A missionary is a member of a religious group who is sent into an area in order to promote its faith or provide services to people, such as education , literacy , social justice , health care , and economic development .
121-601: Magong ( POJ : Má-keng ) is a county-administered city and seat of Penghu County, Taiwan . Magong City is located on Penghu's main island. The settlement's temple honoring the Chinese Goddess Mazu , the deified form of Lin Moniang from medieval Fujian Province, is usually accounted the oldest in all of Taiwan and Penghu. The town was originally named Makeng ( Chinese : 媽宮 ; Pe̍h-ōe-jī : Má-keng ; lit. ' Mazu 's palace') but
242-673: A Nobel Peace Prize -nominated, Vietnamese -born Zen Buddhist, founded the Unified Buddhist Church (Eglise Bouddhique Unifiée) in France in 1969. The Plum Village Monastery in the Dordogne in southern France was his residence and the headquarters of his international sangha . In 1968 Leo Boer and Wener van de Wetering founded a Zen group, and through two books made Zen popular in the Netherlands. The guidance of
363-449: A "country focus" to a "people group focus". (From "What is a People Group?" by Dr. Orville Boyd Jenkins: A "people group" is an ethnolinguistic group with a common self-identity that is shared by the various members. There are two parts to that word: ethno and linguistic. Language is a primary and dominant identifying factor of a people group. But there are other factors that determine or are associated with ethnicity.) What can be viewed as
484-475: A "word" in English, and others not willing to limit it to the English concept of a word. Examples from POJ include ⟨sì-cha̍p⟩ "forty", ⟨bé-hì-thôan⟩ "circus", and ⟨hôe-ho̍k⟩ "recover (from illness)". The non-final syllables of a compound typically undergo tone sandhi, but exact rules have not been clearly identified by linguists. A double hyphen ⟨--⟩
605-506: A Southern Min version of Misplaced Pages in the orthography, there are teaching materials, religious texts, and books about linguistics, medicine and geography. POJ was initially not well supported by word-processing applications due to the special diacritics needed to write it. Support has now improved and there are now sufficient resources to both enter and display POJ correctly. Several input methods exist to enter Unicode -compliant POJ, including OpenVanilla ( macOS and Microsoft Windows ),
726-496: A distinct tone, but has long since merged with tone 7 or 2 depending on lexical register). Tones 1 and 4 are both represented without a diacritic , and can be distinguished from each other by the syllable ending, which is a vowel, ⟨-n⟩ , ⟨-m⟩ , or ⟨-ng⟩ for tone 1, and ⟨-h⟩ , ⟨-k⟩ , ⟨-p⟩ , and ⟨-t⟩ for tone 4. Southern Min dialects undergo considerable tone sandhi , i.e. changes to
847-653: A dramatic increase in efforts since the 20th century, and a strong push since the Lausanne I: The International Congress on World Evangelization in Switzerland in 1974, modern evangelical groups have focused efforts on sending missionaries to every ethnic group in the world. While this effort has not been completed, increased attention has brought larger numbers of people distributing Bibles , Jesus videos , and establishing evangelical churches in more remote areas. Internationally,
968-407: A feature that has been preserved from Middle Chinese . There is some debate as to whether these stops are a tonal feature or a phonemic one, with some authorities distinguishing between ⟨-h⟩ as a tonal feature, and ⟨-p⟩ , ⟨-t⟩ , and ⟨-k⟩ as phonemic features. Southern Min dialects also have an optional nasal property, which is written with
1089-858: A former mission field and belong to a race other than Caucasian. Much Anglican mission work came about under the auspices of the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts (SPG, founded in 1701), the Church Missionary Society (CMS, founded 1799) and of the Intercontinental Church Society (formerly the Commonwealth and Continental Church Society, originating in 1823). With
1210-517: A later stage of development these foundations are raised to regular diocesan status with a local bishops appointed. On a global front, these processes were often accelerated in the later 1960s, in part accompanying political decolonization. In some regions, however, they are still in course. Just as the Bishop of Rome had jurisdiction also in territories later considered to be in the Eastern sphere, so
1331-695: A missionary charge in the symbolism behind the Buddhist wheel, which is said to travel all over the earth bringing Buddhism with it. The Emperor Ashoka was a significant early Buddhist missioner. In the 3rd century BCE, Dharmaraksita —among others—was sent out by emperor Ashoka to proselytize and initially the Buddhist tradition through the Indian Maurya Empire , but later into the Mediterranean as far as Greece. Gradually, all India and
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#17327801226991452-651: A modified Latin alphabet and some diacritics to represent the spoken language. After initial success in Fujian , POJ became most widespread in Taiwan and, in the mid-20th century, there were over 100,000 people literate in POJ. A large amount of printed material, religious and secular, has been produced in the script, including Taiwan 's first newspaper, the Taiwan Church News . During Japanese rule (1895–1945),
1573-430: A national or regional military. (Romans, Chapter 13) Despite the seeming opposition between the submissive and morally upstanding associations with prayer and violence associated with militarism, these two spheres interact in a dialectical way. Yet they when properly implemented they are entangled to support one another in the upholding of a civilizations morality and the prosecution and punishment of criminals. In some cases
1694-656: A nations military may fail to operate according to Godly principles and is not supported by the Church or missionaries, in other cases the military is made up of the Church congregants. The results of spiritual conflict are then present in different ways as prayer can be strategically used, for or against a military. Nigeria, and other countries have had large numbers of their Christian adherents go to other countries and start churches. These non-western missionaries often have unparalleled success; because, they need few western resources and comforts to sustain their livelihood while doing
1815-581: A new language) where they study the scriptures along with the Book of Mormon , learn new languages when applicable, prepare themselves to teach the Gospel of Jesus Christ , and learn more about the culture and the people they live among. As of December 2019, the LDS Church had over 67,000 full-time missionaries worldwide and over 31,000 Service Missionaries. In Montreal in 1910, Father James Anthony Walsh ,
