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107-590: During World War II, the Greens were activated once again under the leadership of Krsto Popović in an attempt to re-establish the Kingdom of Montenegro as an Axis client state . The Greens (Zelenaši) movement was originally founded in 1918 in Montenegro by the opponents of Montenegrin unification with the Kingdom of Serbia and integration into the newly established Kingdom of Yugoslavia , when they supported

214-533: A rapprochement with the Roman Catholic Church . According to historian Stanley G. Payne , "[the] Fascist government passed through several relatively distinct phases". The first phase (1922–1925) was nominally a continuation of the parliamentary system, albeit with a "legally-organized executive dictatorship". In foreign policy, Mussolini ordered the Pacification of Libya against rebels in

321-546: A trade union or an association, to soldiers and to members of the clergy . Consequently, only 9.5 million people were able to vote. In 1870, the newly formed Kingdom of Italy annexed the remaining Papal States , depriving the Pope of his temporal power . Relations with the Roman Catholic Church improved significantly during Mussolini's tenure. Despite earlier opposition to the Church, after 1922 Mussolini made an alliance with

428-404: A " Jewish Question " and the article also stated that "Italy knows no antisemitism and we believe that it will never know it" and then, the article elaborated "let us hope that Italian Jews will continue to be sensible enough so as not to give rise to antisemitism in the only country where it has never existed". In 1932, during a conversation with Emil Ludwig , Mussolini described antisemitism as

535-638: A "German vice" and stated: "There was 'no Jewish Question' in Italy and could not be one in a country with a healthy system of government". On several occasions, Mussolini spoke positively about Jews and the Zionist movement . Mussolini had initially rejected Nazi racism, especially the idea of a master race , as "arrant nonsense, stupid and idiotic". In 1929, Mussolini acknowledged the contributions which Italian Jews had made to Italian society, despite their minority status, and he also believed that Jewish culture

642-699: A 10% drop in real income and a fall in exports. Italy fared better than most western nations during the Depression: its welfare services did reduce the impact of the Depression. Its industrial growth from 1913 to 1938 was even greater than that of Germany for the same time period. Only the United Kingdom and the Scandinavian nations had a higher industrial growth during that period. Italy's colonial expansion into Ethiopia in 1936 proved to have

749-670: A famous Italian Jewish mathematician, into the Pontifical Academy of Science. Despite Mussolini's close alliance with Hitler's Germany, Italy did not fully adopt Nazism's genocidal ideology towards the Jews. The Nazis were frustrated by the Italian authorities' refusal to co-operate in the round-ups of Jews, and no Jews were deported prior to the formation of the Italian Social Republic puppet-state following

856-697: A few groups continued engaging in skirmishes until 1929. In World War II, the Greens were organized yet again in Montenegro under the command of the Fascist Italy . Sekula Drljević was put in power and proclaimed the re-establishment of an independent Montenegro, but was immediately ousted by the 13 July uprising of local Partisans and Chetniks . Among the Montenegrin federalists, Krsto Zrnov Popović returned from exile in Italy to attempt to lead

963-468: A major step towards being completely taken over by the agenda of indoctrination. In that year, the Fascist government took control of the authorization of all textbooks, all secondary school teachers were required to take an oath of loyalty to Fascism and children began to be taught that they owed the same loyalty to Fascism as they did to God. In 1933, all university teachers were required to be members of

1070-1032: A member of the Yugoslav Partisans in the Battle of Neretva while his son Nikola would later become a general in the Yugoslav People's Army and a recipient of the Order of the People's Hero . Fascist Italy (1922-1943) Fascist Italy ( Italian : Italia fascista ) is a term which is used in historiography to describe the Kingdom of Italy when it was governed by the National Fascist Party from 1922 to 1943 with Benito Mussolini as prime minister and dictator . The Italian Fascists imposed totalitarian rule and crushed political opposition , while simultaneously promoting economic modernization , traditional social values and

1177-430: A negative impact on Italy's economy. The budget of the colony of Italian East Africa in the 1936–1937 fiscal year requested from Italy 19.136 billion lire to be used to create the necessary infrastructure for the colony. Italy's entire revenue that year was only 18.581 billion lire. In 1933, Italy made multiple technological achievements. The Fascist government spent large sums of money on technological projects such as

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1284-667: A policy which was extremely unpopular within Italy as well as within the Fascist Party itself. As a result of this policy, the Fascist regime lost its propaganda director, Margherita Sarfatti , who was Jewish and had previously been Mussolini's mistress. A minority of high-ranking Fascists were pleased with the antisemitic policy such as Roberto Farinacci , who claimed that Jews had taken control of key positions in finance, business and schools through intrigue, accused Jews of sympathizing with Ethiopia during Italy's war with it and accused Jews of sympathizing with Republican Spain during

1391-600: A role in Italy's "place in the sun" through special courses created to train them for a future as colonial wives. The government tried to achieve "alimentary sovereignty", or total self-sufficiency with regard to food supplies. Its new policies were highly controversial among a people who paid serious attention to their food. The goal was to reduce imports, support Italian agriculture and encourage an austere diet based on bread, polenta, pasta, fresh produce and wine. Fascist women's groups trained women in "autarkic cookery" to work around items no longer imported. Food prices climbed in

