Others
90-530: In terms of Ihsan : Maturidism ( Arabic : الماتريدية , romanized : al-Māturīdiyya ) is a school of theology in Sunni Islam named after Abu Mansur al-Maturidi . It is one of the three creeds of Sunni Islam alongside Ash'arism and Atharism , and prevails in the Hanafi school of jurisprudence . Al-Maturidi codified and systematized the theological Islamic beliefs already present among
180-746: A devil , who is responsible for everything evil, implies a deficit in God's omnipotence and is incompatible with God's nature. Particularly and inextricably, Maturidism is closely linked to the Hanafi school of law. Therefore, where there are Hanafis , there are Maturidis. Maturidism was initially spread in the Eastern realms of the Islamic world , particularly in Samarqand and Transoxiana . It became widespread among Turkic peoples in Central Asia and
270-403: A Muslim does not perform the deeds prescribed by the Islamic law ( sharīʿa ), he is not considered an apostate as long as he doesn't deny his obligations. According to al-Maturidi, faith isn't based on actions or confession, but comes from the heart. He supports his doctrine by referring to Surah al-ʿImrān (verse 3:22): "They are the ones whose deeds have become worthless in this world and
360-528: A believer, nor is his case the same that of believers with respect to praise and attributing greatness, since he is to be cursed and disregarded. Nonetheless, he is not an unbeliever who cannot be buried in our Muslim cemetery, or be prayed for, or marry a Muslim. Rather, he has an intermediate position, in contrast to the Seceders ( Kharijites ) who say that he is an unbeliever, or the Murjites who say that he
450-534: A dispute (as in "withdrawing" from a dispute between two factions). According to the Encyclopædia Britannica , "The name [Mu'tazila] first appears in early Islāmic history in the dispute over Ali's leadership of the Muslim community after the assassination of Uthman , the third caliph, in 656 CE. Those who would neither condemn nor sanction Ali or his opponents but took a middle position were termed
540-532: A fellow human being claiming to be a messenger from the Creator, and even if one does not have access to any alleged God-inspired or God-revealed scripture. On the other hand, the obligation of nazar to other Muslim theologians materializes upon encountering prophets or scripture . The Mu'tazilis had a nuanced theory regarding reason, Divine revelation, and the relationship between them. They celebrated power of reason and human intellectual power . To them, it
630-731: A follower of the Hanafi school of Islamic jurisprudence , based his theological opinions and epistemological perspectives on the teachings of the school's eponymous founder, Abu Hanifa (8th century CE). The Maturidi school of Islamic theology holds that: Regarding ʿaqīdah (creed), unlike many Mu'tazilites (free-will theology), al-Maturidi does not hold that angels are necessarily infallible. Pointing at surah al-Baqara , he notes that angels too, have been tested. Referring to surah al-Anbiyāʼ , he points out, angels who claim divinity for themselves are sentenced to hell . About Iblīs , otherwise known as Satan, he states, disputing whether he
720-592: A human, thus it couldn't be said who is inwardly a Muslim and who is not, except for those who commit acts of disbelief. One who is committing sins isn't necessarily a disbeliever, but someone who explicitly dissociates themselves from God is. Similarly, it is argued that the obedience to God observed by angels and prophets derives from their insights to God's nature and doesn't result from their creation. Abū al-Qāsim Ishaq ibn Muhammad al Maturidi (9th to 10th centuries CE) drew an analogy on Harut and Marut , who are regarded as sinful yet not unbelievers ( Kuffār ) in
810-600: A middle position between him and his opponents at the battle of Siffin and the battle of Jamal were termed the Mu'tazila. By the 10th century CE the term had also come to refer to an Islamic school of speculative theology (kalām) that flourished in Basra and Baghdad (8th–10th century). According to Sunni sources, Mu'tazili theology originated in the eighth century in Basra (now in Iraq) when Wāṣil ibn ʿAṭā' (died 131 AH/748 AD) left
900-579: A negation of it. During the Abbasid dynasty, the poet, theologian, and jurist, Ibrahim an-Nazzam founded a madhhab called the Nazzamiyya that rejected the authority of Hadiths by Abu Hurayra . His famous student, Al-Jahiz , was also critical of those who followed such Hadiths, referring to his Hadithist opponents as al-nabita ("the contemptible"). According to Racha El Omari, early Mu'tazilites believed that hadith were susceptible to "abuse as
990-411: A new circle, including ʿAmr ibn ʿUbayd . Hasan's remark, "Wāṣil has withdrawn from us", is said to be the origin of the movement's name. The group later referred to themselves as Ahl al-Tawḥīd wa al-ʿAdl ( اهل التوحيد و العدل , "people of monotheism and justice") and the name Mu'tazili was first used by its opponents. The verb iʿtazala is also used to designate a neutral party in
SECTION 10