1936-685: A popular cause célèbre. His early life was depicted in Hollywood films such as Kundun and Seven Years in Tibet . He has attracted celebrity religious followers such as Richard Gere and Adam Yauch . The first Western-born Tibetan Buddhist monk was Robert A. F. Thurman , now an academic supporter of the Dalai Lama. The Dalai Lama maintains a North American headquarters at Namgyal Monastery in Ithaca, New York . Lewis M. Hopfe in his "Religions of
2057-399: A priest from Boston, met Father Thomas Frederick Price , from North Carolina. They agreed on the need to build a seminary for the training of young American men for the foreign Missions. Countering arguments that the Church needed workers here , Fathers Walsh and Price insisted the Church would not flourish until it sent missioners overseas. Independently, the men had written extensively about
2178-470: A sacred part of Chinese culture. Taking the other side, Thomas Barclay believed that literacy in POJ should be a goal rather than a waypoint : Soon after my arrival in Formosa I became firmly convinced of three things, and more than fifty years experience has strengthened my conviction. The first was that if you are to have a healthy, living Church it is necessary that all the members, men and women, read
2299-727: A small printing press to the local church, which Thomas Barclay learned how to operate in 1881 before founding the Presbyterian Church Press in 1884. Subsequently, the Taiwan Prefectural City Church News , which first appeared in 1885 and was produced by Barclay's Presbyterian Church of Taiwan Press, became the first printed newspaper in Taiwan, marking the establishment of POJ in Taiwan, giving rise to numerous literary works written in POJ. As other authors made their own alterations to
2420-459: A success by those inside and outside the church from this focus is a higher level of cooperation and friendliness among churches and denominations. It is very common for those working on international fields to not only cooperate in efforts to share their gospel message , but view the work of their groups in a similar light. Also, with the increased study and awareness of different people groups, western mission efforts have become far more sensitive to
2541-565: A superscript ⟨ⁿ⟩ and usually identified as being part of the vowel. Vowel nasalisation also occurs in words that have nasal initials (⟨m-⟩, ⟨n-⟩, ⟨ng-⟩), however in this case superscript ⟨ⁿ⟩ is not written, e.g. 卵 nūi ( [nuĩ] ). The letter ⁿ appears at the end of a word except in some interjections, such as haⁿh ( [hãʔ] ), however more conservative users of Pe̍h-ōe-jī write such words as hahⁿ . A valid syllable in Hokkien takes
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#17327801226992662-710: A visit in 1732 to Copenhagen for the coronation of his cousin King Christian VI , the Moravian Church 's patron Nicolas Ludwig, Count von Zinzendorf , was very struck by its effects, and particularly by two visiting Inuit children converted by Hans Egede . He also got to know a slave from the Danish colony in the West Indies . When he returned to Herrnhut in Saxony , he inspired the inhabitants of
2783-733: Is a social and spiritual movement founded in Jamalpur , Bihar , India , in 1955 by Prabhat Ranjan Sarkar (1921–1990), also known by his spiritual name , Shrii Shrii Ánandamúrti. Ananda Marga counts hundreds of missions around the world through which its members carry out various forms of selfless service on Relief. (The social welfare and development organization under AMPS is Ananda Marga Universal Relief Team, or AMURT.) Education and women's welfare The service activities of this section founded in 1963 are focused on: Dawah means to "invite" (in Arabic, literally "calling") to Islam , which
2904-604: Is an orthography used to write variants of Hokkien Southern Min , particularly Taiwanese and Amoy Hokkien , and it is widely employed as one of the writing systems for Southern Min. During its peak, it had hundreds of thousands of readers. Developed by Western missionaries working among the Chinese diaspora in Southeast Asia in the 19th century and refined by missionaries working in Xiamen and Tainan , it uses
3025-820: Is at the origin of the present relations of Constantinople with some sixteen Orthodox national churches including the Romanian Orthodox Church , the Georgian Orthodox and Apostolic Church , and the Ukrainian Orthodox Church (both traditionally said to have been founded by the missionary Apostle Andrew), the Bulgarian Orthodox Church (said to have been founded by the missionary Apostle Paul). The Byzantines expanded their missionary work in Ukraine after
3146-453: Is cloudy. Penghu Airport operates domestic flights and Magong Harbor hosts ferry connections to Kaohsiung , Tainan , Chiayi and Kinmen . Pe%CC%8Dh-%C5%8De-j%C4%AB Pe̍h-ōe-jī ( Taiwanese Hokkien: [pe˩ˀ o̯e̞˩ d͡ʑi˧] , English approximation: / p eɪ w eɪ ˈ dʒ iː / pay-way- JEE ; abbr. POJ ; lit. ' vernacular writing ' ), sometimes known as Church Romanization ,
3267-571: Is largely disassociated from its former religious purpose. The term "romanization" is also disliked by some, who see it as belittling the status of pe̍h-ōe-jī by identifying it as a supplementary phonetic system instead of a standalone orthography. The history of pe̍h-ōe-jī has been heavily influenced by official attitudes towards the Southern Min vernaculars and the Christian organizations that propagated it. Early documents point to
3388-636: Is now regarded as the ancestor of all Shaivite pandits. Shantidas Adhikari was a Hindu preacher from Sylhet who converted King Pamheiba of Manipur to Hinduism in 1717. Historically, Hinduism has only recently had a large influence in western countries such as the United Kingdom, New Zealand, and Canada. Since the 1960s, many westerners attracted by the world view presented in Asian religious systems have converted to Hinduism. Many native-born Canadians of various ethnicities have converted during
3509-515: Is often abbreviated in POJ itself to Kàu-lô . ( 教羅 ; Jiàoluō ) There is some debate on whether " pe̍h-ōe-jī " or "Church Romanization" is the more appropriate name. Objections to " pe̍h-ōe-jī " are that it can refer to more than one system and that both literary and colloquial register Southern Min appear in the system and so describing it as "vernacular" writing might be inaccurate. Objections to "Church Romanization" are that some non-Christians and some secular writing use it. POJ today
3630-525: Is powered by the Hujing Power Plant located on Table Island. Magong has a very warm humid subtropical climate under the Köppen system . Due to the maritime influence, diurnal temperature variation is very low, but in spite of being right on the boundary with the tropics and having 15 °C (59 °F) winter lows it falls short of being such a climate. This is courtesy of the influence of