1498-595: A stringent education policy in Italy aiming at eliminating illiteracy, which was a serious problem in Italy at the time, as well as improving the allegiance of Italians to the state. To reduce drop-outs, the government changed the minimum age of leaving school from twelve to fourteen and strictly enforced attendance. The Fascist government's first minister of education from 1922 to 1924 Giovanni Gentile recommended that education policy should focus on indoctrination of students into Fascism and to educate youth to respect and be obedient to authority. In 1929, education policy took

1605-409: A unit inclusive of all values—interprets, develops, and potentiates the whole life of a people. — Doctrine of Fascism , 1935 With the concept of totalitarianism, Benito Mussolini and the Fascist regime set an agenda of improving Italian culture and society based on ancient Rome, personal dictatorship and some futurist aspects of Italian intellectuals and artists. Under Fascism, the definition of

1712-579: A universal campaign of hatred against the Jews ;... Considering that in many places certain groups of Jews are installed in conquered countries, exercising in an open and occult manner an influence injurious to the material and moral interests of the country which harbors them, constituting a sort of state within a state, profiting by all benefits and refusing all duties, considering that they have furnished and are inclined to furnish, elements conducive to international revolution which would be destructive to

1819-599: Is estimated that by 1936 the OND had organized 80% of salaried workers. Nearly 40% of the industrial workforce had been recruited into the Dopolavoro by 1939 and the sports activities proved popular with large numbers of workers. The OND had the largest membership of any of the mass Fascist organizations in Italy. The enormous success of the Dopolavoro in Fascist Italy prompted Nazi Germany to create its own version of

1926-656: Is not moving forward, then this is what the great Jewish bankers of London and New York have decreed. These bankers are bound by ties of blood to those Jews who in Moscow as in Budapest are taking their revenge on the Aryan race that has condemned them to dispersion for so many centuries. In Russia, 80 percent of the managers of the Soviets are Jews, in Budapest 17 out of 22 people's commissars are Jews. Might it not be that bolshevism

2033-558: Is paralyzed, disorganized, starved, will be a place where tomorrow the bourgeoisie, yes the bourgeoisie, o proletarians will celebrate its spectacular feast of plenty. Mussolini's statement on a Jewish-Bolshevik-plutocratic connection and conspiracy was met with opposition in the Fascist movement, leading Mussolini to respond to this opposition amongst his supporters by abandoning and reversing this stance shortly afterward in 1919. In reversing his stance due to opposition to it, Mussolini no longer expressed his previous assertion that Bolshevism

2140-508: Is responsible to the State for the direction given to production. State intervention in economic production arises only when private initiative is lacking or insufficient, or when the political interests of the State are involved. This intervention may take the form of control, assistance or direct management. Fascists claimed that this system would be egalitarian and traditional at the same time. The economic policy of corporatism quickly faltered;

2247-571: Is the vendetta of Judaism against Christianity?? It is certainly worth pondering. It is entirely possible that bolshevism will drown in the blood of a pogrom of catastrophic proportions. World finance is in the hands of the Jews. Whoever owns the strongboxes of the peoples is in control of their political systems. Behind the puppets (making peace) in Paris, there are the Rothschilds , the Warburgs ,

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2354-672: The Armistice of Cassibile . In the Italian-occupied Independent State of Croatia , German envoy Siegfried Kasche advised Berlin that Italian forces had "apparently been influenced" by Vatican opposition to German anti-Semitism. As anti-Axis feeling grew in Italy, the use of Vatican Radio to broadcast papal disapproval of race murder and anti-Semitism angered the Nazis. Mussolini was overthrown in July 1943,

2461-626: The Battle of Mojkovac , where Montenegro helped the army of Serbia , its close ally, to retreat in face of Austro-Hungarian attacks. After spending two years in the Austro-Hungarian prisoner camp, he returned to Montenegro to become the leader of the Christmas Uprising on 7 January 1919 and Saint Petar's Day Uprising in July of same year, fighting against the decision of the Podgorica Assembly to unite

2568-687: The Cosa Nostra in Sicilia and the 'Ndrangheta in Calabria, the Fascist government gave special powers in 1925 to Cesare Mori , the prefect of Palermo . These powers gave him the ability to prosecute the Mafia , forcing many Mafiosi to flee abroad (many to the United States) or risk being jailed. However, Mori was fired when he began to investigate Mafia links within the Fascist regime and

2675-564: The Dopolavoro , the Kraft durch Freude (KdF) or "Strength through Joy" program, which was even more successful than the Dopolavoro . Another organization the Opera Nazionale Balilla (ONB) was widely popular and provided young people with access to clubs, dances, sports facilities, radios, concerts, plays, circuses and outdoor hikes at little or no cost. It sponsored tournaments and sports festivals. Between 1928 and 1930,

2782-553: The House of Petrović-Njegoš of Montenegro over the House of Karađorđević of Serbia. After the unsuccessful armed rebellion known as the Christmas Rebellion, the Greens continued guerrilla resistance until 1929, while their political activity was based on opposition to the mode and manner in which the south Slavic unification was implemented, resulting in the disappearance of Montenegro as a political entity. According to

