphism is slight. The adult male has a dark brownish-grey forehead and crown, contrasting with a brownish nape. The forehead and crown of the adult female is a similar olive-brown to the rest of the upper body. A juvenile bird is similar to the female, but may lack or show only a trace of the yellow tuft behind the eye. The bill is black, and
8664-548: The globe. After 4 June 1816, when there were frosts in Connecticut , cold weather expanded over most of New England . On 6 June 1816, it snowed in Albany, New York and Dennysville, Maine . Similar conditions persisted for at least three months, ruining most crops across North America while Canada experienced extreme cold. Snow fell until 10 June near Quebec City , accumulating to 30 centimetres (12 in). That year became
8778-478: The ground. Volcanic Bombs are associated with Strombolian and Vulcanian eruptions and basaltic lava . Ejection velocities ranging from 200 to 400 m/s have been recorded causing volcanic bombs to be destructive. Lahars (from a Javanese term for volcanic mudflows) are a mixture of volcanic debris and water. Lahars can result from heavy rainfall during or before the eruption or interaction with ice and snow. Meltwater mixes with volcanic debris causing
8892-458: The high population density of the surrounding Metropolitan Naples area (totaling about 3.6 million inhabitants). In addition to potentially affecting the climate, volcanic ash clouds from explosive eruptions pose a serious hazard to aviation . Volcanic ash clouds consist of ash which is made of silt or sand sized pieces of rock, mineral, volcanic glass . Ash grains are jagged, abrasive, and don't dissolve in water. For example, during
9006-968: The horizon at twilight and orange or red near the horizon. The number of fatalities has been estimated by various sources since the nineteenth century. Swiss botanist Heinrich Zollinger traveled to Sumbawa in 1847 and recollected witness accounts about the 1815 eruption of Tambora. In 1855, he published estimates of directly killed people at 10,100, mostly from pyroclastic flows. A further 37,825 were numbered having died from starvation on Sumbawa island. On Lombok , another 10,000 died from disease and hunger. Petroeschevsky (1949) estimated that about 48,000 and 44,000 people were killed on Sumbawa and Lombok, respectively. Several authors have used Petroeschevsky's figures, such as Stothers (1984), who estimated 88,000 deaths in total. However, Tanguy et al. (1998) considered Petroeschevsky's figures based on untraceable sources, so developed an estimate based solely on two primary sources: Zollinger, who spent several months on Sumbawa after
9120-504: The island of Kyushu about 40 km (25 mi) east of Nagasaki . Beginning in June, a newly formed lava dome repeatedly collapsed. This generated a pyroclastic flow that flowed down the mountain's slopes at speeds as high as 200 km/h (120 mph). The 1991 eruption of Mount Unzen was one of the worst volcanic disasters in Japan's history, once killing more than 15,000 people in 1792. The eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD
9234-656: The largest eruption in recorded human history and the largest of the Holocene (10,000 years ago to present). The magma chamber under Tambora had been drained by previous eruptions and underwent several centuries of dormancy as it refilled. Volcanic activity reached a peak that year, culminating in an explosive eruption. The explosion was heard on Sumatra island, more than 2,600 kilometres (1,600 miles) away and possibly over 3350 km (2060 miles) away in Thailand and Laos . Heavy volcanic ash rains were observed as far away as Borneo , Sulawesi , Java , and Maluku islands , and
9348-590: The lavas from Tambora, more than the comparable ones from Mount Rinjani . The lavas of Tambora are slightly enriched in zircon compared with those of Rinjani. The magma involved in the 1815 eruption originated in the mantle and was further modified by melts derived from subducted sediments, fluids derived from the subducted crust and crystallization processes in magma chambers . SrSr ratios of Mount Tambora are similar to those of Mount Rinjani, but lower than those measured at Sangeang Api. Potassium levels of Tambora volcanics exceed 3 weight percent, placing them in
9462-543: The mangroves, such as those dominated by Banksia , Melaleuca or Callistemon , and widespread in sclerophyll forests and eucalypt woodlands. In the arid and semi-arid inland of Australia, it is most often recorded in Acacia , Grevillea and Hakea shrubland along watercourses, and at bores , springs, and drainage lines. It visits flowering shrubs in parks and gardens, and occurs in remnant patches of trees on travelling stock routes . A busy, acrobatic bird,
