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102-539: Wade–Giles ( / ˌ w eɪ d ˈ dʒ aɪ l z / WAYD JYLZE ) is a romanization system for Mandarin Chinese . It developed from the system produced by Thomas Francis Wade during the mid-19th century, and was given completed form with Herbert Giles 's A Chinese–English Dictionary (1892). The romanization systems in common use until the late 19th century were based on the Nanjing dialect , but Wade–Giles

204-541: A -p , -t , or -k stop consonant . Despite the historical fact that the "entering" tone had already ceased to exist in 19th-century Beijing pronunciation, Norman notes that early Chinese–English dictionaries were "much concerned with including it". Many early dictionaries of Mandarin Chinese in Western languages were explicitly concerned not with the Beijing pronunciation of their time, but instead with Southern Mandarin,

306-505: A koiné widely used up to the second half of the 19th century. Dictionary pages are formatted in three columns, each split between the head entry character, number, and pronunciations on the left, and the translation equivalents ("definitions"), cross references, and subentries of terms on the right. Giles attempts to arrange the subentry example words and phrases according to the order of the translation equivalents. The dictionary's approximately "hundred thousand examples" diversely range from

408-615: A 46-page front matter (9-page Preface and 32-page Philological Essay) and the 1415-page dictionary, printed in triple columns, beginning with 60 pages of tables. The price was $ 35. For the subsequent two decades, Giles diligently worked "to correct mistakes, cut out duplicates and unnecessary matter, prepare revised Tables, and add a very large number of new phrases, taken from my reading in modern as well as in ancient literature". In 1903 Lord Lansdowne , then Foreign Secretary, asked Sir Ernest Satow , then Minister in Peking, by letter whether

510-512: A British consular officer in late Qing dynasty China until from 1867 to 1892. After his return to England, he was appointed the second professor of Chinese at the University of Cambridge , in succession to Thomas Francis Wade. They are renowned for developing what was later called the Wade–Giles romanization system of Chinese, which Giles' A Chinese–English Dictionary firmly established as

612-566: A curator at the British Museum. Taiwan used Wade–Giles for decades as the de facto standard, co-existing with several official romanizations in succession, namely, Gwoyeu Romatzyh (1928), Mandarin Phonetic Symbols II (1986), and Tongyong Pinyin (2000). The Kuomintang (KMT) has previously promoted pinyin with Ma Ying-jeou 's successful presidential bid in 2008 and in a number of cities with Kuomintang mayors.However,

714-585: A euphemism for coffins, death, etc."); then "Read chang . Old; senior. To excel; to increase; to grow." with 38 ("長妾 the senior concubine"); and then "Read chang . with 4 terms (e.g., 無長物 there is nothing over."). The alternate entry chang 長 [no tone] (408) says " See 450." Giles' A Chinese–English Dictionary has received both acclaim and censure. An early critic, the Chinese Malayan scholar Gu Hongming (1857–1928) criticized Giles' lack of overall insight into Chinese literature , and said It

816-714: A fly-sheet at the end—without acknowledgement of Giles' corrections. Herbert Giles continued working on his Chinese–English dictionary for 15 years until 1889 when the Foreign Office granted his request to be stationed as Consul at Ningpo , where the workload was light and he could prepare the manuscript for press. The Shanghai publishers Kelly & Walsh printed the dictionary in 4 fascicules from 1891 to 1892. The first edition A Chinese–English Dictionary (1892), which Bernard Quaritch also published in London, had 2 royal quarto (250 by 320 mm.) volumes comprising

918-543: A good chance of being understood": the (1872) Chinese without a Teacher and (1877) Handbook of the Swatow Dialect: With a Vocabulary for Teochew dialect . His wide-ranging translations cover many genres of Chinese literature . Probably the best known are (1880, 1916) Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio , (1884, 1922) Gems of Chinese Literature , and (1889, 1926) Chuang Tzŭ, Mystic, Moralist, and Social Reformer . Giles' other writings include some of