#17327650048301080-462: A polemical ideological tool"; that the matn (content) of the hadith—not just the isnad —ought to be scrutinized for doctrine and clarity; that for hadith to be valid they ought to be mutawatir , i.e. supported by tawātur or many isnād (chains of oral transmitters), each beginning with a different Companion. In writing about mutawatir (multi-isnād Hadith) and ahad (single-isnad hadith, i.e. almost all hadith) and their importance from
1170-571: A religious formula. Yet, al-Maturidi did not view all religions as equal. He criticized Christians , Jews , Zoroastrians , and atheists or materialists ( Dahrīya ). However, he drew a distinction between other Abrahamic monotheistic religions and non-Abrahamic non-monotheistic religions, criticizing Judaism and Christianity on the matter of prophecy and individual prophets, not about God. Dualistic religions faced criticism by al-Maturidi regarding their conception of God , arguing that an omnibenevolent deity , who creates only good, opposed to
1260-699: A righteous person, a doer of good ( muhsin ), but a truly good and righteous person is both a Muslim and a true person of faith. Some Islamic scholars explain ihsan as being the inner dimension of Islam whereas shariah is often described as the outer dimension. Ihsan "constitutes the highest form of worship" ( ibadah ). It is excellence in work and in social interactions. For example, ihsan includes sincerity during Muslim prayers and being grateful to parents, family, and God. Mu%CA%BFtazila Including: Mu'tazilism ( Arabic : المعتزلة , romanized : al-muʿtazila , singular Arabic : معتزلي , romanized : muʿtazilī )
1350-418: A text cannot be interpreted according to its truth and apparent meaning, and when (in this case) two metaphoric interpretations are possible, one being proximal and the other being distal; then, in this case, we are obligated to interpret the text according to the proximal metaphoric interpretation and not the distal, for (the relationship between) the distal to the proximal is like unto (the relationship between)
1440-461: Is omniscient of the past and present and that ignorance is not possible for him. And you know that he knows everything that was, everything that is, and how things that are not would be if they were. And you know that he is eternally in the past and future living, and that calamities and pain are not possible for him. And you know that he sees visible things, and perceives perceptibles, and that he does not have need of sense organs. And you know that he
1530-487: Is "beyond all reckoning". The test of life is specifically for adults in full possession of their mental faculties. Children may suffer, and are observed to suffer, given the nature of life but they are believed to be completely free from sin and liability. Divine justice is affirmed through the theory of compensation. All sufferers will be compensated. This includes non-believers and, more importantly, children, who are destined to go to Paradise . The doctrine of ' Adl in
1620-415: Is a believer. These two tenets, like the "intermediate position", follow logically (according to scholar Majid Fakhry) from the basic Mu'tazilite concepts of divine unity, justice and free will, of which they are the logical conclusion. Even though they are accepted by most Muslims , Mu'tazilites give them a specific interpretation in the sense that, even though God enjoins what is right and prohibits what
1710-473: Is all-wise and morally perfect. If this being is all-wise, then his very act of creation cannot be haphazard or in vain. One must then be motivated to ascertain what this being wants from humans, for one may harm oneself by simply ignoring the whole mystery of existence and, consequently, the plan of the Creator. This paradigm is known in Islamic theology as wujub al-nazar , i.e., the obligation to use one's speculative reasoning to attain ontological truths. About
1800-546: Is an Arabic term meaning "to do beautiful things", "beautification", "perfection", or "excellence" (Arabic: husn , lit. ' beauty ' ). Ihsan is a matter of taking one's inner faith ( iman ) and showing it in both deed and action, a sense of social responsibility borne from religious convictions. In Islam , Ihsan is the Muslim responsibility to obtain perfection, or excellence, in worship, such that Muslims try to worship God as if they see Him, and although they cannot see Him, they undoubtedly believe that He
1890-484: Is an Islamic theological school that appeared in early Islamic history and flourished in Basra and Baghdad . Its adherents, the Mu'tazilites, were known for their neutrality in the dispute between Ali and his opponents after the death of the third caliph , Uthman . By the 10th century the term al-muʿtazilah had come to refer to a distinctive Islamic school of speculative theology ( kalām ). This school of theology
SECTION 20
#17327650048301980-592: Is beyond its capacity." [Qur'an 2:286] This entailed the existence of an "act of god" to serve a greater good, or the existence of evil acts to prevent a far greater evil. In conclusion, it comprised life is an ultimate "fair test" of coherent and rational choices, having a supremely just accountability in one's current state, as well as the hereafter. Humans are required to have belief, iman , secure faith and conviction in and about God, and do good works, amal saleh , to have iman reflected in their moral choices, deeds, and relationship with God, fellow humans, and all of