2889-735: The Italian Racial Laws and the Manifesto of Race were promulgated by the Fascist régime, designed to outlaw and persecute both Italian Jews and Protestant Christians , especially Evangelicals and Pentecostals . In January 1939, The Jewish National Monthly reported "the only bright spot in Italy has been the Vatican, where fine humanitarian statements by the Pope have been issuing regularly". When Mussolini's anti-Semitic decrees began depriving Jews of employment in Italy, Pius XI personally admitted professor Vito Volterra ,

2996-435: The Kingdom of Montenegro with the Kingdom of Serbia under the House of Karađorđević . Between 1919 and 1922, he was a leader of Montenegrin komite , fighters for the federalisation of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes . In 1922, he emigrated to Argentina and later to Belgium in 1929. The Greens voted against the unification of the Kingdom of Montenegro with the Kingdom of Serbia Podgorica Assembly , while

3103-521: The League of Nations , prompting a Grand Council of Fascism vote to withdraw from the League on 11 December 1937 and Mussolini denounced the League as a mere "tottering temple". Until 1938, Mussolini had denied any antisemitism within Fascist Italy and dismissed the racial policies of Nazi Germany . However, by mid-1938 Hitler's influence over Mussolini had persuaded him to make a specific agenda on race,

3210-636: The Matteotti Crisis where Mussolini began pushing for a totalitarian state. In 1926, the Syndical Laws, also known as the Rocco Laws, were passed, organizing the economy into twelve separate employer and employee unions. The unions were largely state-controlled and were mainly used to suppress opposition and reward political loyalty. While the Fascist unions could not protect workers from all economic consequences, they were responsible for

3317-520: The Nazi Party in Germany. The Fascist regime established propaganda in newsreels, radio broadcasting and a few feature films deliberately endorsing Fascism. In 1926, laws were passed to require that propaganda newsreels be shown prior to all feature films in cinemas. These newsreels were more effective in influencing the public than propaganda films or radio, as few Italians had radio receivers at

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3424-576: The Soviet Union in creating a new culture. Mussolini's propaganda idolized him as the nation's saviour, and the Fascist regime attempted to make him omnipresent in Italian society. Much of Fascism's appeal in Italy was based on Mussolini's popularity and charisma. Mussolini's passionate oratory and the personality cult around him were displayed at huge rallies and parades of his Blackshirts in Rome, which served as an inspiration to Adolf Hitler and

3531-693: The Spanish Civil War . In 1938, Farinacci became the minister in charge of culture and he also adopted racial laws which were designed to prevent racial intermixing , including antisemitic laws . Until the armistice with the Allies in September 1943, the Italian Jewish community was protected from deportation to the German death camps in the east. With the armistice, Hitler took control of

3638-549: The United States . However, the transfer of agricultural land to wheat production reduced the production of vegetables and fruit. Despite improving production for wheat, the situation for peasants themselves did not improve, as 0.5% of the Italian population (usually wealthy) owned 42% of all agricultural land in Italy and income for peasants did not increase while taxes did increase. The Depression caused unemployment to rise from 300,000 to 1 million in 1933. It also caused

3745-672: The World's Fair known as the Century of Progress . Stephen Lee identifies three major themes in Mussolini's foreign policy. The first was a continuation of the foreign-policy objectives of the preceding Liberal regime. Liberal Italy had allied itself with Germany and Austria and had great ambitions in the Balkans and North Africa. It had been badly defeated in Ethiopia in 1896 , when there

3852-405: The 1930s and dairy and meat consumption was discouraged, while increasing numbers of Italians turned to the black market. The policy demonstrated that Fascists saw food—and people's behavior generally—as strategic resources that could be manipulated regardless of traditions and tastes. Mussolini and the Fascist Party promised Italians a new economic system known as corporatism (or tripartism ),

3959-403: The Allies in September 1943. Nazi Germany seized control of the northern half of Italy and rescued Mussolini , setting up the Italian Social Republic (RSI), a collaborationist puppet state which was ruled by Mussolini and Fascist loyalists. From that point onward, the country descended into civil war , and the large Italian resistance movement continued to wage its guerrilla war against

4066-650: The Arab nationalists. Omar Mukhtar led the Arab resistance movement. After a much-disputed truce on 3 January 1928, the Fascist policy in Libya increased in brutality. A barbed wire fence was built from the Mediterranean Sea to the oasis of Jaghbub to sever lines critical to the resistance. Soon afterwards, the colonial administration began the wholesale deportation of the people of the Jebel Akhdar to deny

4173-617: The Bolsheviks and claims (that were later confirmed to be true) that the Bolsheviks and Germany (that Italy was fighting in World War I ) were politically connected, Mussolini made antisemitic statements involving the Bolshevik-German connection as being "an unholy alliance between Hindenburg and the synagogue ". Mussolini came to believe rumors that Bolshevik leader Vladimir Lenin was of Jewish descent. Mussolini attacked

4280-564: The Catholic Partito Popolare Italiano ( Italian People's Party ). In 1929, Mussolini and the papacy came to an agreement that ended the bitter standoff between the Church from the Italian government going back to 1860. The Orlando government had begun the process of reconciliation during World War I and the Pope furthered it by cutting ties with the Christian Democrats in 1922. Mussolini and

4387-484: The Chetniks. Popović did not join either side. He was ambushed and killed in a shootout by OZNA agents Rako Mugoša  [ sr ] , Veljko Milatović and Šaro Brajović in 1947. Mugoša was also killed in the shootout while Milatović and Brajović survived. In 1905, he married Marija (née Radojević) with whom he had five daughters and two sons Radovan and Nikola  [ sr ] . His son Radovan died as