3751-519: Is the second largest religion with 2.0 billion members. From the 7th century, it spread rapidly from the Arabian Peninsula to the rest of the world through the initial Muslim conquests and subsequently with traders and explorers after the death of Muhammad . Initially, the spread of Islam came through the Dawah efforts of Muhammad and his followers. After his death in 632 CE, much of
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3872-467: Is used when POJ is deployed as an orthography (rather than as a transcription system) to indicate that the following syllable should be pronounced in the neutral tone. It also marks to the reader that the preceding syllable does not undergo tone sandhi, as it would were the following syllable non-neutral. Morphemes following a double hyphen are often (but not always) grammatical function words. Some authors use an interpunct ⟨·⟩ in place of
3993-782: The Algonquin natives who lived in lands claimed by representatives of the Massachusetts Bay Colony in the early 17th century. Quaker "publishers of truth" visited Boston and other mid-17th century colonies, but were not always well received. The Danish government began the first organized Protestant mission work through its College of Missions , established in 1714. This funded and directed Lutheran missionaries such as Bartholomaeus Ziegenbalg in Tranquebar , India, and Hans Egede in Greenland . In 1732, while on
4114-826: The Anglo-Saxon mission , for example) became prominent in converting the inhabitants of central Europe. During the Age of Discovery , the Catholic Church established a number of missions in the Americas and in other Western colonies through the Augustinians , Franciscans , and Dominicans to spread Christianity in the New World and to convert the Native Americans and other indigenous people. About
4235-554: The Baltic Crusades of the 12th and 13th centuries, which were arguably compromised in their motivation by designs of military conquest. Much contemporary Catholic missionary work has undergone profound change since the Second Vatican Council of 1962–1965, with an increased push for indigenization and inculturation , along with social justice issues as a constitutive part of preaching the Gospel . As
4356-819: The Byzantine Empire . In the earlier stages of the Ottoman Empire , a Turkic form of Shamanism was still widely practiced in Anatolia, but soon lost ground to Sufism . During the Ottoman presence in the Balkans , missionary movements were taken up by people from aristocratic families hailing from the region, who had been educated in Constantinople or other major city within the Empire such as
4477-639: The Catholic Church normally organizes itself along territorial lines and had the human and material resources, religious orders, some even specializing in it, undertook most missionary work, especially in the era after the collapse of the Roman Empire in the West. Over time, the Holy See gradually established a normalized Church structure in the mission areas, often starting with special jurisdictions known as apostolic prefectures and apostolic vicariates . At
4598-562: The Natives . The Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia continued missionary work outside Russia after the 1917 Russian Revolution , resulting in the establishment of many new dioceses in the diaspora , from which numerous converts have been made in Eastern Europe, North America, and Oceania. Early Protestant missionaries included John Eliot and contemporary ministers including John Cotton and Richard Bourne, who ministered to
4719-508: The Taiwanese Romanization System ( Tâi-lô ), a government-sponsored successor based on pe̍h-ōe-jī , was released. Despite this, native language education, and writing systems for Taiwanese, have remained a fiercely debated topic in Taiwan. POJ laid the foundation for the creation of new literature in Taiwan. Before the 1920s, many people had already written literary works in POJ, contributing significantly to
4840-845: The Turkic tribes living in and bordering the area. The missionary movement peaked during the Islamic Golden Age , with the expansion of foreign trade routes, primarily into the Indo-Pacific and as far south as the isle of Zanzibar as well as the Southeastern shores of Africa. With the coming of the Sufism tradition, Islamic missionary activities increased. Later, the Seljuk Turks ' conquest of Anatolia made it easier for missionaries to go lands that formerly belonged to
4961-602: The cross-platform Tai-lo Input Method released by the Taiwanese Ministry of Education , and the Firefox add-on Transliterator, which allows in-browser POJ input. When POJ was first used in word-processing applications it was not fully supported by the Unicode standard, thus necessitating work-arounds. One employed was encoding the necessary characters in the "Private Use" section of Unicode, but this required both
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5082-529: The gospel in his name. The term is most commonly used in reference to Christian missions , but it can also be used in reference to any creed or ideology . The word mission originated in 1598 when Jesuits , the members of the Society of Jesus sent members abroad, derived from the Latin missionem ( nom. missio ), meaning 'act of sending' or mittere , meaning 'to send'. The first Buddhist missionaries were called "Dharma Bhanaks", and some see
5203-589: The initial , a consonant or consonant blend which appears at the beginning of the syllable, secondly the final , consisting of a medial vowel (optional), a nucleus vowel , and an optional ending ; and finally the tone, which is applied to the whole syllable. In terms of the non-tonal (i.e. phonemic) features, the nucleus vowel is the only required part of a licit syllable in Chinese varieties. Unlike Mandarin but like other southern varieties of Chinese, Taiwanese has final stop consonants with no audible release ,
5324-808: The mass baptism in Kiev in 988. The Serbian Orthodox Church had its origins in the conversion by Byzantine missionaries of the Serb tribes when they arrived in the Balkans in the 7th century. Orthodox missionaries also worked successfully among the Estonians from the 10th to the 12th centuries, founding the Estonian Orthodox Church . Under the Russian Empire of the 19th century, missionaries such as Nicholas Ilminsky (1822–1891) moved into
5445-462: The rule of the Qing dynasty . Under Japanese rule , the settlement was renamed Makō and organized as a subprefecture of Hōko . The area was a major base of the Imperial Japanese Navy . It was an embarkation point for the invasion of the Philippines during the Second World War . On 25 December 1981, Makung was upgraded from an urban township to a county-administered city . Magong City contains 33 municipal villages ( 里 ; lǐ ): The city