2070-456: Is categorically free from any type of need and, consequently, he never does anything that is ridiculous, unwise, ugly, or evil. The conflict between Mu'tazilis and Ash'aris concerning this point was a matter of focus. Mu'tazilis focused on divine justice, whereas the Ashʿaris focused on divine omnipotence. Nevertheless, Divine self-restraint in Mu'tazili discourse is part of divine omnipotence, not
2160-531: Is constantly watching over them. That definition comes from the Hadith of Gabriel in which Muhammad states, "[Ihsan is] to worship God as though you see Him, and if you cannot see Him, then indeed He sees you". ( Al-Bukhari and Al-Muslim ). According to Muhammad's hadith "God has written ihsan on everything". Ihsan is one of the three dimensions of the Islamic religion ( ad-din ): In contrast to
2250-436: Is derived from the founder's "withdrawal" from the study circle of Hasan al-Basri over a theological disagreement: Wāṣil ibn ʿAṭā' asked about the legal state of a sinner: is a person who has committed a serious sin a believer or an unbeliever? Hasan answered the person remains a Muslim. Wasil dissented, suggesting that a sinner was neither a believer nor an unbeliever and withdrew from the study circle. Others followed to form
2340-409: Is eternally past and in future sufficient and it is not possible for him to be in need. And you know that he is not like physical bodies, and that it is not possible for him to get up or down, move about, change, be composite, have a form, limbs and body members. And you know that he is not like the accidents of motion, rest, color, food or smells. And you know that he is One throughout eternity and there
2430-518: Is fashioned out the Islamic philosophy of human existence. Humans, (or insan in Arabic) are created with an innate need in their essence to submit themselves to something. Also, it is seen as an innate need of all humans to pursue an inner peace and contentment within the struggles of an imperfect world. Knowledge of God, truth, and choices, in relation to one's innate need of submission is seen in Islam as
2520-568: Is from God; as he has said: "And you have no good thing that is not from Allah" (Qur'an 16:53); it either comes to us from him or from elsewhere. Thus, when you know all of this you become knowledgeable about justice from God. This comprised questions of the Last day, or in Arabic, the Qiyamah ( Day of Judgment ). According to 'Abd al-Jabbar, The doctrine of irreversible Divine promises and warnings,
2610-640: Is good and what is bad for them." The Mu'tazili position on the roles of reason and revelation is well captured by what Abu al-Hasan al-Ash'ari (died 324 AH/935 AD), the eponym of the Ashʿari school of theology, attributed to the Mu'tazili scholar Ibrahim an-Nazzam (died 231 AH/845 AD) (1969): كل معصية كان يجوز أن يأمر الله سبحانه بها فهي قبيحة للنهي، وكل معصية كان لا يجوز أن يبيحها الله سبحانه فهي قبيحة لنفسها كالجهل به والاعتقاد بخلافه، وكذلك كل ما جاز أن لا يأمر الله سبحانه فهو حسن للأمر به وكل ما لم يجز إلا أن يأمر به فهو حسن لنفسه No sin may be ordered by God as it
2700-519: Is iniquitous and has imputed insolence to him. And you know that, for their sakes, he does the best for all of his creatures, upon whom he imposes moral and religious obligations ( yukallifuhum ), and that He has indicated to them what he has imposed upon them and clarified the path of truth so that we could pursue it, and he has clarified the path of falsehood ( tariq l-batil ) so that we could avoid it. So, whoever perishes does so only after all this has been made clear. And you know that every benefit we have
2790-552: Is just and wise, he cannot command what is contrary to reason or act with disregard for the welfare of His creatures; consequently evil must be regarded as something that stems from errors in human acts, arising from man's divinely bestowed free will . The Mu'tazila opposed secular rationalism, but believed that human intelligence and reason allowed Man to understand religious principles; that good and evil are rational categories that could be "established through unaided reason ". The movement reached its political height during
Maturidism - Misplaced Pages Continue
2880-518: Is no second beside him, and that everything other than he is contingent, made, dependent, structured, and governed by someone/thing else. Thus, if you know all of that you know the oneness of God. Facing the problem of existence of evil in the world, the Mu'tazilis pointed at the free will of human beings, so that evil was defined as something that stems from the errors in human acts. God does nothing ultimately evil, and he demands not from any human to perform any evil act. If man's evil acts had been from