1020-712: A group of Chinese linguists, including Zhou Youguang , in the 1950s. Other well-known systems include Wade–Giles (Beijing Mandarin) and Yale romanization ( Beijing Mandarin and Cantonese ). There are many uses for Chinese romanization. Most broadly, it is used to provide a useful way for foreigners who are not skilled at recognizing Chinese script to read and recognize Chinese. It can also be helpful for clarifying pronunciation among Chinese speakers who speak mutually unintelligible Chinese dialects. Romanization facilitates entering characters on standard keyboards such as QWERTY . Chinese dictionaries have complex and competing sorting rules for characters: romanization systems simplify

1122-617: A lucky day; the conjunction of the sun and moon; in Taoist language, the state of unconscious innocence, as of an unborn babe"), and "Read tao . To lead; see No. 10,781" with 6 examples. The second edition gives 255 examples (for instance, adding "一達謂之道 that which passes through is called tao ", quoting the Shuowen Jiezi dictionary definition of dào ) and "Read tao . To lead; see 10,781" and 6 examples. The following tao 導 (10,781) "To lead; to guide" entry gives 7 examples in

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1224-480: A month, and with a little pains he may do it correctly with practice. The consequence is that a higher degree of comfort and happiness is reached by many who could never have risen above the level of the serf and the slave without this intellectual lever. The poor may read the gospel as well as hear it preached, and the cottage library becomes a never-failing treasury of profit to the labouring classes." A Chinese%E2%80%93English Dictionary Herbert Giles served as

1326-593: A more regular spelling of Mandarin phonemes than other systems of its day. This system was used for a long time, because it was used for phrase-books and part of the Yale system of teaching Chinese. The Yale system taught Mandarin using spoken, colloquial Chinese patterns. The Yale system of Mandarin has since been superseded by the Chinese Hanyu Pinyin system. Eastward spread of Western learning The first modern indigenous Chinese romanization system,

1428-592: A nap on one side, known as 氆氇 . It comes from Tibet, and is used for making the winter caps of Lamas. Known to the Mongols as cheng-mé and chalma ." Second, Giles's dictionary has six tables, in addition to the requisite table of the 214 Kangxi Radicals (essential for using a radical-and-stroke index ) included by Morrison, Medhurst, and Williams. The tables are for Insignia of Official Rank , The Family Names , The Chinese Dynasties , Topographical , The Calendar , and Miscellaneous ( Chinese numerals ). Another table

1530-675: A new edition should be purchased for the British Peking legation and consulates, and whether publication should be funded from the Civil List Fund. After consulting with Giles, Satow supported the new publication in a letter dated May 29, 1903, stating "I understand from the author that the new edition is not a mere reproduction of the first. Mistakes have been corrected, further meanings have been added to many characters, frequent cross-references have been introduced, and no fewer than ten thousand new phrases have been distributed over

1632-595: A plan had already ceased together with the end of Latinxua Sinwenz movement. Tongyong Pinyin is a system with some usage in Taiwan. It was introduced by the linguist Yu Bor-chuan in 1998 and was the official romanization of Mandarin in Taiwan between 2002 and 2008. The system was developed in part to make the Taiwanese identity more distinct from China's, the latter of which uses Hanyu Pinyin. Whether to use this system

1734-477: A practical book of reference." Despite these deficiencies, Aylers says Giles' dictionary "held the field for many decades and lives on in successors", such as Robert Mathews ' (1931) A Chinese–English Dictionary Compiled for the China Inland Mission , many of whose definitions "are taken, without acknowledgment, from Giles". Today the dictionary is most often cited as the locus classicus of

1836-511: A syllable is not the first in a word, its first letter is not capitalized , even if it is part of a proper noun . The use of apostrophe-like characters, hyphens, and capitalization is frequently not observed in place names and personal names. For example, the majority of overseas Taiwanese people write their given names like "Tai Lun" or "Tai-Lun", whereas the Wade–Giles is actually "Tai-lun". (See also Chinese names .) Note: In Hànyǔ Pīnyīn,