5566-415: The 1930s, with a few minor exceptions (detailed below). There is a fair degree of similarity with the Vietnamese alphabet , including the ⟨b/p/ph⟩ distinction and the use of ⟨ ơ ⟩ in Vietnamese compared with ⟨ o͘ ⟩ in POJ. POJ uses the following letters and combinations: Chinese phonology traditionally divides syllables in Chinese into three parts; firstly
5687-418: The 1970s, a POJ New Testament translation known as the "Red Cover Bible" ( Âng-phoê Sèng-keng ) was confiscated and banned by the Nationalist regime. Official moves against native languages continued into the 1980s, the Ministry of Education and the Ministry of the Interior decided in 1984 to forbid missionaries to use "local dialects" and romanizations in their work. It was not until the late 1980s, with
5808-407: The 19th and 20th centuries, Western intellectuals such as Schopenhauer , Henry David Thoreau , Max Müller , and esoteric societies such as the Theosophical Society of H.P. Blavatsky , The Buddhist Society of Great Britain and Ireland and the Buddhist Society, London spread interest in Buddhism. Writers such as Hermann Hesse and Jack Kerouac , in the West, and the hippie generation of
5929-455: The Amoy Dialect , published in 1853. The manual can therefore be regarded as the first presentation of a pre-modern POJ, a significant step onwards from Medhurst's orthography and different from today's system in only a few details. From this point on various authors adjusted some of the consonants and vowels, but the system of tone marks from Doty's Manual survives intact in modern POJ. John Van Nest Talmage has traditionally been regarded as
6050-418: The Bible , Jesus Christ is recorded as instructing the apostles to make disciples of all nations ( Matthew 28:19–20 , Mark 16:15–18 ). This verse is referred to by Christian missionaries as the Great Commission and inspires missionary work. The Christian Church expanded throughout the Roman Empire already in New Testament times and is said by tradition to have reached even further, to Persia ( Church of
6171-499: The Christian church, much of the material in the script is religious in nature, including several Bible translations, books of hymns, and guides to morality. The Tainan Church Press, established in 1884, has been printing POJ materials ever since, with periods of quiet when POJ was suppressed in the early 1940s and from around 1955 to 1987. In the period to 1955, over 2.3 million volumes of POJ books were printed, and one study in 2002 catalogued 840 different POJ texts in existence. Besides
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#17327801226996292-546: The East ) and to India ( Saint Thomas Christians ). During the Middle Ages, the Christian monasteries and missionaries such as Saint Patrick (5th century), and Adalbert of Prague (c. 956–997) propagated learning and religion beyond the European boundaries of the old Roman Empire. In 596, Pope Gregory the Great (in office 590–604) sent the Gregorian Mission (including Augustine of Canterbury ) into England. In their turn, Christians from Ireland (the Hiberno-Scottish mission ) and from Britain ( Saint Boniface (c. 675–754), and
6413-449: The Japanese court. This has traditionally been considered the official introduction of Buddhism to Japan. An account of this is given in Gangōji Garan Engi . First supported by the Soga clan, Buddhism rose over the objections of the pro-Shinto Mononobe and Buddhism entrenched itself in Japan with the conversion of Prince Shotoku Taishi . When in 710 Emperor Shomu established a new capital at Nara with urban grid plan modeled after
6534-408: The Jews was founded, which pioneered mission amongst the Jewish people; it continues today as the Church's Ministry Among Jewish People . In 1865, the China Inland Mission was founded, going well beyond British controlled areas; it continues as the OMF, working throughout East Asia . The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) has an active missionary program . Young men between
6655-437: The Netherlands, like the Order of Buddhist Contemplatives in Apeldoorn, the Thich Nhat Hanh Order of Interbeing and the International Zen Institute Noorderpoort monastery/retreat centre in Drenthe, led by Jiun Hogen Roshi. Perhaps the most widely visible Buddhist leader in the world is Tenzin Gyatso , the current Dalai Lama , who first visited the United States in 1979. As the exiled political leader of Tibet , he has become
6776-427: The Scriptures for themselves; second, that this end can never be attained by the use of the Chinese character; third, that it can be attained by the use of the alphabetic script, this Romanised Vernacular. A great boon to the promotion of POJ in Taiwan came in 1880 when James Laidlaw Maxwell , a medical missionary based in Tainan , started promoting POJ for writing the Bible, hymns, newspapers, and magazines. He donated
6897-434: The Society for Missions to Africa and the East, was founded in 1799 by evangelical Anglicans centred around the anti-slavery activist William Wilberforce . It bent its efforts to the Coptic Church , the Ethiopian Church , and India, especially Kerala ; it continues to this day. Many of the network of churches they established became the Anglican Communion . In 1809, the London Society for Promoting Christianity Amongst
7018-554: The Taiwanese tongue, these being intended for newly arrived government officials from outside Taiwan as well as local Taiwanese. The first government action against native languages came in 1953, when the use of Taiwanese or Japanese for instruction was forbidden. The next move to suppress the movement came in 1955, when the use of POJ for proselytizing was outlawed. At that point in time there were 115,000 people literate in POJ in Taiwan, Fujian, and southeast Asia. Two years later, missionaries were banned from using romanized bibles, and
7139-540: The West since the Chinese takeover of Tibet in 1959. Today Buddhists make a decent proportion of several countries in the West such as New Zealand , Australia , Canada , the Netherlands , France , and the United States . In Canada, the immense popularity and goodwill ushered in by Tibet 's Dalai Lama (who has been made honorary Canadian citizen) put Buddhism in a favourable light in the country. Many non-Asian Canadians embraced Buddhism in various traditions and some have become leaders in their respective sanghas . In
7260-406: The World" suggested that "Buddhism is perhaps on the verge of another great missionary outreach" (1987:170). A Christian missionary can be defined as "one who is to witness across cultures". The Lausanne Congress of 1974, defined the term, related to Christian mission as, "to form a viable indigenous church-planting movement". Missionaries can be found in many countries around the world. In