2970-590: Is predicated on absolute Divine power and self-sufficiency, however. Replying to a hypothetical question as to why God does not do that which is ethically wrong ( la yaf`alu al-qabih ), 'Abd al-Jabbar replied: Because he knows the immorality of all unethical acts and that he is self-sufficient without them...For one of us who knows the immorality of injustice and lying, if he knows that he is self-sufficient without them and has no need of them, it would be impossible for him to choose them, insofar as he knows of their immorality and his sufficiency without them. Therefore, if God
3060-530: Is sufficient without need of any unethical thing it necessarily follows that he would not choose the unethical based on his knowledge of its immorality. Thus every immoral thing that happens in the world must be a human act, for God transcends doing immoral acts. Indeed, God has distanced himself from that with his saying: "But Allah wills no injustice to his servants" (Qur'an 40:31), and his saying: "Verily Allah will not deal unjustly with humankind in anything" ( Qur'an 10:44). The thrust of ʿAbd al-Jabbar's argument
3150-399: Is that acting immorally or unwisely stems from need and deficiency. One acts in a repugnant way when one does not know the ugliness of one's deeds, i.e., because of lack of knowledge, or when one knows but one has some need, material, psychological, or otherwise. Since God is absolutely self-sufficient (a result from the cosmological "proof" of his existence), all-knowing, and all-powerful, he
3240-501: Is the human intellect that guides a human to know God, his attributes, and the very basics of morality. Once this foundational knowledge is attained and one ascertains the truth of Islam and the Divine origins of the Qur'an, the intellect then interacts with scripture such that both reason and revelation come together to be the main source of guidance and knowledge for Muslims. Harun Nasution in
3330-422: Is warranted. In the above quote, Justice 'Abd al-Jabbar emphatically mentioned that if there are two possible interpretations, both capable of resolving the apparent contradiction created by literal understanding of a verse, then the interpretation closer to the literal meaning should take precedence, for the relationship between the interpretations, close and distant, becomes the same as the literal understanding and
3420-456: Is wrong and forbidden, and no sin shall be permitted by God, as they are wrong by themselves. To know about it and believe otherwise, and all that God commands is good for the ordered and all that it is not permissible except to order it is good for himself In the above formulation, a problem emerged, which is rendering something obligatory on the Divine being—something that seems to directly conflict with Divine omnipotence. The Mu'tazili argument
3510-409: Is wrong, the use of reason allows a Muslim in most cases to identify for himself what is right and what is wrong, even without the help of revelation. Only for some acts is the revelation necessary to determine whether a certain act is right or wrong. This is discussed in further details below . Mu'tazila relied on a synthesis between reason and revelation . That is, their rationalism operated in
3600-554: The Abbasid Caliphate during the " mihna ", an 18-year period (833–851 CE) of religious persecution instituted by the Abbasid caliph al-Ma'mun where religious scholars were punished, imprisoned, or even killed unless they conformed to Mu'tazila doctrine, until it was reversed by al-Mutawakkil . The Aghlabids (800–909 CE) also adhered to Mu'tazilism, which they imposed as the state doctrine of Ifriqiya . Similarly,
3690-838: The Abbasid Caliphate , and in reaction to the excesses of this newly imposed rationalism, theologians began to lose ground. The problem was exacerbated by the Mihna , the inquisition launched under the Abbasid Caliph al-Ma'mun (died 218 AH/833 AD). The movement reached its political height during the Mihna, the period of religious persecution instituted by the 'Abbasid Caliph al-Ma'mun in AD 833 in which religious scholars (such as Sunnis and Shias ) were punished, imprisoned, or even killed unless they conformed to Mu'tazila doctrine. The policy lasted for 18 years (833–851 CE) as it continued through
Maturidism - Misplaced Pages Continue
3780-467: The Sufis have focused their attention on ihsan . Those who are muhsin are a subset of those who are mu'min , and those who are mu'min are a subset of muslims : From the preceding discussion it should be clear that not every Muslim is a man or woman of faith ( mu'min ), but every person of faith is a Muslim . Furthermore, a Muslim who believes in all the principles of Islam may not necessarily be
3870-414: The Ḥanafite Muslim theologians of Balkh and Transoxiana under one school of systematic theology ( kalām ); Abu Hanifa emphasized the use of rationality and theological rationalism regarding the interpretation of the sacred scriptures of Islam . Maturidism was originally circumscribed to the region of Transoxiana in Central Asia but it became the predominant theological orientation amongst
3960-417: The "first duty," ʿAbd al-Jabbar said it is "speculative reasoning ( al-nazar ) which leads to knowledge of God, because he is not known by the way of necessity ( daruratan ) nor by the senses ( bi l-mushahada ). Thus, he must be known by reflection and speculation." The difference between Mu'tazilis and other Muslim theologians is that Mu'tazilis consider al-nazar an obligation even if one does not encounter