1938-433: A syllable on its own, Wade–Giles writes ê or o depending on the character. In all other circumstances, it writes ê . What is pronounced in Peking dialect as [wo] is usually written as o in Wade–Giles, except for wo , shuo (e.g. "說" shuo ) and the three syllables of kuo , kʻuo , and huo (as in 過, 霍, etc.), which contrast with ko , kʻo , and ho that correspond to Pīnyīn ge , ke , and he . This

2040-400: A syllable on its own, it is written ê or o depending on the character. Wade–Giles writes [-wo] as -uo after kʻ , k , h and sh , otherwise as -o : kʻuo , kuo , huo , shuo , bo , tso . After chʻ , it is written chʻo or chʻuo depending on the character. For -ih and -ŭ , see below . Giles's A Chinese–English Dictionary also includes

2142-479: A tradition that originated with Morrison's work. Each of their dictionaries made contributions and improvements to the art of Chinese–English dictionary compilation. Giles' preface to the second edition gives a "Comparative Table of Phrases under Various Characters, Taken as Specimens, to illustrate the Progress of Chinese–English Lexicography", for example: Herbert Giles worked for 18 years to compile and publish

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2244-420: Is Vernon Nash's (1936) Trindex: an Index to Three Dictionaries or San zidian yinde 三字典引得, for A Chinese–English Dictionary , (1711) Peiwen Yunfu rime dictionary , and (1716) Kangxi Dictionary . The dictionary is alphabetically collated by Beijing Mandarin pronunciation romanized in the Wade–Giles system, a , ai , an , ang , etc. Within each syllabic pronunciation section, characters sharing

2346-403: Is also necessary to indicate tones in Chinese romanization. Tones distinguish the definition of all morphemes in Chinese, and the definition of a word is often ambiguous in the absence of tones. Certain systems such as Wade–Giles indicate tone with a number following the syllable: ma , ma , ma , ma . Others, like Pinyin, indicate the tone with diacritics : mā , má , mǎ , mà . Still,

2448-591: Is based on Nanjing pronunciation. The French administered the post office at this time. The system resembles traditional romanizations used in France. Many of these traditional spellings were created by French missionaries in the 17th and 18th centuries when Nanjing dialect was China's standard. Postal romanization was used only for place names. The Yale romanization system was created at Yale University during World War II to facilitate communication between American military personnel and their Chinese counterparts. It uses

2550-520: Is because characters like 羅, 多, etc. (Wade–Giles: lo , to ; Pīnyīn: luó , duō ) did not originally carry the medial [w] . Peking dialect does not have phonemic contrast between o and -uo / wo (except in interjections when used alone) and a medial [w] is usually inserted in front of -o to form [wo] . Zhùyīn and Pīnyīn write [wo] as ㄛ -o after ㄅ b , ㄆ p , ㄇ m and ㄈ f , and as ㄨㄛ -uo after all other initials. Tones are indicated in Wade–Giles using superscript numbers (1–4) placed after

2652-423: Is considered a political issue in Taiwan. "The Chinese and Japanese repository" stated that romanization would standardize the different pronunciations Chinese often had for one word, which was common for all mostly unwritten languages. Contributor Rev James Summers wrote, in 1863: "Those who know anything of the rude and unwritten languages of the other parts of the world will have no difficulty in imagining

2754-661: Is decidedly of less value than even the old dictionary of Dr. Williams. Arthur C. Moule, son of the Anglican missionary George Moule , wrote a critical review of Giles' dictionary, for instance, the 否 entry (3596) gives fou "Not; on the contrary; negative" and p'i "Bad; wicked. One of the diagrams." "Diagram" refers to the Yijing Hexagram 12 pǐ 否 "Obstruction". Moule says fou , p'i , or pei [ sic ] has three meanings" "not", "to obstruct; an obstacle", and "evil", but Giles accidentally omitted