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4494-569: The Croatian-American academic Ivo Banac they declared themselves as Serbs . As a member of a joint American–British mission, the British diplomat Earl John de Salis wrote a detailed report. The Earl stated that no one denied that Montenegro might need to be unified with Serbia and the budding Yugoslav state. However, the issue was “to be able to join it as Montenegro, and not as a prefecture of Serbia, as free Montenegrins, in line with

4601-586: The Ethiopians during the war, including the use of aircraft to drop poison gas on the defending Ethiopian soldiers. Ethiopia surrendered in 1936, completing Italy's revenge for its failed colonial conquest of the 1890s. King Victor Emmanuel III was soon proclaimed Emperor of Ethiopia . The international consequences for Italy's belligerence resulted in its diplomatic isolation. France and Britain quickly abandoned their trust of Mussolini but failed to take decisive action. Italy's actions were formally condemned by

4708-522: The Fascist Party was necessary for people to gain "Complete Citizenship"; those who did not swear allegiance to Fascism would be banished from public life and could not gain employment. The Fascist government also reached out to Italians living overseas to endorse the Fascist cause and identify with Italy rather than their places of residence. Despite efforts to mould a new culture for fascism, Fascist Italy's efforts were not as drastic or successful in comparison to other one-party states like Nazi Germany and

4815-458: The Fascist movement was Toeplitz, whom Mussolini had earlier accused of being a traitor during World War I. Early on there were prominent Jewish Italian Fascists such as Aldo Finzi , who was born of a mixed marriage of a Jewish and Christian Italian and was baptized as a Roman Catholic. Another prominent Jewish Italian Fascist was Ettore Ovazza , who was a vocal Italian nationalist and an opponent of Zionism in Italy. 230 Italian Jews took part in

4922-533: The Fascist regime of Italy set a course to becoming a one-party state and to integrate Fascism into all aspects of life. A totalitarian state was officially declared in the Doctrine of Fascism of 1935: The Fascist conception of the State is all-embracing; outside of it no human or spiritual values can exist, much less have value. Thus understood, Fascism is totalitarian, and the Fascist State—a synthesis and

5029-541: The Fascists' March on Rome in 1922. In 1932, Mussolini made his private attitude about Jews known to the Austrian ambassador when discussing the issue of the antisemitism of Hitler, saying: "I have no love for the Jews, but they have great influence everywhere. It is better to leave them alone. Hitler's anti-Semitism has already brought him more enemies than is necessary". At the 1934 Montreux Fascist conference which

5136-481: The German and RSI forces. Mussolini was captured and killed by the resistance on 28 April 1945, and hostilities ended the next day. Shortly after the war, civil discontent led to the 1946 institutional referendum on whether Italy would remain a monarchy or become a republic. The Italians decided to abandon the monarchy and form the Italian Republic , the present-day Italian state. After rising to power,

5243-677: The German-occupied territory in the North and he also launched an effort to liquidate the Jewish community which was under his control. Shortly after the entry of Italy into the war, numerous camps were established for the imprisonment of enemy aliens and Italians suspected to be hostile to the regime. In contrast to the brutality of the National Socialist-run camps, the Italian camps allowed families to live together and there

5350-431: The Germans moved to occupy Italy, and they also commenced a round-up of Jews. Thousands of Italian Jews and a small number of Protestants died in the Nazi concentration camps . Until he formed his alliance with Adolf Hitler , Benito Mussolini always denied the existence of antisemitism within the National Fascist Party (PNF). In the early 1920s, Mussolini wrote an article which stated that Fascism would never elevate

5457-416: The Greens included Krsto Zrnov Popović , Jovan S. Plamenac and Novica Radović . Some of the Greens re-gathered during World War II , under the command of Krsto Zrnov Popović, a collaborator of fascist Italy . They were organized into a military unit called the Lovćen Brigade featuring four brigades that participated in the chaotic civil war raging on the ground in Montenegro and whose military activity

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5564-482: The Greens. The Greens' forces were called the Lovćen Brigade . Soon, they were disorganized and one group of Greens joined the Partisans, while another joined the Croatian Ustaše and some joined the Chetniks. After the Partisan victory in 1945, many leaders of the Greens were killed as the collaborators of the Italian occupation: the same Popović was murdered in 1947. At the same time, the Communists were killing many potential opponents all over Yugoslavia . This marked

5671-457: The Italian colonies of Tripolitania and Cyrenaica (eventually unified in Italian Libya ), inflicted the bombing of Corfu , established a protectorate over Albania , and annexed the city of Fiume into Italy after a treaty with the Kingdom of Yugoslavia . The second phase (1925–1929) was "the construction of the Fascist dictatorship proper". The third phase (1929–1935) saw less interventionism in foreign policy. The fourth phase (1935–1940)

5778-472: The Italian government requested more territory for Libya from British-held Sudan . The United Kingdom allowed Italy to gain some territory from Sudan to add to Libya. In 1935, Mussolini believed that the time was right for Italy to invade Ethiopia (also known as Abyssinia) to make it a colony. As a result, the Second Italo-Abyssinian War erupted. Italy invaded Ethiopia from the Italian colonies of Eritrea and Somaliland . Italy committed atrocities against