4050-454: The 10th-century Muslim scholar and theologian Abū al-Ḥasan al-Ashʿarī never held such a view. Although Māturīdism adhers, like the Mu'tazilites , to ethical realism , the former holds that moral objects are ultimately created by God, thus God is not bound by them, but human reason can detect such moral truths on their own. Yohei Matsuyama points to al-Maturidi's wording about faith, referring to
4140-676: The Abbasid rulers. Under Caliph al-Mutawakkil (847–861), "who sought to reestablish the traditional Muslim's faith" (he intentionally wanted to restore his legitimacy due to the backlash towards Ahmad ibn Hanbal's persecution under previous Caliphs), Mu'tazilite doctrine was repudiated and Mu'tazilite professors were persecuted in the Abbasid Caliphate; Shia Muslims , Christians and Jews were also persecuted. The Aghlabids , an Arab dynasty centered in Ifriqiya from 800 to 909, also adhered to Mu'tazilism, which they imposed as
4230-484: The Creator—something not necessarily done by a committer of a grave sin. The fate of those who commit grave sins and die without repentance is Hell. Hell is not considered a monolithic state of affairs but as encompassing many degrees to accommodate the wide spectrum of human works and choices, and the lack of comprehension associated to The Ultimate Judge (one of the other names in Islam of God.) Consequently, those in
4320-660: The Hanafi communities everywhere. Currently, Maturidis are widespread in Afghanistan , Central Asia, Turkey , India, Pakistan , Bangladesh , the Balkans (especially Bosnia , Albania , Kosovo and Skopje ), northwestern China , the Levant (especially Syria, Lebanon and Palestine ), the Caucasus , Tatarstan , and Bashkortostan . Ihsan Ihsan ( Arabic : إحسان ʾiḥsān , also romanized ehsan ),
4410-470: The Hereafter , and for them there will be no helpers." These people would have performed the obligatory actions and rituals without the proper faith in their heart. Therefore, actions must be based on faith to be acceptable before God. Maturidism is known for its reserved position regarding takfir : Based on Surah 2:30, Kitāb al-ʿĀlim states that neither humans nor angels can know what is in the heart of
4500-433: The Islamic tradition. Al-Samarqandī further stated that children cannot be considered unbelievers and all of them go to paradise . According to al-Maturidi, human rationality is supposed to acknowledge the existence of a creator deity ( bāriʾ ) solely based on rational thought and independently from divine revelation. He shared this conviction with his teacher and predecessor Abū Ḥanīfa al-Nuʿmān (8th century CE), whereas
4590-551: The Maturidi School is characterized by three phases. The phase lasted until the end of the 10th century, and is characterized by the fact that nothing of importance happened for the development of the school. Al-Maturidi had many followers; of them the most important is Abū Salama al-Samarqandī , who gave us the summary of Al- Maturidi 's Kitab Al Tawhid namely the Jumal usul al-dīn. Including: Al-Maturidi, being
SECTION 50
#17327650048304680-526: The Mu'tazila and Rational Philosophy, translated in Martin (1997), commented on Mu'tazili extensive use of rationality in the development of their religious views saying: "It is not surprising that opponents of the Mu'tazila often charge the Mu'tazila with the view that humanity does not need revelation, that everything can be known through reason, that there is a conflict between reason and revelation, that they cling to reason and put revelation aside, and even that
4770-420: The Mu'tazila do not believe in revelation. But is it true that the Mu'tazila are of the opinion that everything can be known through reason and therefore that revelation is unnecessary? The writings of the Mu'tazila give exactly the opposite portrait. In their opinion, human reason is not sufficiently powerful to know everything and for this reason humans need revelation in order to reach conclusions concerning what
4860-462: The Muʿtazilah." Carlo Alfonso Nallino argued that the theological Mu'tazilism of Wasil and his successors was merely a continuation of this initial political Mu'tazilism. The Mu'tazili appeared in early Islāmic history in the dispute over Alī 's leadership of the Muslim community after the death of the third caliph, Uthman . Those who would neither condemn nor sanction Ali or his opponents but took
4950-541: The Quran is the literal word of God, he logically "must have preceded his own speech". This went against the orthodox Sunni position (followed by the Ashʿarī , Māturīdī and the traditionalist Athari schools) which argued that with God being all-knowing, his knowledge of the Quran must have been eternal, hence uncreated just like him. The school also worked to resolve the theological " problem of evil ", arguing that since God
5040-709: The Sunnī Muslims of Persia before the Safavid conversion to Shīʿīsm in the 16th century , and the Ahl al-Ra'y (people of reason). It enjoyed a preeminent status in the Ottoman Empire and Mughal India . Outside the old Ottoman and Mughal empires, most Turkic tribes , Hui people , Central Asian, and South Asian Muslims also follow the Maturidi theology. There have also been Arab Maturidi scholars. The history of