2856-722: Is found in the dictionary front matter, called the Table of Sounds or Table of Sounds for Dialects. Giles was the first Chinese–English lexicographer to systematically include homographs "a character with two or more readings" (which he calls "duplicate characters"). For instance, the character 長 can be pronounced cháng "long; lasting", zhǎng "grow up; increase", or zhàng "plenty; surplus": Wade–Giles ch'ang , chang and chang , respectively. The main entry ch'ang 長 (450) first has "Long, of time or space, as opposed to 短 short. Excelling; advantageous; profitable." with 59 words and phrases (e.g., "長生 long life; immortality. Used as

2958-618: Is of course intended to supersede my own work. Well, dictionaries are like dogs, and have their day; and I should be the last person to whine over the appearance of the dictionary of the future, which it is to be hoped will come in good time, and will help to an easier acquisition of "the glorious language." Morrison and Medhurst, both Englishmen, between them held the blue ribbon of Chinese lexicography from 1816 to 1874; then it passed to Wells Williams, who held it for America until 1892, when I think I may claim to have recaptured it for my own country, and to have held it now for thirty-three years. In

3060-427: Is only natural that, aside from serving the immediate auxiliary role of sound annotation, etc., their scheme was designed in such a way that it would be capable of serving all functions expected of a bona fide writing system, and supersede [the written Chinese] characters in due course. Despite the fact that it was created to eventually replace Chinese characters, and that it was constructed by linguists, Gwoyeu Romatzyh

3162-459: Is reflected in the precise Fanqie system and is the core principle of all modern systems. While the Fanqie system was ideal for indicating the conventional pronunciation of single, isolated characters in written Classical Chinese literature, it was unworkable for the pronunciation of essentially polysyllabic, colloquial spoken Chinese dialects, such as Mandarin. Aside from syllable structure, it

Wade–Giles - Misplaced Pages Continue

3264-557: Is similar to Wade–Giles. POJ, Legge romanization , Simplified Wade , and EFEO Chinese transcription use the letter ⟨h⟩ instead of an apostrophe-like character to indicate aspiration. (This is similar to the obsolete IPA convention before the revisions of the 1970s ). The convention of an apostrophe-like character or ⟨h⟩ to denote aspiration is also found in romanizations of other Asian languages, such as McCune–Reischauer for Korean and ISO 11940 for Thai . People unfamiliar with Wade–Giles often ignore

3366-582: Is the use of the Latin alphabet to transliterate Chinese . Chinese uses a logographic script and its characters do not represent phonemes directly. There have been many systems using Roman characters to represent Chinese throughout history. Linguist Daniel Kane wrote, "It used to be said that sinologists had to be like musicians, who might compose in one key and readily transcribe into other keys." The dominant international standard for Standard Mandarin since about 1982 has been Hanyu Pinyin , invented by

3468-474: Is this want of philosophical insight in Dr. Giles which makes him so helpless in the arrangement of his materials in his books. Take for instance his great dictionary. It is in no sense a dictionary at all. It is merely a collection of Chinese phrases and sentences, translated by Dr. Giles without any attempt at selection, arrangement, order or method. As a dictionary for the purposes of the scholar, Dr. Giles' dictionary

3570-588: The Peiwen Yunfu rime dictionary ) and fanqie , nine regional varieties of Chinese (commonly mistaken for mutually-understandable " dialects "), and the Japanese, Vietnamese, and Korean languages. Giles' dictionary went far beyond Williams', which glosses pronunciations in Middle Chinese and four regional varieties: Shantou , Amoy , Fuzhou , and Shanghai Chinese. Giles' dictionary abbreviates

3672-583: The Book of Odes . The book-language fades imperceptibly into the colloquial". A third lexicographical shortcoming is the random arrangement of subentries, "requiring the reader to con up and down the columns". As a general rule, Giles explains, "the meanings found in the Classics stand first, and more modern and colloquial meanings follow. But to this rule there are some striking exceptions, purposely introduced, so as not to impair any value this Dictionary may have as