5885-404: The Italian nationality was to rest on a militarist foundation and the Fascist's "new man" ideal, in which loyal Italians would rid themselves of individualism and autonomy and see themselves as a component of the Italian state and be prepared to sacrifice their lives for it. Under such a totalitarian government, only Fascists would be considered "true Italians", and membership and endorsement of

5992-527: The Jewish banker Giuseppe Toeplitz of Banca Commerciale Italiana by claiming that he was a German agent and traitor of Italy. In an article in Il Popolo d'Italia in June 1919, Mussolini wrote a highly antisemitic analysis on the situation in Europe involving Bolshevism following the October Revolution , the Russian Civil War and war in Hungary involving the Hungarian Soviet Republic . In June 1919, Mussolini wrote on Il Popolo d'Italia : If Petrograd (Pietrograd) does not yet fall, if [General] Denikin

6099-439: The Mediterranean Sea and Adriatic Sea . The Fascists launched wars to conquer Dalmazia , Albania and Greece for the Italian Empire. Colonial efforts in Africa began in the 1920s, as civil war plagued Italian North Africa ( Africa Settentrionale Italiana , or ASI) as the Arab population there refused to accept Italian colonial government. Mussolini sent Marshal Rodolfo Graziani to lead a punitive pacification campaign against

6206-524: The National Fascist Party. From the 1930s to 1940s, Italy's education focused on the history of Italy displaying Italy as a force of civilization during the Roman era, displaying the rebirth of Italian nationalism and the struggle for Italian independence and unity during the Risorgimento . In the late 1930s, the Fascist government copied Nazi Germany 's education system on the issue of physical fitness and began an agenda that demanded that Italians become physically healthy. Intellectual talent in Italy

6313-512: The OVRA were responsible for far fewer deaths than the Schutzstaffel (SS) in Germany or the NKVD of the Soviet Union , they were nevertheless highly effective in terrorizing political opponents. One of their most notorious methods of torture involved physically forcing opponents of Fascism to swallow castor oil , which would cause severe diarrhea and dehydration, leaving the victim in a physically debilitated state that occasionally resulted in death. To combat Italian organized crime , notably

6420-421: The Schiffs, the Guggenheims who are of the same blood who are conquering Petrograd and Budapest. Race does not betray race ... Bolshevism is a defense of the international plutocracy. This is the basic truth of the matter. The international plutocracy dominated and controlled by Jews has a supreme interest in all of Russian life accelerating its process of disintegration to the point of paroxysm. A Russia that

6527-476: The advent of the "new Italian woman" ( nuova italiana ). The policies revealed a deep conflict between modernity and traditional patriarchal authority, as Catholic, Fascist and commercial models of conduct competed to shape women's perceptions of their roles and their society at large. The Fascists celebrated violent "virilist" politics and exaggerated its machismo while also taxing celibate men to pay for child welfare programs. Italy's invasion of Ethiopia in 1935 and

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6634-537: The color of their Royal Italian Army , Navy , and Air Force uniforms. Most of the Blackshirts were members from the Fasci di Combattimento . A secret police force called the Organizzazione di Vigilanza Repressione dell'Antifascismo ("Organization for Vigilance and Repression of Anti-Fascism") or OVRA was created in 1927. It was led by Arturo Bocchini to crack down on opponents of the regime and Mussolini (there had been several near-miss assassination attempts on Mussolini's life in his early years in power). Although

6741-401: The construction of the Italian ocean liner SS Rex , which in 1933 made a transatlantic sea crossing record of four days, funded the development of the Macchi M.C.72 seaplane , which became the world's fastest seaplane in 1933 and retained the title in 1934. In 1933, Fascist government member Italo Balbo , who was also an aviator, made a transatlantic flight in a flying boat to Chicago for

6848-439: The creation of profession-wide corporations, in which the trade union and employers organisation belonging to the same profession or branch are organized into professional corporations. In 1935, the Doctrine of Fascism was published under Mussolini's name, although it was most likely written by Giovanni Gentile . It described the role of the state in the economy under corporatism. By this time, Fascism had been drawn more towards

6955-415: The encyclical Non abbiamo bisogno ("We do not need") that denounced the regime's persecution of the Church in Italy and condemned "pagan worship of the state". The 1929 treaties with Mussolini partially recovered the Papacy's spiritual primacy in Italy, making the Pope sovereign in the Vatican City state, and restoring Roman Catholicism as the State religion . In March 1929, a nationwide plebiscite

7062-524: The end of the Greens. The Order of Freedom of Montenegro was issued by the exiled King Nikola in January 1919. This order was mainly dedicated to the Greens. Krsto Popovi%C4%87 Krsto Popović ( Cyrillic : Крсто Поповић; 13 September 1881 – 14 March 1947) was an officer of the Montenegrin Army who fought in the Balkan Wars and in the First World War . Dissatisfied with the Podgorica Assembly of 1918 which merged Serbia and Montenegro into what would become Yugoslavia , he became one of

7169-408: The form of a referendum on 24 March 1929. By this time, the country was a single-party state with the National Fascist Party (PNF) as the only legally permitted party. Mussolini used a referendum to confirm a fascist single-party list. The list put forward was ultimately approved by 98.43% of voters. The universal male suffrage , which was legal since 1912, was restricted to men who were members of