9576-513: The maximum elevation of Tambora was reduced from about 4,300 to 2,850 metres (14,110 to 9,350 feet). Although estimates vary, the death toll was at least 71,000 people. The eruption contributed to global climate anomalies in the following years, while 1816 became known as the " year without a summer " because of the impact on North American and European weather. In the Northern Hemisphere , crops failed and livestock died, resulting in
9690-416: The mountain slope. At the east is Sanggar village, to the northwest are Doro Peti and Pesanggrahan villages, and to the west is Calabai village. There are two routes of ascent to the caldera . The first begins at Doro Mboha village on the southeast of the mountain and follows a paved road through a cashew plantation to an elevation of 1,150 metres (3,770 ft). The road terminates at the southern part of
9804-421: The nest building, though the male also stands guard while the female is building the nest. The eggs vary in shape, but most often are a rounded oval. They are white and lustreless, and sometimes have a pinkish or brownish tinge. They can be unmarked, or spotted with faint reddish or brownish flecks. The eggs are approximately 17 millimetres (0.67 in) long and 13 millimetres (0.51 in) across, and laid in
9918-515: The nest. Nests are parasitized by the brush cuckoo , pallid cuckoo , and Horsfield's bronze-cuckoo . The brown honeyeater population is declining in the Wheatbelt region of Western Australia as a result of the clearing of native vegetation. Numbers are increasing in urban areas, particularly in parks and gardens and around farms; however, the new habitats have increased the incidences of death from cats, cars and collisions with windows. Overall
10032-491: The next evening, 11 April. The veil of ash spread as far as West Java and South Sulawesi , while a "nitrous odor" was noticeable in Batavia . The heavy tephra -tinged rain did not recede until 17 April. Analysis of various sites on Mount Tambora using ground-penetrating radar has revealed alternations of pumice and ash deposits covered by the pyroclastic surge and flow sediments that vary in thickness regionally. The eruption
10146-412: The nominate race with slight variations in degrees of colouration, and small differences in the length of the bill and the tail. Compared with L. i. indistincta , the male L. i. ocularis has slightly darker feathers on the top of the head with a greater contrast between crown and nape, and a longer bill. L. i. melvillensis has a moderately darker throat and breast than indistincta , and the female has
10260-536: The order of tens of thousands of years). Molecular analysis has shown honeyeaters to be related to the Pardalotidae (pardalotes), Acanthizidae (Australian warblers, scrubwrens, thornbills, etc.), and the Maluridae (Australian fairy-wrens) in the large superfamily Meliphagoidea . The brown honeyeater is a medium-small, plain grey-brown honeyeater with a body length of 12–16 centimetres (4.7–6.3 in),
10374-418: The plants that are used, to balance energy intake and expenditure. It compensates for any lessening in nectar concentration by increasing the frequency of feeding. No courtship displays of the brown honeyeater have been recorded, other than increased singing from vantage points by the male. The pair usually nests solitarily in areas of low population density. In an area near Newcastle, New South Wales , with
10488-417: The second-coldest year in the northern hemisphere since 1400, while the 1810s were the coldest decade on record, a result of Tambora's eruption and other suspected volcanic events between 1809 and 1810. (See sulfate concentration chart.) Surface-temperature anomalies during the summers of 1816, 1817 and 1818 were −0.51, −0.44 and −0.29 °C, respectively. Along with a cooler summer, parts of Europe experienced
10602-412: The size of Mount Pinatubo affected the weather for a few years; with warmer winters and cooler summers observed. A similar phenomenon occurred in the April 1815, the eruption of Mount Tambora on Sumbawa island in Indonesia . The Mount Tambora eruption is recognized as the most powerful eruption in recorded history. Its eruption cloud lowered global temperatures as much as 0.4 to 0.7 °C. In
10716-604: The southern and northwest part of the mountain is also included in the cautious zone. Stratovolcano A stratovolcano , also known as a composite volcano , is a conical volcano built up by many alternating layers ( strata ) of hardened lava and tephra . Unlike shield volcanoes , stratovolcanoes are characterized by a steep profile with a summit crater and explosive eruptions. Some have collapsed summit craters called calderas . The lava flowing from stratovolcanoes typically cools and solidifies before spreading far, due to high viscosity . The magma forming this lava