3774-567: The Jesuit Archives in Rome, and not re-discovered until 1934. The dictionary was finally published in 2001. During the winter of 1598, Ricci, with the help of his Jesuit colleague Lazzaro Cattaneo (1560–1640), compiled a Chinese–Portuguese dictionary as well, in which tones of the romanized Chinese syllables were indicated with diacritical marks. This work has also been lost but not rediscovered. Cattaneo's system, with its accounting for

3876-544: The Kangxi Dictionary and modern vernacular colloquialisms that Giles "laboriously collected from books read and conversations held during a long stretch of years." Second, Giles failed to indicate stylistic level, which he justifies on the "(somewhat specious) grounds" that, "No division of phraseology into classical and colloquial has been made, for the simple reason that no real line of demarcation exists. Expressions are used in ordinary conversation which occur in

3978-547: The Pinyin ( Chinese : 汉语拼音 ; pinyin : hànyǔ pīnyīn ; lit. 'Chinese Phonetic Writing') system was a complex process involving decisions on many difficult issues, such as: Despite the fact that the "Draft Scheme for a Chinese Phonetic Alphabet" published in "People's China" on 16 March 1956 contained certain unusual and peculiar characters, the Committee for Research into Language Reform soon reverted to

4080-613: The University of Cambridge . Wade published Yü-yen Tzŭ-erh Chi ( 語言自邇集 ; 语言自迩集 ) in 1867, the first textbook on the Beijing dialect of Mandarin in English, which became the basis for the system later known as Wade–Giles. The system, designed to transcribe Chinese terms for Chinese specialists, was further refined in 1892 by Herbert Giles (in A Chinese–English Dictionary ), a British diplomat in China, and his son Lionel Giles ,

4182-499: The Wade–Giles romanisation system, for which the name of Giles is widely known even to non-specialists. Apart from this, its practical use is mainly as a repository of late Ch'ing bureaucratic phraseology, though it is replete with fascinating nuggets of information and is a wonderful book for browsing. The American sinologist and linguist Jerry Norman calls Giles' dictionary the "first truly adequate Chinese–English dictionary", with pronunciation glosses that were "by and large free of

Wade–Giles - Misplaced Pages Continue

4284-556: The unaspirated-aspirated stop consonant pairs using a character resembling an apostrophe . Thomas Wade and others used the spiritus asper (ʽ or ʻ), borrowed from the polytonic orthography of the Ancient Greek language. Herbert Giles and others used a left (opening) curved single quotation mark (‘) for the same purpose. A third group used a plain apostrophe ('). The backtick , and visually similar characters, are sometimes seen in various electronic documents using

4386-498: The École française d'Extrême-Orient was used in most of the French-speaking world to transliterate Chinese until the middle of the 20th century, then gradually replaced by Hanyu pinyin. Postal romanization , standardized in 1906, combined traditional spellings, local dialect, and "Nanking syllabary." Nanking syllabary is one of various romanization systems given in a popular Chinese-English dictionary by Herbert Giles . It

4488-473: The "best and highest planes of Chinese thought" to everyday words and nursery rhymes. The Chinese character 道 for dào "way; path; say; the Dao " or dǎo "guide; lead; conduct; instruct; direct" (or 導 clarified with Radical 41 寸 "thumb; inch") is a good litmus test for a dictionary because it has two pronunciations and complex semantics. The sample entry from Giles' dictionary for tao 道 (10,780) gives

4590-561: The (1892) Wade–Giles ( 威翟式拼音 ; wēidíshì pīnyīn ) system. Apart from the correction of a number of ambiguities and inconsistencies within the Wade system, the innovation of the Wade–Giles system was that it also indicated tones. The Wade–Giles system used the spiritus asper for aspirated consonants, diacritical marks to mark some vowels, and superscript digits to indicate the four tones. The system devised in 1902 by Séraphin Couvreur of