5130-530: The children of polytheists ( al- mushrikin ) in Hellfire because of their fathers' sin, for he has said: "Each soul earns but its own due" (Qur'an 6:164); and he does not punish anyone for someone else's sin because that would be morally wrong ( qabih ), and God is far removed from such. And you know that he does not transgress his rule ( hukm ) and that he only causes sickness and illness in order to turn them to advantage. Whoever says otherwise has allowed that God
5220-513: The connection between the earlier Seljuk Turks, Hanafi law, and Maturidi theology: As a result of the Turkish expansion, eastern Hanafism and Maturidi theological doctrine were spread throughout western Persia , 'Iraq , Anatolia , Syria and Egypt. Numerous Transoxianan and other eastern Hanafi scholars migrated to these regions and taught there from the late 5th/11th to the 8th/14th century. Maturidi doctrine thus gradually came to prevail among
5310-405: The creation in this world. If everyone is healthy and wealthy, then there will be no meaning for the obligations imposed on humans to, for example, be generous, help the needy, and have compassion for the deprived and trivialized. The inequalities in human fortunes and the calamities that befell them are, thus, an integral part of the test of life. Everyone is being tested. The powerful, the rich, and
5400-510: The direction of Bishr ibn al-Mu'tamir (died 210 AH/825 AD); the instigators thought it was the Caliph's own scheme: under al-Ma'mun (813–833) "Mu'tazilism became the established faith." Umayyad Caliphs who were known for supporting the Mu'tazila include Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik and Yazid III . The Mu'tazilites maintained man's creation of free will , as did the Qadarites of
5490-493: The doctrine of justice. And you know that God does not impose faith upon the unbeliever without giving him the power ( al-qudra ) for it, nor does he impose upon a human what he is unable to do, but he only gives to the unbeliever to choose unbelief on his own part, not on the part of God. And you know that God does not will, desire or want disobedience. Rather, he loathes and despises it and only wills obedience, which he wants and chooses and loves. And you know that he does not punish
SECTION 60
#17327650048305580-416: The emphases of islam (what one should do) and iman (why one should do), the concept of ihsan is primarily associated with intention. One who "does what is beautiful" is called a muhsin . It is generally held that a person can only achieve true Ihsan with the help and guidance of God , who governs all things. While traditionally Islamic jurists have concentrated on islam and theologians on iman ,
5670-451: The fierce polemics between various schools of theology than any objective reality. For instance, most Mu'tazilis adopted the doctrine of creation ex nihilo , contrary to certain Muslim philosophers who, with the exception of al-Kindi , believed in the eternity of the world in some form or another. Mu'tazili theology faced implacable opposition from Hanbali and Zahiri traditionalists, on
5760-469: The first time by Abu al-Hudhayl", five basic tenets make up the Mu'tazilite creed: All Muslim schools of theology faced the dilemma of affirming divine transcendence and divine attributes , without falling into anthropomorphism on the one hand or emptying scriptural references to those attributes of all concrete meaning. The doctrine of Tawhīd, in the words of the prominent Mu'tazili scholar Chief Justice Qadi Abd al-Jabbar (died 415 AH/1025 AD) is:
5850-495: The healthy are required to use all their powers and privileges to help those who suffer and to alleviate their suffering. In the Qiyamah (Judgment Day), they will be questioned about their response to Divine blessings and bounties they enjoyed in their lives. The less fortunate are required to patiently persevere and are promised a compensation for their suffering that, as the Qur'an puts it in 39:10, and as translated by Muhammad Asad ,
5940-434: The humans choose, so humans can perform them. Ethics can be understood just by rational thought and do not require prophetic guidance. Al-Maturidi also considered the aḥādīth to be unreliable when they are at odds with reason. Furthermore, Maturidi theology opposes anthropomorphism and similitude, but simultaneously does not deny the divine attributes . Maturidism defends the idea that paradise and hell are coexisting with
6030-454: The intermediate position, though in Hell, would have a lesser punishment because of their belief and other good deeds. Mu'tazilites adopted this position as a middle ground between Kharijites and Murjites . In the words of ʿAbd al-Jabbar, the doctrine of the intermediate position is the knowledge that whoever murders, or commits zina , or commits serious sins is a grave sinner ( fasiq ) and not