10830-466: The summit and an estimated 9.3–11.8 × 10 g of stratospheric sulfate aerosols were generated by the eruption. The island's entire vegetation was destroyed as uprooted trees, mixed with pumice ash, washed into the sea and formed rafts of up to 5 kilometres (3.1 mi) across. One pumice raft was found in the Indian Ocean , near Calcutta , on 1 and 3 October 1815. Clouds of thick ash still covered
10944-403: The summit on 23 April. Explosions ceased on 15 July, although smoke emissions were still observed as late as 23 August. Flames and rumbling aftershocks were reported in August 1819, four years after the event. On my trip towards the western part of the island, I passed through nearly the whole of Dompo and a considerable part of Bima. The extreme misery to which the inhabitants have been reduced
11058-585: The team concluded that the people were well-off traders. The Sumbawa people were known in the East Indies for their horses, honey, sappan wood (for producing red dye), and sandalwood (for incense and medications). The area was thought to be highly productive agriculturally. The language of the Tambora people was lost with the eruption. Linguists have examined remnant lexical material, such as records by Zollinger and Raffles, and established that Tambora
11172-470: The total area. Another part of the rain forest is used as a hunting ground. In between the hunting ground and the logging area, there is a designated wildlife reserve where deer, water buffalos , wild pigs , bats, flying foxes and species of reptiles and birds can be found. In 2015, the conservation area protecting the mountain's ecosystem was upgraded to a national park . Zollinger (1847), van Rheden (1913) and W. A. Petroeschevsky (1947) could only observe
11286-549: The trees became thinner in shape. Above 1,800 metres (5,900 ft), they found Dodonaea viscosa flowering plants dominated by Casuarina trees. On the summit was sparse Edelweiss and Wahlenbergia . An 1896 survey records 56 species of birds including the crested white-eye . Several other zoological surveys followed and found other bird species, with over 90 bird species discoveries in this period, including yellow-crested cockatoos , Zoothera thrushes, Hill mynas , green junglefowl and rainbow lorikeets are hunted for
11400-411: The volcanism at Mount Tambora range from 57 to 43 ka . The latter estimate published in 2012 is based on argon dating of the first pre-caldera lava flows. The formation of Tambora drained a large magma chamber pre-existing under the mountain. The Mojo islet was formed as part of this geological process in which Saleh Bay first appeared as a sea basin about 25,000 years BP . A high volcanic cone with
11514-626: The volume of ash emitted: a recent study estimates a dense-rock equivalent volume for the ash of 23 ± 3 cubic kilometres (5.52 ± 0.72 cu mi) and a dense-rock equivalent volume of 18 ± 6 cubic kilometres (4.3 ± 1.4 cu mi) for the pyroclastic flows. Longitudinal winds spread these fine particles around the globe, creating optical phenomena. Between 28 June and 2 July, and between 3 September and 7 October 1815, prolonged and brilliantly coloured sunsets and twilights were frequently seen in London, England. Most commonly, pink or purple colours appeared above
11628-653: The winter of 1816–1817, while cool temperatures and heavy rains led to failed harvests in the British Isles. Families in Wales travelled long distances as refugees, begging for food. Famine was prevalent in north and southwest Ireland, following the failure of wheat, oat and potato harvests. The crisis was severe in Germany, where food prices rose sharply. Demonstrations at grain markets and bakeries, followed by riots, arson and looting, took place in many European cities. It
11742-504: The world had turned to ash The cause was said to be the wrath of God Almighty At the deed of the King of Tambora In murdering a worthy pilgrim, spilling his blood Rashly and thoughtlessly A team led by the Swiss botanist Heinrich Zollinger arrived on Sumbawa in 1847. Zollinger sought to study the area of eruption and its effects on the local ecosystem . He was the first person after
11856-412: The world. The SO 2 in this cloud combined with water (both of volcanic and atmospheric origin) and formed sulfuric acid , blocking a portion of the sunlight from reaching the troposphere . This caused the global temperature to decrease by about 0.4 °C (0.72 °F) from 1992 to 1993. These aerosols caused the ozone layer to reach the lowest concentrations recorded at that time. An eruption