7381-552: The Xiamen tongue meant that the missionaries in Taiwan could begin proselytizing immediately, without the intervening time needed to write those materials. Missionary opinion was divided on whether POJ was desirable as an end in itself as a full-fledged orthography, or as a means to literacy in Chinese characters . William Campbell described POJ as a step on the road to reading and writing the characters, claiming that to promote it as an independent writing system would inflame nationalist passions in China, where characters were considered
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#17327801226997502-432: The ages of eighteen and twenty-five are encouraged to prepare themselves to serve a two-year, self-funded, full-time proselytizing mission. Young women who desire to serve as missionaries can serve starting at the age of nineteen, for one and a half years. Retired couples also have the option of serving a mission. Missionaries typically spend two weeks in a Missionary Training Center (or two to three months for those learning
7623-543: The application of consistent tone markings (influenced by contemporary linguistic studies of Sanskrit , which was becoming of more mainstream interest to Western scholars). Medhurst was convinced that accurate representation and reproduction of the tonal structure of Southern Min was vital to comprehension: Respecting these tones of the Chinese language, some difference of opinion has been obtained, and while some have considered them of first importance, others have paid them little or no intention. The author inclines decidedly to
7744-485: The capital of China, Buddhism received official support and began to flourish. Padmasambhava , The Lotus Born, was a sage guru from Oḍḍiyāna who is said to have transmitted Vajrayana Buddhism to Bhutan and Tibet and neighbouring countries in the 8th century. The use of missions, councils, and monastic institutions influenced the emergence of Christian missions and organizations, which developed similar structures in places that were formerly Buddhist missions. During
7865-509: The characters in your country are so difficult only a few people are literate. Therefore, we have striven to print books in pe̍h-ōe-jī to help you to read... don't think that if you know Chinese characters you needn't learn this script, nor should you regard it as a childish thing. Thomas Barclay, Tâi-oân-hú-siâⁿ Kàu-hōe-pò , Issue 1 Quanzhou and Zhangzhou are two major varieties of Southern Min, and in Xiamen they combined to form something "not Quan, not Zhang" – i.e. not one or
7986-433: The chief proponent of major changes in the orthography devised by Morrison and adapted by Medhurst. Through personal communication and letters and articles printed in The Chinese Repository a consensus was arrived at for the new version of POJ, although Williams' suggestions were largely not followed. The first major work to represent this new orthography was Elihu Doty 's Anglo-Chinese Manual with Romanized Colloquial in
8107-422: The citation tone and the sandhi tone to assist the learner. There is some debate as to the correct placement of tone marks in the case of diphthongs and triphthongs , particularly those which include ⟨oa⟩ and ⟨oe⟩ . Most modern writers follow six rules: A single hyphen is used to indicate a compound. What constitutes a compound is controversial, with some authors equating it to
8228-405: The classic texts of Chinese Mahayana Buddhism. Altogether, Dharmaraksa translated around 154 Hīnayāna and Mahāyāna sutras , representing most of the important texts of Buddhism available in the Western Regions. His proselytizing is said to have converted many to Buddhism in China, and made Chang'an , present-day Xi'an , a major center of Buddhism. Buddhism expanded rapidly, especially among
8349-557: The common people, and by 381 most of the people of northwest China were Buddhist. Winning converts also among the rulers and scholars, by the end of the Tang dynasty Buddhism was found everywhere in China. Marananta brought Buddhism to the Korean Peninsula in the 4th century. Seong of Baekje , known as a great patron of Buddhism in Korea , built many temples and welcomed priests bringing Buddhist texts directly from India. In 528, Baekje officially adopted Buddhism as its state religion. He sent tribute missions to Liang in 534 and 541, on
8470-425: The concept, Father Price in his magazine Truth , and Father Walsh in the pages of A Field Afar , an early incarnation of Maryknoll Magazine . Winning the approval of the American hierarchy, the two priests traveled to Rome in June 1911 to receive final approval from Pope Pius X for the formation of the Catholic Foreign Mission Society of America, now better known as the Maryknoll Fathers and Brothers. Hinduism
8591-439: The conventions laid down by Medhurst and Doty, pe̍h-ōe-jī evolved and eventually settled into its current form. Ernest Tipson 's 1934 pocket dictionary was the first reference work to reflect this modern spelling. Between Medhurst's dictionary of 1832 and the standardization of POJ in Tipson's time, there were a number of works published, which can be used to chart the change over time of pe̍h-ōe-jī : Competition for POJ
8712-426: The cool Asian landmass and prevailing winds in winter. As a result, the coldest month just falls short of the 18 °C (64 °F) isotherm. In summer, Magong receives monsoonal rainfall with moderated but hot temperatures. While afternoons most often stay in the low 30's Celsius, nights remain above 25 °C (77 °F) for several months. It is drier than many mainland areas of Taiwan, although it still frequently
8833-592: The cultural nuances of those they are going to and those they are working with in the effort. Over the years, as indigenous churches have matured, the church of the Global South (Africa, Asia, and Latin America) has become the driving force in missions. Korean and African missionaries can now be found all over the world. These missionaries represent a major shift in church history where the nations they came from were not historically Christian. Another major shift in
8954-532: The early 1990s, the French Buddhist Union (UBF, founded in 1986) estimated that there are 600,000 to 650,000 Buddhists in France, with 150,000 French converts among them. In 1999, sociologist Frédéric Lenoir estimated there are 10,000 converts and up to five million "sympathizers", although other researchers have questioned these numbers. Taisen Deshimaru was a Japanese Zen Buddhist who founded numerous zendos in France. Thich Nhat Hanh ,
9075-758: The early 19th century, China was closed to Christian missionaries , who instead proselytized to overseas Chinese communities in South East Asia . The earliest origins of the system are found in a small vocabulary first printed in 1820 by Walter Henry Medhurst , who went on to publish the Dictionary of the Hok-këèn Dialect of the Chinese Language, According to the Reading and Colloquial Idioms in 1832. This dictionary represents