6120-541: The interpretation. Mu'tazilis believed that the first obligation on humans, specifically adults in full possession of their mental faculties, is to use their intellectual power to ascertain the existence of God, and to become knowledgeable of his attributes. One must wonder about the whole existence, that is, about why something exists rather than nothing. If one realises that there is a being who caused this universe to exist, not reliant on anything else and absolutely free from any type of need, then one realizes that this being
6210-417: The knowledge that God, being unique, has attributes that no creature shares with him. This is explained by the fact that you know that the world has a creator who created it and that: he existed eternally in the past and he cannot perish while we exist after being non-existent and we can perish. And you know that he was and is eternally all-powerful and that impotence is not possible for him. And you know that he
6300-469: The later Umayyad period. The Mu'tazilites also maintained that justice and reason must form the foundation of the action God takes toward men. Both of these doctrines were repudiated by the later orthodox school of the Ashʿarites . The persecution campaign, nonetheless, cost them their theology and generally, the sympathy of the Muslim masses in the Abbasid state. As the number of Muslims increased throughout
6390-664: The leading elite figures of the Graeco-Arabic translation movement during the reign of al-Hakam II (r. 961–976) were followers of the Mu'tazila. Mu'tazilism also flourished to some extent during the rule of the Buyids (934–1062 CE) in Iraq and Persia . The name Mu'tazili is derived from the reflexive stem VIII ( iftaʿala ) of the triconsonantal root ع-ز-ل "separate, segregate, retire", as in اعتزل iʿtazala "to separate (oneself); to withdraw from". The name
6480-445: The legal theoretician's point of view, Wael Hallaq notes the medieval scholar Al-Nawawi (1233–1277) argued that any non- mutawatir hadith is only probable and can not reach the level of certainty that a mutawatir hadith can. However, these mutawir were extremely scarce. Scholars like Ibn al-Salah (died 1245 CE), al-Ansari (died 1707 CE), and Ibn ‘Abd al-Shakur (died 1810 CE) found "no more than eight or nine" hadiths that fell into
6570-405: The metaphor to the truth, and in the same way that it is not permissible, when dealing with the word of God, to prefer a metaphoric interpretation when a discernment of the truth is possible, it is also not permissible to prefer the distal interpretation over the proximal interpretation) The hermeneutic methodology proceeds as follows: if the literal meaning of an ayah (verse) is consistent with
6660-470: The one hand, and from the Ash'ari school (founded by a former Mu'tazili, Abu al Hasan al-Ash'ari) and Maturidi theologians on the other. Scholar Daniel W. Brown describes the Mu'tazila as "the later ahl al-kalām ", suggesting the ahl al-kalām were forerunners of the Mu'tazili. The ahl al-kalām are remembered in Islamic history as opponents of Al-Shafi‘i and his principle that the final authority of Islam
6750-489: The only obligation to believe in a creator ( bāriʾ ) or maker ( sanī ), not specifically in Allah , and concludes, it is only necessary for salvation to construct a belief in a creator, not necessarily accepting the theological or doctrinal formulations of Islam. Toshihiko Izutsu likewise argues that "believing in islam" refers to submission to the creator, by voluntarily surrendering to his will, and not necessarily accepting
6840-650: The promise and recompense of God ( al-thawab ) to those who follow. His warning is looked at as a conscious decision by a human submitting themselves, and choosing a varying principle which he had given a clear warning to. He will not go back on his word, nor can he act contrary to his promise and warning, nor lie in what he reports, in contrast to what the Postponers ( Murjites ) hold. That is, Muslims who commit grave sins and die without repentance are not considered as mu’minīn (believers), nor are they considered kafirs (non-believers), but in an intermediate position between
6930-527: The reigns of al-Ma'mun's immediate successors, al-Mu'tasim and al-Wathiq , and the first four years of the reign of al-Mutawakkil , who reversed the policy in 851. Ahmad ibn Hanbal , the Sunni jurist and founder of the Hanbali school of thought was a victim of al-Ma'mun's Mihna. Due to his rejection of al-Ma'mun's demand to accept and propagate the Mu'tazila creed, ibn Hanbal was imprisoned and tortured by
7020-468: The rest of scripture, the main themes of the Qur'an , the basic tenets of the Islamic creed , and the well-known facts, then interpretation , in the sense of moving away from the literal meaning, is not justified. If a contradiction results from adopting the literal meaning, such as a literal understanding of the "hand" of God that contravenes his transcendence and the Qur'anic mention of his categorical difference from all other things, then an interpretation