11970-457: The worst famine of the century. Mount Tambora, also known as Tomboro, is situated in the northern part of Sumbawa island, part of the Lesser Sunda Islands . It is a segment of the Sunda Arc , a chain of volcanic islands that make up the southern chain of the Indonesian archipelago . Tambora forms its own peninsula on Sumbawa, known as the Sanggar peninsula. To the north of the peninsula
12084-484: The year following the eruption, most of the Northern Hemisphere experienced cooler temperatures during the summer. In the northern hemisphere , 1816 was known as the " Year Without a Summer ". The eruption caused crop failures, food shortages, and floods that killed over 100,000 people across Europe , Asia , and North America . Brown honeyeater The brown honeyeater ( Lichmera indistincta )
12198-561: The young. It has a loud, clear, musical song, described as the best of all the honeyeaters. While the brown honeyeater is declining in some areas, such as the Wheatbelt region of Western Australia, overall its population levels and distribution are sufficient to have it described by the IUCN as being of least concern for conservation. The brown honeyeater was originally described by Nicholas Aylward Vigors and Thomas Horsfield in 1827 as Meliphaga indistincta . The species name indistincta
12312-402: Was 636 kg/m. Before the explosion, Mount Tambora was approximately 4,300 metres (14,100 ft) high, one of the tallest peaks in the Indonesian archipelago. After the eruption of 1815, the maximum elevation was reduced to 2,851 metres (9,354 ft). The 1815 Tambora eruption is the largest and most devastating observed eruption in recorded history; a comparison with other major eruptions
12426-551: Was called by the Indonesians "Doro Api Bou" ("new volcano"). This lavadome probably appeared in 2011/2012 when there was an increased seismic activity and probably volcanic activity on the caldera floor (there is no exact information about the caldera floor at that time). In 2014 the same research team carried out a further expedition into the caldera and set a new record: over 12 days the investigations of 2013 were continued. Indonesia's population has been increasing rapidly since
12540-577: Was considered to be part of the 1815 eruption. This eruption was recorded at 2 on the VEI scale. Around 1880 ± 30 years, eruptions at Mount Tambora have been registered only inside the caldera. It created small lava flows and lava dome extrusions ; this was recorded at two on the VEI scale. This eruption created the Doro Api Toi parasitic cone inside the caldera. Mount Tambora is still active and minor lava domes and flows have been extruded on
12654-411: Was not an Austronesian language, as would be expected in the area, but possibly a language isolate , or perhaps a member of one of the families of Papuan languages found 500 kilometres (310 mi) or more to the east. The eruption is captured in latter-day folklore, which explains the cataclysm as divine retribution. A local ruler is said to have incurred the wrath of Allah by feeding dog meat to
12768-513: Was reported in Besuki, East Java before midnight and another exceeded 2 metres (6.6 ft) in the Molucca Islands . The eruption column reached the stratosphere at an altitude of more than 43 kilometres (141,000 ft). Coarser ash particles fell one to two weeks after the eruptions, while finer particles stayed in the atmosphere for months to years at an altitude of 10 to 30 kilometres (33,000 to 98,000 ft). There are various estimates of
12882-485: Was the relatively high activity of Doro Api Toi ("Gunung Api Kecil" means "small volcano") in the southern part of the caldera and the gases escaping under high pressure on the lower north-east wall. Besides the team discovered near the Doro Api Toi a lavadome which had not yet been mentioned in scientific studies. The team called this new discovery "Adik Api Toi (Indonesian "adik": younger brother). Later this lavadome
12996-591: Was the worst famine of the 19th century. A human settlement obliterated by the Tambora eruption was discovered in 2004. That summer, a team led by Haraldur Sigurðsson with scientists from the University of Rhode Island , the University of North Carolina at Wilmington and the Indonesian Directorate of Volcanology began an archaeological dig in Tambora. Over six weeks, they unearthed evidence of habitation about 25 kilometres (16 mi) west of
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