7276-486: The government introduced pensions , sick pay and paid holidays . In 1933, the government established unemployment benefits . At the end of the 1930s, 13 million Italians were enrolled in the state health insurance scheme and by 1939 social security expenditure accounted for 21% of government spending. In 1935, the 40-hour working week was introduced and workers were expected to spend Saturday afternoons engaged in sporting, paramilitary and political activities. This

7383-458: The handling of social security benefits, claims for severance pay, and could sometimes negotiate contracts that benefited workers. After the Great Depression hit the world economy in 1929, the Fascist regime followed other nations in enacting protectionist tariffs and attempted to set direction for the economy. In the 1930s, the government increased wheat production and made Italy self-sufficient for wheat, ending imports of wheat from Canada and

7490-429: The idea of patriotism and Christian civilization, the Conference denounces the nefarious action of these elements and is ready to combat them. Italian Fascism adopted antisemitism in the late 1930s and as a result, Mussolini personally returned to his earlier invokation of antisemitic statements. From 1937 to 1938, during the Spanish Civil War , the Fascist regime circulated antisemitic propaganda which stated that Italy

7597-406: The leaders of the 1919 Christmas Uprising on the side of the Greens who supported the newly dethroned King Nikola of the Petrović-Njegoš dynasty and who favored a confederation of Yugoslavia that still gave Montenegro a form of independence in skirmishes against the Whites who favored King Alexander of the Karađorđević dynasty and complete annexation of Montenegro into Yugoslavia. After

7704-421: The leading Fascists were anti-clericals and atheists , but they recognized the advantages of warmer relations with Italy's large Roman Catholic element. The Lateran Accord of 1929 was a treaty that recognized the Pope as the head of the new city-state of Vatican City within Rome, which gave it independent status and made it an important hub of world diplomacy. The Concordat of 1929 made Roman Catholicism

7811-467: The left-wing elements of the Fascist manifesto were opposed by industrialists and landowners who supported the party because it pledged to defend Italy from socialism, and corporatist policy became dominated by the industries. Initially, economic legislation mostly favoured the wealthy industrial and agrarian classes by allowing privatization, liberalization of rent laws, tax cuts, and administrative reform; however, economic policy changed drastically following

7918-624: The majority Whites ( Bjelaši ) supported it. Meanwhile, only several months after his arrival in Montenegro, Krsto Popović returned to Italy, where he served in the army of the Montenegrin government in exile, advancing to level of commander, and later to brigadier. In 1929, from Belgium he sent a letter to King Alexander , in which he asked the King to pardon him from responsibility for the civil war in Montenegro from December 1918 until King Nikola 's death. In this letter, he also proclaimed his loyalty to King Aleksandar Karađorđević. On 18 October 1929, in

8025-546: The movement's early years, there were a small number of prominent openly antisemitic Fascists such as Roberto Farinacci . There were also prominent Fascists who completely rejected antisemitism, such as Italo Balbo , who lived in Ferrara , which had a substantial Jewish community that was widely accepted and suffered few antisemitic incidents. Mussolini initially had no antisemitic statements in his policies. However, in response to his observation of large numbers of Jews amongst

8132-486: The opponents of unification with Serbia used at the Podgorica Assembly in 1918. The Greens opposed the unification of the Kingdom of Montenegro with the Kingdom of Serbia under the House of Karađorđević . With support from Italy, the Greens organised a rebellion in 1919 with the aim of bringing the House of Petrović-Njegoš back to the Montenegrin throne. The rebellion failed and the rebels fled to Italy. Krsto Zrnov Popović , Jovan Plamenac and Novica Radović led

8239-803: The positions of power of countries and claimed that Jews were a "ferocious" tribe who sought to "totally banish" Christians from public life. In 1937, Fascist member Paolo Orano criticized the Zionist movement as being part of British foreign policy which designed to secure British hold of the area without respecting the Christian and Islamic presence in Palestine . On the matter of Jewish Italians, Orano said that they "should concern themselves with nothing more than their religion" and not bother boasting of being patriotic Italians. The major source of friction between National Socialist Germany and Fascist Italy

8346-586: The presence of pro-Italian Jews in the region would weaken pro-British sentiment and potentially overturn the British mandate. On the issue of antisemitism, the Fascists were divided on what to do, especially after the rise of Hitler in Germany . A number of members of the Fascist Party were Jewish and Mussolini affirmed that he was a Zionist , but to appease Hitler, antisemitism within the Fascist Party steadily increased. In 1936, Mussolini made his first written denunciation of Jews by claiming that antisemitism had only arisen because Jews had become too predominant in

8453-474: The province of Liege, Belgium, immigration police issued him a passport under number 9121, with visa number 94 in which he identified his nationality as Serb . King Alexander subsequently pardoned him and he returned to the Kingdom of Yugoslavia , receiving a pension and living in retirement until World War II broke out and Popović organized his collaboration militia, called the Lovćen Brigade . This militia

8560-633: The rebels the support of the local population. The forced migration of more than 100,000 people ended in concentration camps in Suluq and Al-'Aghela where tens of thousands died in squalid conditions. It is estimated that the number of Libyans who died – killed either through combat or starvation and disease – was at least 80,000, including up to half of the Cyrenaican population. After Al-Mukhtar's capture on 15 September 1931 and his execution in Benghazi,