7110-687: The service of scripture and Islamic theological framework. They, as the majority of Muslim jurist-theologians, validated allegorical readings of scripture whenever necessary. Justice ʿAbd al-Jabbar (935–1025) said in his Sharh al-Usul al-Khamsa (The Explication of the Five Principles): إن الكلام متى لم يمكن حمله على ظاهره و حقيقته، و هناك مجازان أحدهما أقرب و الآخر أبعد، فإن الواجب حمله على المجاز الأقرب دون الأبعد، لأن المجاز الأبعد من الأقرب كالمجاز مع الحقيقة، و كما لا يجوز فى خطاب الله تعالى أن يحمل على المجاز مع إمكان حمله على الحقيقة، فكذلك لا يحمل على المجاز الأبعد و هناك ما هو أقرب منه (When
7200-476: The state doctrine of Ifriqiya. Similarly, the leading elite figures of the Graeco-Arabic translation movement during the reign of al-Hakam II were followers of the Mu'tazila. Mu'tazilism also flourished to some extent during the rule of the Buyids in Iraq and Persia . Including: According to a "leading Mu'tazilite authority" of the end of the ninth century (al-Khayyat), and "clearly enunciated for
7290-429: The supremacy of God in man's acts, providing a doctrinal framework for more flexibility and adaptability. Maturidism especially flourished and spread among the Muslim populations in Central Asia from the 10th century onwards. According to Maturidism, belief ( ʾīmān ) does neither increase nor decrease depending on observation of religious law. Instead, deeds follow from faith. Based on Surah Ṭā Hā (verse 112), if
7380-525: The teaching lessons of Hasan al-Basri after a theological dispute regarding the issue of al-Manzilah bayna al-Manzilatayn ( a position between two positions ). Though Mu'tazilis later relied on logic and different aspects of early Islamic philosophy , ancient Greek philosophy , and Indian philosophy , the basics of Islam were their starting point and ultimate reference. The accusations leveled against them by rival schools of theology that they gave absolute authority to extra-Islamic paradigms reflect more
7470-555: The temporal world, against the assertion of some Muʿtazila that paradise and hell will be created only after the Day of Judgement . The attributes of paradise and hell would already take effect on this world ( dunya ). Abū l-Laiṯ as-Samarqandī (944–983 CE) stated that the purpose of simultaneous existence of both worlds is that they inspire hope and fear among humans. Al-Maturidi's doctrine, primarily based on Ḥanafī theology and jurisprudence , asserted man's capacity and will alongside
7560-403: The two, ( fasiq ). The reason behind this is that a mu’min is, by definition, a person who has faith and conviction in and about God, and who has their faith reflected in their deeds and moral choices. Any shortcoming on any of these two fronts makes one, by definition, not a mu’min. On the other hand, one does not become a kafir (i.e. rejecter; non-believer), for this entails, inter alia, denying
7650-425: The will of God, then punishment would have been meaningless, as man performed the will of God no matter what he did. Mu'tazilis did not deny the existence of suffering that goes beyond human abuse and misuse of their free will granted to them by God. In order to explain this type of "apparent" evil, Mu'tazilis relied on the Islamic doctrine of taklif : "God does not order/give the soul of any of his creation, that which
7740-439: The words of ʿAbd al-Jabbar: It is the knowledge that God is removed from all that is morally wrong ( qabih ) and that all his acts are morally good ( hasana ). This is explained by the fact that you know that all human acts of injustice ( zulm ), transgression ( jawr ), and the like cannot be of his creation ( min khalqihi ). Whoever attributes that to him has ascribed to him injustice and insolence ( safah ) and thus strays from
7830-406: Was an angel or a jinn before his fall is useless, as it is more important to know, that he has become a devil and enemy of humans. Maturidism holds that humans are creatures endowed with reason , which differentiates them from animals. The relationship between people and God differs from that of nature and God; humans are endowed with free-will , but due to God's sovereignty, God creates the acts
7920-511: Was founded by Wasil ibn Ata . The later Mu'tazila school developed an Islamic type of rationalism , partly influenced by ancient Greek and Indian philosophy, based around three fundamental principles: the oneness ( Tawhid ) and justice ( Al-'adl ) of God , human freedom of action, and the creation of the Quran . The Mu'tazilites are best known for rejecting the doctrine of the Quran as uncreated and co-eternal with God , asserting that if
8010-743: Was introduced into the Middle East with the coming of the Seljuks . It was popular among the Arabicized Persians of eastern Khurasan and was the preferred school of the Central Asian and Ottoman Turks . From its central Asian origins, it spread all over the lands of Islam, from Egypt in the west to China and India in the east. In this capacity, at least during the High Middle Ages . Wilferd Madelung explains
8100-468: Was the hadith of Muhammad , so that even the Qur'an was "to be interpreted in the light of [the hadith], and not vice versa." Abu al-Hudhayl al-'Allaf (died 235 AH/849 AD), who lived a few generations after Wāṣil ibn ʿAtāʾ (واصل بن عطاء) and ʿAmr ibn ʿUbayd , is considered the theologian who systematized and formalized Mu'tazilism in Basra. Another branch of the school found a home in Baghdad under
#829170