9196-468: The expansion of the empire came through conquest such as that of North Africa and later Iberia ( Al-Andalus ). The Islamic conquest of Persia put an end to the Sassanid Empire and spread the reach of Islam to as far east as Khorasan , which would later become the cradle of Islamic civilization during the Islamic Golden Age (622–1258 CE) and a stepping-stone towards the introduction of Islam to
9317-470: The field, usually after a sojourn in Xiamen to acquire the rudiments of the language. Khó-sioh lín pún-kok ê jī chin oh, chió chió lâng khòaⁿ ē hiáu-tit. Só͘-í góan ū siat pa̍t-mih ê hoat-tō͘, ēng pe̍h-ōe-jī lâi ìn-chheh, hō͘ lín chèng-lâng khòaⁿ khah khòai bat... Lâng m̄-thang phah-sǹg in-ūi i bat Khóng-chú-jī só͘-í m̄-bián o̍h chit-hō ê jī; iā m̄-thang khòaⁿ-khin i, kóng sī gín-á só͘-tha̍k--ê. Because
9438-594: The first major reference work in POJ, although the romanization within was quite different from the modern system, and has been dubbed Early Church Romanization by one scholar of the subject. Medhurst, who was stationed in Malacca , was influenced by Robert Morrison's romanization of Mandarin Chinese , but had to innovate in several areas to reflect major differences between Mandarin and Southern Min. Several important developments occurred in Medhurst's work, especially
9559-641: The focus for many years in the later 20th century was on reaching every "people group" with Christianity by 2000. Bill Bright's leadership with Campus Crusade, the Southern Baptist International Mission Board , The Joshua Project, and others brought about the need to know who these " unreached people groups " are and how those wanting to tell about the Christian God and share a Christian Bible could reach them. The focus for these organizations transitioned from
9680-553: The form (initial) + (medial vowel) + nucleus + (stop) + tone , where items in parentheses indicate optional components. The initials are: Vowels: Coda endings: POJ has a limited amount of legitimate syllables, although sources disagree on some particular instances of these syllables. The following table contains all the licit spellings of POJ syllables, based on a number of sources: In standard Amoy or Taiwanese Hokkien there are seven distinct tones , which by convention are numbered 1–8, with number 6 omitted (tone 6 used to be
9801-411: The form of modern missionary work takes shape in the conflation of spiritual with contemporary military metaphors and practices. Missionary work as spiritual warfare (Ephesians, Chapter 6) weapons of a spiritual sense, is the primary concept in a long-standing relationship between Christian missions and militarization. Though when the Church establishes a governance, usually this results in a formation of
9922-537: The former opinion; having found, from uniform experience, that without strict attention to tones, it is impossible for a person to make himself understood in Hok-këèn . The system expounded by Medhurst influenced later dictionary compilers with regard to tonal notation and initials, but both his complicated vowel system and his emphasis on the literary register of Southern Min were dropped by later writers. Following on from Medhurst's work, Samuel Wells Williams became
10043-527: The founder of POJ among the community which uses the orthography, although it now seems that he was an early promoter of the system, rather than its inventor. In 1842 the Treaty of Nanking was concluded, which included among its provisions the creation of treaty ports in which Christian missionaries would be free to preach. Xiamen (then known as Amoy) was one of these treaty ports, and British, Canadian and American missionaries moved in to start preaching to
10164-610: The group was taken over by Erik Bruijn, who is still in charge of a flourishing community. The largest Zen group now is the Kanzeon Sangha, led by Nico Tydeman under the supervision of the American Zen master Dennis Genpo Merzel , Roshi, a former student of Maezumi Roshi in Los Angeles. This group has a relatively large centre where a teacher and some students live permanently. Many other groups are also represented in
10285-648: The increasing militarization of Japan and the Kōminka movement encouraging Taiwanese people to " Japanize ", there were a raft of measures taken against native languages, including Taiwanese. While these moves resulted in a suppression of POJ, they were "a logical consequence of increasing the amount of education in Japanese, rather than an explicit attempt to ban a particular Taiwanese orthography in favor of Taiwanese kana ". The Second Sino-Japanese War beginning in 1937 brought stricter measures into force, and along with
10406-656: The last 50 years through the actions of the Ramakrishna Mission , ISKCON , Arya Samaj and other missionary organizations as well as due to the visits and guidance of Indian gurus such as Guru Maharaj, Sai Baba , and Rajneesh . The International Society for Krishna Consciousness has a presence in New Zealand, running temples in Auckland, Hamilton, Wellington and Christchurch. Paramahansa Yogananda , an Indian yogi and guru , introduced many westerners to
10527-461: The late 1960s and early 1970s led to a re-discovery of Buddhism. During the 20th and 21st centuries Buddhism has again been propagated by missionaries into the West such as Ananda Metteyya ( Theravada Buddhism ), Suzuki Daisetsu Teitarō ( Zen Buddhism ), the Dalai Lama and monks including Lama Surya Das (Tibetan Buddhism). Tibetan Buddhism has been significantly active and successful in
10648-479: The lifting of martial law, that POJ slowly regained momentum under the influence of the native language movement. With the ending of martial law in 1987, the restrictions on "local languages" were quietly lifted, resulting in growing interest in Taiwanese writing during the 1990s. For the first time since the 1950s, Taiwanese language and literature was discussed and debated openly in newspapers and journals. There
10769-586: The local inhabitants. These missionaries, housed in the cantonment of Gulangyu , created reference works and religious tracts, including a bible translation . Naturally, they based the pronunciation of their romanization on the speech of Xiamen, which became the de facto standard when they eventually moved into other areas of the Hokkien Sprachraum , most notably Taiwan. The 1858 Treaty of Tianjin officially opened Taiwan to western missionaries, and missionary societies were quick to send men to work in
10890-591: The missionary efforts of the two 9th-century saints Cyril and Methodius were largely conducted in relation to the West rather than the East, though the field of activity was central Europe. The Eastern Orthodox Church , under the Orthodox Church of Constantinople undertook vigorous missionary work under the Roman Empire and its successor the Byzantine Empire . This had lasting effects and in some sense