8667-481: The resistance petered out. Limited resistance to the Italian occupation crystallized around Sheik Idris , the Emir of Cyrenaica. Negotiations on expanding the borders of the colony of Libya took place with the British government. The first negotiations began in 1925 to define the border between Libya and British-held Egypt . These negotiations resulted in Italy gaining previously undefined territory. In 1934, once again

8774-496: The resulting League of Nations sanctions shaped the tasks assigned to women within the Fascist Party. The empire and women's contribution to it became a core theme in Fascist propaganda. Women in the party were mobilized for the imperial cause both as producers and as consumers, giving them new prominence in the nation. The Fascist women's groups expanded their roles to cover such new tasks as running training courses on how to fight waste in housework. Young Italian women were prepared for

8881-701: The seizures of Church property since 1860. The Catholic Church was not officially obliged to support the Fascist régime and the strong differences remained, but the general hostility ended. The Church especially endorsed foreign policies such as support for the Nationalists in the Spanish Civil War and for the Italian invasion of Ethiopia . Friction continued over the Catholic Action ( Azione Cattolica ) youth network, which Mussolini wanted to merge into his Fascist youth group. In 1931, Pope Pius XI issued

8988-511: The sole religion of the State (although other religions were tolerated), paid salaries to priests and bishops, recognized religious marriages (previously couples had to have a civil ceremony) and brought religious instruction into the public schools. In turn, the bishops swore allegiance to the Italian Fascist régime, which had a veto power over their selection. A third agreement paid the Vatican 1.75 billion lire (about $ 100 million) for

9095-458: The support of market forces being dominant over state intervention. A passage from the Doctrine of Fascism read: The corporate State considers that private enterprise in the sphere of production is the most effective and useful instrument in the interest of the nation. In view of the fact that private organisation of production is a function of national concern, the organiser of the enterprise

9202-451: The time. Fascist propaganda was widely present in posters and state-sponsored art. However, artists, writers and publishers were not strictly controlled: they were only censored if they were blatantly against the state. There was a constant emphasis on the masculinity of the "new Italian", stressing aggression, virility, youth, speed and sport. Women were to attend to motherhood and stay out of public affairs. General elections were held in

9309-755: The tradition and the past of their country, and not as yes-men of Belgrade, to join it on equal footing as the Slovenes, the Croats and the very Serbs.”, i.e. on conditions of equality and preservation of identity of Montenegro. The Greens drew their membership from the Highland tribes ( Moračani , Piperi , and Rovci ), the Katun clans (Bjelice, Cetinje , Čevo , and Cuce ), and the Herzegovinian tribes ( Nikšići , Rudinjani and Drobnjaci ). Notable leaders of

9416-584: The uprising failed, Popović emigrated to Italy , but returned in June 1919 to start guerrilla warfare . He eventually laid down arms after the death of King Nikola in 1921 and he was eventually pardoned by King Alexander after proclaiming allegiance to him. He lived out his remaining years in Yugoslavia relatively peacefully until the Second World War when he formed the Lovćen Brigade . For this, he

9523-616: The uprising, along with Commander Savo Čelebić and Captain Đuro Drašković. After the unsuccessful uprising, the Greens returned to Montenegro, starting a guerrilla warfare. The core of the revolt was subdued in 1922–1923, but low-level guerrilla continued in the mountains and highlands for several more years. In 1922, a number of leaders of the Greens founded the Montenegrin Federalist Party , shifting from organised armed resistance to political struggle. By 1926, most remaining forms of armed resistance ended. However,

9630-521: Was Italy's stance on Jews. In his early years as Fascist leader, Mussolini believed in racial stereotypes of Jews , however, he did not hold firm to any concrete stance on Jews because he changed his personal views and his official stance on them in order to meet the political demands of the various factions of the Fascist movement. Of the 117 original members of the Fasci Italiani di Combattimento founded on 23 March 1919, five were Jewish. Since

9737-529: Was Jewish, but warned that—due to the large numbers of Jews in the Bolshevik movement—the rise of Bolshevism in Russia would result in a ferocious wave of anti-Semitism in Russia. He then claimed that "anti-Semitism is foreign to the Italian people", but warned Zionists that they should be careful not to stir up antisemitism in "the only country where it has not existed". One of the Jewish financial supporters of

9844-485: Was Mediterranean, aligning his early opinion of Italian Jews with his early Mediterraneanist perspective . He also argued that Jews were natives of Italy, after living on the Italian Peninsula for a long period of time . In the early 1930s, Mussolini held discussions with Zionist leadership figures over proposals to encourage the emigration of Italian Jews to the mandate of Palestine, as Mussolini hoped that

9951-763: Was Mussolini's promise to restore the pride and glory of the old Roman Empire. Mussolini promised to revive Italy's status as a Great Power in Europe, carving out a "New Roman Empire". Mussolini promised that Italy would dominate the Mediterranean Sea . In propaganda, the Fascist government used the originally ancient Roman term " Mare Nostrum " (Latin for "Our Sea") to refer to the Mediterranean Sea. The Fascist regime increased funding and attention to military projects and began plans to create an Italian Empire in Northern and Eastern Africa and reclaim dominance in