4692-494: The 1892 first edition A Chinese–English Dictionary , which contains 10,859 character head entries plus 2,989 variant characters for a total of 13,848 entries. He decided to number every head entry—an improvement lacking in the earlier dictionaries of Morrison, Medhurst, and Williams—in order to facilitate internal cross-referencing and make it easier for users to find characters. Giles subsequently worked for 20 years revising and adding "a vast number of compounds and phrases" to

4794-567: The 1912 second edition, which contains 10,926 head entries (67 more) plus 2,922 variants, also totaling 13,848. Despite the addition of new head entries to the second edition, Giles kept the original 13,848 numerical arrangement owing to an unintended consequence . People in China were using the dictionary numbers as a Chinese telegraph code , that is, a character encoding index for telegraphs written in Chinese characters—analogous with modern Chinese input methods for computers . Another example of using Giles' 13,848 numbers to index characters

4896-495: The American missionary Williams, Giles devoted himself to publishing a new dictionary that "was meant to bring the glory of having compiled the best Chinese–English dictionary back from America to England". Five years later, Giles published a 40-page brochure (1879) On some Translations and Mistranslations in Dr. Williams' Syllabic Dictionary that was reported extensively among English-language newspapers published in China. "I

4998-481: The China Inland Mission . In contrast to Morrison, Medhurst, Williams, and Mathews, who were all Christian missionaries in China, Giles was an agnostic anti-clericalist . The historian Huiling Yang found that although Giles strongly criticized Williams' dictionary, it turns out that Giles' own dictionary is more closely linked to Williams' than to Morrison's, which Giles praised highly. Medhurst's, Williams', and Giles' Chinese–English dictionaries are all members of

5100-535: The Chinese Hanyu Pinyin system (usually without tone marks) since 1979 as it was adopted by the People's Republic of China . The first consistent system for transcribing Chinese words in Latin alphabet is thought to have been designed in 1583–1588 by Matteo Ricci and Michele Ruggieri for their Portuguese–Chinese dictionary—the first ever European–Chinese dictionary. The manuscript was misplaced in

5202-691: The Chinese scholars Qu Qiubai, Wu Yuzhang, Lin Boqu ( 林伯渠 ), Xiao San, Wang Xiangbao, and Xu Teli based in Moscow established Latinxua Sin Wenz. The system was supported by a number of Chinese intellectuals such as Guo Moruo and Lu Xun , and trials were conducted among 100,000 Chinese immigrant workers for about four years and later, from 1940 to 1942, in the communist-controlled regions of Shaanxi , Gansu , and Ningxia . The ROC government meanwhile felt compelled to ban its use between 1936 and 1938. In November 1949,

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5304-559: The Eyes and Ears of Western Literati'). In the 1670 Portuguese-language Vocabulario da lingoa mandarina , the Dominican missionary Francisco Varo expanded on Trigault's system. His Spanish-language Vocabulario de la lengua Mandarina was published in 1682 and his Arte de la lengua mandarina , published in 1703, is the earliest known published Chinese grammar. Later on, many linguistically comprehensive systems were made by

5406-802: The Far East of the Soviet Union could be made literate, facilitating their further education. From the very outset, it was intended that the Latinxua Sin Wenz system, once established, would supersede the Chinese characters. The Latin alphabet was chosen over the Cyrillic alphabet because the former was thought to better serve their purposes. Unlike Gwoyeu Romatzyh, with its complex spelling rules to indicate tones, Latinxua Sin Wenz does not indicate tones at all: while GR could in principle write many different tonal systems, it had been pegged to

5508-748: The Latin Alphabet, citing the following reasons: The movement for language reform came to a standstill during the Cultural Revolution and nothing was published on language reform or linguistics from 1966 to 1972. The Pinyin subtitles that had first appeared on the masthead of the People's Daily newspaper and the Red Flag journal in 1958 did not appear at all between July 1966 and January 1977. In its final form Hanyu Pinyin: Hanyu Pinyin has developed from Mao's 1951 directive, through