11011-474: The native language movements after the end of martial law, took a "divide and conquer" approach by promoting Taiwanese Language Phonetic Alphabet (TLPA), an alternative to POJ, which was at the time the choice of the majority within the nativization movement. Native language education has remained a fiercely debated topic in Taiwan into the 21st century and is the subject of much political wrangling. The current system of pe̍h-ōe-jī has been stable since
11132-529: The necessary characters were present to write regular POJ without the need for workarounds. However, even after the addition of these characters, there are still relatively few fonts which are able to properly render the script, including the combining characters. Missionary In the Latin translation of the Bible , Jesus Christ says the word when he sends the disciples into areas and commands them to preach
11253-427: The neighboring island of Ceylon were converted. Then, in later periods, Buddhism spread eastward and southeastward to the present lands of Burma , Thailand , Laos , Cambodia , Vietnam , and Indonesia . Buddhism was spread among the Turkic people during the 2nd and 3rd centuries BCE into modern-day Pakistan, Kashmir , Afghanistan , eastern and coastal Iran , Uzbekistan , Turkmenistan , and Tajikistan . It
11374-488: The other, but rather a fusion, which became known as Amoy Dialect or Amoy Chinese . In Taiwan, with its mixture of migrants from both Quanzhou and Zhangzhou, the linguistic situation was similar; although the resulting blend in the southern city of Tainan differed from the Xiamen blend, it was close enough that the missionaries could ignore the differences and import their system wholesale. The fact that religious tracts, dictionaries, and teaching guides already existed in
11495-413: The outlawing of romanized Taiwanese, various publications were prohibited and Confucian-style shobō ( Chinese : 書房 ; pinyin : shūfáng ; Pe̍h-ōe-jī : su-pâng ) – private schools which taught Classical Chinese with literary Southern Min pronunciation – were closed down in 1939. The Japanese authorities came to perceive POJ as an obstacle to Japanization and also suspected that POJ
11616-665: The preservation of Southern Min vocabulary since the late 19th century. On October 14, 2006, the Ministry of Education in Taiwan announced the Taiwanese Romanization System or Tâi-lô based on POJ as the standard spelling system for Southern Min. The name pe̍h-ōe-jī ( Chinese : 白話字 ; pinyin : Báihuà zì ) means "vernacular writing", written characters representing everyday spoken language. The name vernacular writing could be applied to many kinds of writing, romanized and character-based, but
11737-463: The purpose of the creation of POJ as being pedagogical in nature, closely allied to educating Christian converts . The first people to use a romanized script to write Southern Min were Spanish missionaries in Manila in the 16th century. However, it was used mainly as a teaching aid for Spanish learners of Southern Min, and seems not to have had any influence on the development of pe̍h-ōe-jī . In
11858-529: The same time, missionaries such as Francis Xavier (1506–1552) as well as other Jesuits , Augustinians, Franciscans, and Dominicans reached Asia and the Far East , and the Portuguese sent missions into Africa. Emblematic in many respects is Matteo Ricci 's Jesuit mission to China from 1582, which was totally peaceful and non-violent. These missionary movements should be distinguished from others, such as
11979-725: The second hyphen. In addition to the standard syllables detailed above, there are several regional variations of Hokkien which can be represented with non-standard or semi-standard spellings. In the Zhangzhou -type varieties, spoken in Zhangzhou , parts of Taiwan (particularly the northeastern coast around Yilan City ), and parts of Malaysia (particularly in Penang ), there is a final ⟨-uiⁿ⟩ , for example in "egg" ⟨nūi⟩ and "cooked rice" ⟨pūiⁿ⟩ , which has merged with ⟨-ng⟩ in mainstream Taiwanese. Zhangzhou-type varieties may also have
12100-494: The second occasion requesting artisans as well as various Buddhist works and a teacher. According to Chinese records, all these requests were granted. A subsequent mission was sent in 549, only to find the Liang capital in the hands of the rebel Hou Jing , who threw them in prison for lamenting the fall of the capital. He is credited with having sent a mission in 538 to Japan that brought an image of Shakyamuni and several sutras to
12221-747: The slaves and together with Native Americans , including the Lenape and Cherokee Indian tribes. Today, the work in the former mission provinces of the worldwide Moravian Church is carried on by native workers. The fastest-growing area of the work is in Tanzania in Eastern Africa. The Moravian work in South Africa inspired William Carey and the founders of the British Baptist missions. As of 2014 , seven of every ten Moravians live in
12342-536: The spread of the romanization. In 1964, use of Taiwanese in schools or official settings was forbidden, and transgression in schools was punished with beatings, fines and humiliation. The Taiwan Church News (printed in POJ) was banned in 1969, and only allowed to return a year later when the publishers agreed to print it in Chinese characters . In the 1970s, the Nationalist government in Taiwan completely prohibited
12463-401: The subject lands and propagated Orthodoxy, including through Belarus , Latvia , Moldova , Finland , Estonia , Ukraine , and China . The Russian St. Nicholas of Japan (1836–1912) took Eastern Orthodoxy to Japan in the 19th century. The Russian Orthodox Church also sent missionaries to Alaska beginning in the 18th century, including Saint Herman of Alaska (died 1836), to minister to
12584-471: The teachings of meditation and Kriya Yoga through his book, Autobiography of a Yogi . Swami Vivekananda , the founder of the Ramakrishna Mission is one of the greatest Hindu missionaries to the West. Ānanda Mārga , organizationally known as Ānanda Mārga Pracaraka Samgha (AMPS), meaning the samgha (organization) for the propagation of the marga (path) of ananda (bliss),
12705-610: The term pe̍h-ōe-jī is commonly restricted to the Southern Min romanization system developed by Presbyterian missionaries in the 19th century. The missionaries who invented and refined the system used, instead of the name pe̍h-ōe-jī , various other terms, such as "Romanized Amoy Vernacular" and "Romanized Amoy Colloquial." The origins of the system and its extensive use in the Christian community have led to it being known by some modern writers as "Church Romanization" ( 教會羅馬字 ; Kàu-hōe Lô-má-jī ; Jiàohuì Luōmǎzì ) and