10058-463: Was a broad program of social welfare and cultural activities. Antisemitism was unpopular within Italy, and it was also unpopular within the Fascist Party. Once, when a Fascist scholar protested about the treatment of his Jewish friends to Mussolini, Mussolini reportedly stated: "I agree with you entirely. I don't believe a bit in the stupid anti-Semitic theory. I am carrying out my policy entirely for political reasons". The Fascist government endorsed

10165-469: Was a strong demand for seizing that country. Second was a profound disillusionment after the heavy losses of the First World War. In the eyes of many Italians the small territorial gains from Austria-Hungary were not enough to compensate for the war's terrible costs, especially since countries, such as Poland and Yugoslavia, who contributed far less to the allied victory but received much more. Third

10272-577: Was called Sabato fascista ("Fascist Saturday") and was aimed mainly at the young; exceptions were granted in special cases but not for those under 21. According to Tracy H. Koon, this scheme failed as most Italians preferred to spend Saturday as a day of rest. For security of the regime, Mussolini advocated complete state authority and created the Milizia Volontaria per la Sicurezza Nazionale ("National Security Volunteer Militia") in 1923, which are commonly referred to as " Blackshirts " for

10379-577: Was chaired by the Italian-led Comitati d'Azione per l'Universalita di Roma (CAUR) in an attempt to found a Fascist International, the issue of antisemitism was debated amongst representatives of various fascist parties, some of them were more favorable to it than others were. Two final compromises were adopted, resulting in the official stance of the Fascist International: [T]he Jewish question cannot be converted into

10486-555: Was characterized by an aggressive foreign policy: the Second Italo-Ethiopian War , which was launched from Eritrea and Somaliland ; confrontations with the League of Nations , leading to sanctions; growing economic autarky ; the invasion of Albania ; and the signing of the Pact of Steel . The fifth phase (1940–1943) was World War II itself, ending in military defeat , while the sixth and final phase (1943–1945)

10593-637: Was held to publicly endorse the Treaty. Opponents were intimidated by the Fascist régime, the Catholic Action party instructed Catholics to vote for Fascist candidates, and Mussolini claimed that the only "no" votes were of those "few ill-advised anti-clericals who refuse to accept the Lateran Pacts". Nearly 9 million Italians voted (90% of the registered electorate), and only 136,000 voted "no". The Lateran Treaty remains in place today. In 1938,

10700-515: Was labelled a collaborator by the new Communist government and in 1947 he was killed in an ambush by agents of the OZNA . Born in a Montenegrin family to father Todor "Zrno" Popović and mother Ćetna (née Krivokapić), he fought in the Balkan Wars and World War I in the Montenegrin army forces until being captured by Austro-Hungarian army in 1916. He was also one of the prominent heroes of

10807-618: Was mostly directed against the communist Partisans . After their military defeat, most of the surviving Greens members joined the Partisans, with some joining the Ustaše and a minority joining the Chetniks . Other members of the Greens joined Partisans or Chetniks from the beginning of the Axis invasion of Yugoslavia . The name of the Greens derives from the green voting cards that were used by

10914-615: Was removed from his position in 1929, when the Fascist regime declared that the threat of the Mafia had been eliminated. Mori's actions weakened the Mafia, but did not destroy them. From 1929 to 1943 the Fascist regime completely abandoned its previously aggressive measures against the Mafia, and the Mafiosi were left relatively undisturbed. The Fascists paid special attention to the role of women, from elite society women to factory workers and peasants. Fascist leaders sought to "rescue" women from experiencing emancipation even as they trumpeted

11021-555: Was rewarded and promoted by the Fascist government through the Royal Academy of Italy which was created in 1926 to promote and coordinate Italy's intellectual activity. A major success in social policy in Fascist Italy was the creation of the Opera Nazionale Dopolavoro (OND) or "National After-work Program" in 1925. The OND was the state's largest recreational organizations for adults. The Dopolavoro

11128-440: Was so popular that by the 1930s all towns in Italy had a Dopolavoro clubhouse and the Dopolavoro was responsible for establishing and maintaining 11,000 sports grounds, over 6,400 libraries, 800 movie houses, 1,200 theaters and over 2,000 orchestras. Membership was voluntary and nonpolitical. In the 1930s, under the direction of Achille Starace , the OND became primarily recreational, concentrating on sports and other outings. It

11235-433: Was supporting Spain's Nationalist forces in their fight against a "Jewish International". The Fascist regime's adoption of official antisemitic racial doctrine in 1938 met opposition from Fascist members including Balbo, who regarded antisemitism as having nothing to do with Fascism and staunchly opposed the antisemitic laws. In 1938, under pressure from Germany, Mussolini ordered the regime to adopt an antisemitic policy ,

11342-779: Was the rump Salò Government under German control. Italy was a leading member of the Axis powers in World War II , battling with initial success on several fronts. However, after the German-Italian defeat in Africa, the successes of the Soviet Union on the Eastern Front , and the subsequent Allied landings in Sicily , King Victor Emmanuel III overthrew and arrested Mussolini . The new government signed an armistice with

11449-594: Was under the control or influence of the fascist Italian occupation force, and it waged war against the Partisans and the Yugoslav Army in the Fatherland (Chetniks). Popović's vision was Montenegrin independence through cooperation with Fascist Italy , which led to his conflicts with both Montenegrin Partisans and Chetniks. During the war his militia split; one group joined the Partisans , and others joined

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