12826-419: The tone depending on the position of the syllable in any given sentence or utterance. However, like pinyin for Mandarin Chinese , POJ always marks the citation tone (i.e. the original, pre-sandhi tone) rather than the tone which is actually spoken. This means that when reading aloud the reader must adjust the tone markings on the page to account for sandhi. Some textbooks for learners of Southern Min mark both
12947-620: The use of pe̍h-ōe-jī was suppressed and Taiwanese kana encouraged; it faced further suppression during the Kuomintang martial law period (1947–1987). In Fujian, use declined after the establishment of the People's Republic of China (1949) and by the early 21st century the system was not in general use there. However, Taiwanese Christians , non-native learners of Southern Min, and native-speaker enthusiasts in Taiwan are among those that continue to use pe̍h-ōe-jī . Full computer support
13068-399: The use of "native languages" (i.e. Taiwanese Hokkien, Hakka, and the non-Sinitic Formosan languages ) in church work became illegal. The ban on POJ bibles was overturned in 1959, but churches were "encouraged" to use character bibles instead. Government activities against POJ intensified in the late 1960s and early 1970s, when several publications were banned or seized in an effort to prevent
13189-583: The use of POJ, causing it to decline. In 1974, the Government Information Office banned A Dictionary of Southern Min , with a government official saying: "We have no objection to the dictionary being used by foreigners. They could use it in mimeographed form. But we don't want it published as a book and sold publicly because of the Romanization it contains. Chinese should not be learning Chinese through Romanization." Also in
13310-638: The village – it had fewer than thirty houses then – to send out "messengers" to the slaves in the West Indies and to the Moravian missions in Greenland . Within thirty years, Moravian missionaries had become active on every continent, and this at a time when there were fewer than three hundred people in Herrnhut. They are famous for their selfless work, living as slaves among
13431-582: The vowel / ɛ /, written as ⟨ɛ⟩ or ⟨e͘ ⟩ (with a dot above right, by analogy with ⟨o͘ ⟩ ), which has merged with ⟨e⟩ in Taiwanese. Goân-khí-thâu Siōng-tè chhòng-chō thiⁿ kap tōe. Tōe sī khang-khang hūn-tūn; chhim-ian ê bin-chiūⁿ o͘-àm; Siōng-tè ê Sîn ūn-tōng tī chúi-bīn. Siōng-tè kóng, Tio̍h ū kng, chiū ū kng. Siōng-tè khòaⁿ kng, sī hó; Siōng-tè chiong kng àm pun-khui. Siōng-tè kiò hit ê kng chòe Ji̍t, kiò àm chòe Mî. Ū ê-hng ū chá-khí sī thâu chi̍t-ji̍t. Genesis 1:1–5 Due to POJ's origins in
13552-763: The work they have chosen among a new culture and people. One of the first large-scale missionary endeavors of the British colonial age was the Baptist Missionary Society , founded in 1792 as the Particular Baptist Society for the Propagation of the Gospel Amongst the Heathen. The London Missionary Society was an evangelical organisation, bringing together from its inception both Anglicans and Nonconformists ; it
13673-460: The writer and the reader to have the correct custom font installed. Another solution was to replace troublesome characters with near equivalents, for example substituting ⟨ä⟩ for ⟨ā⟩ or using a standard ⟨o⟩ followed by an interpunct to represent ⟨ o͘ ⟩ . With the introduction into Unicode 4.1.0 of the combining character U+0358 ◌͘ COMBINING DOT ABOVE RIGHT in 2004, all
13794-601: Was achieved in 2004 with the release of Unicode 4.1.0, and POJ is now implemented in many fonts , input methods , and is used in extensive online dictionaries. Versions of pe̍h-ōe-jī have been devised for other Southern Chinese varieties , including Hakka and Teochew Southern Min . Other related scripts include Pha̍k-oa-chhi for Gan , Pha̍k-fa-sṳ for Hakka , Bǽh-oe-tu for Hainanese , Bàng-uâ-cê for Fuzhou , Pe̍h-ūe-jī for Teochew , Gṳ̿ing-nǎing Lô̤-mǎ-cī for Northern Min , and Hing-hua̍ báⁿ-uā-ci̍ for Pu-Xian Min . In 2006,
13915-591: Was also support from the then opposition party, the Democratic Progressive Party , for writing in the language. From a total of 26 documented orthographies for Taiwanese in 1987 (including defunct systems), there were a further 38 invented from 1987 to 1999, including 30 different romanizations, six adaptations of bopomofo and two hangul -like systems. Some commentators believe that the Kuomintang, while steering clear of outright banning of
14036-556: Was also taken into China brought by Kasyapa Matanga in the 2nd century CE , Lokaksema and An Shigao translated Buddhist sutras into Chinese. Dharmarakṣa was one of the greatest translators of Mahayana Buddhist scriptures into Chinese. Dharmaraksa came to the Chinese capital of Luoyang in 266 CE, where he made the first known translations of the Lotus Sutra and the Dasabhumika Sutra , which were to become some of
14157-502: Was being used to hide "concealed codes and secret revolutionary messages". In the climate of the ongoing war the government banned the Taiwan Church News in 1942 as it was written in POJ. Initially the Kuomintang government in Taiwan had a liberal attitude towards "local dialects" (i.e. non-Mandarin varieties of Chinese). The National Languages Committee produced booklets outlining versions of Zhuyin fuhao for writing
14278-561: Was changed to Makō ( 馬公 ) during Japanese rule in 1920, and was the center of the Mako Guard District . After 1945, the Wade-Giles romanization Makung was used. Taiwan officially adopted Tongyong Pinyin in 2002 and Hanyu Pinyin in 2009, leading to the romanization Magong . The island's Mazu temple was erected in the late 16th or early 17th century. The city Magong'ao began to grow around 1887, during
14399-692: Was founded in England in 1795 with missions in Africa and the islands of the South Pacific. The Colonial Missionary Society was created in 1836, and directed its efforts towards promoting Congregationalist forms of Christianity among "British or other European settlers" rather than indigenous peoples. Both of these merged in 1966, and the resultant organisation is now known as the Council for World Mission . The Church Mission Society , first known as
14520-463: Was introduced during the Japanese era in Taiwan (1895–1945) in the form of Taiwanese kana , a system designed as a teaching aid and pronunciation guide, rather than an independent orthography like POJ. During the Japanese rule period, the Japanese government began suppressing POJ, banning classes, and forcing the cessation of publications like the Taiwan Church News . From the 1930s onwards, with
14641-590: Was introduced into Java by travellers from India in ancient times. Several centuries ago, many Hindus left Java for Bali rather than convert to Islam . Hinduism has survived in Bali ever since. Dang Hyang Nirartha was responsible for facilitating a refashioning of Balinese Hinduism. He was an important promoter of the idea of moksha in Indonesia. He founded the Shaivite priesthood that is now ubiquitous in Bali, and
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