5610-480: The Latin alphabet" as "the main object of [their] research"; linguist Zhou Youguang was put in charge of this branch of the committee. In a speech delivered on 10 January 1958, Zhou Enlai observed that the committee had spent three years attempting to create a non-Latin Chinese phonetic alphabet (they had also attempted to adapt Zhuyin Fuhao ) but "no satisfactory result could be obtained" and "the Latin alphabet

5712-684: The Protestants, such as that used for Robert Morrison 's dictionary and the Legge romanization . In their missionary activities they had contact with many languages in Southeast Asia, and they created systems that could be used consistently across all of the languages with which they were concerned. The first system to be widely accepted was the (1859) system of the British diplomat Thomas Wade , revised and improved by Herbert Giles into

5814-618: The Qieyin Xinzi ( 切音新字 ; 'New Phonetic Alphabet') was developed in 1892 by Lu Zhuangzhang (1854–1928). It was used to write the sounds of the Xiamen dialect of Southern Min . Some people also invented other phoneme systems. In 1923, the Kuomintang Ministry of Education instituted a National Language Unification Commission which, in turn, formed an eleven-member romanization unit. The political circumstances of

5916-577: The apostrophe-like characters are kept, the system reveals a symmetry that leaves no overlap: Like Yale and Mandarin Phonetic Symbols II , Wade–Giles renders the two types of syllabic consonant ( simplified Chinese : 空韵 ; traditional Chinese : 空韻 ; Wade–Giles: kʻung-yün ; Hànyǔ Pīnyīn : kōngyùn ) differently: These finals are both written as -ih in Tongyòng Pinyin , as -i in Hànyǔ Pīnyīn (hence distinguishable only by

6018-482: The artificiality found in earlier works". He also says that Giles, like his predecessors, mixed literary and colloquial definitions together without distinction, and concludes that the dictionary "remains a rich depository of nineteenth-century Peking colloquial words and phrases, in other respects it has been superseded by later dictionaries". A recent book on Chinese lexicography says Giles' dictionary has "special significance and interest" and "enjoys pride of place in

6120-534: The character and number over pronunciations from Cantonese tou to Vietnamese dau on the left, and the translation equivalents and examples on the right. Note that {} brackets indicate translation equivalents added in the second edition. A road; a path; a way. Hence; the road par excellence ; the right way; the true path; {the λόγος of the New Test.; identified by Kingsmill with the Buddhist Mârga ,

6222-598: The creators of Latinxua Sinwenz) was appointed chairman. All of the members of its initial governing body belonged to either the Latinxua Sinwenz movement (Ni Haishu ( 倪海曙 ), Lin Handa ( 林汉达 ), etc.) or the Gwoyeu Romatzyh movement (Li Jinxi ( 黎锦熙 ), Luo Changpei , etc.). For the most part, they were also highly trained linguists. Their first directive (1949–1952) was to take "the phonetic project adopting

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6324-944: The current Tsai Ing-wen administration and Democratic Progressive Party (DPP) along with the majority of the people in Taiwan, both native and overseas, use spelling and transcribe their legal names based on the Wade–Giles system, as well as the other aforementioned systems. The tables below show the Wade–Giles representation of each Chinese sound (in bold type), together with the corresponding IPA phonetic symbol (in square brackets), and equivalent representations in Bopomofo and Hanyu Pinyin . Instead of ts , tsʻ and s , Wade–Giles writes tz , tzʻ and ss before ŭ (see below ). Wade–Giles writes -uei after kʻ and k , otherwise -ui : kʻuei , kuei , hui , shui , chʻui . It writes [-ɤ] as -o after kʻ , k and h , otherwise as -ê : kʻo , ko , ho , shê , chʻê . When [ɤ] forms

6426-501: The dictionary itself, printed in triple columns. Compared with the first edition of 1,461 total pages, the 1,813-page second edition is 398 pages longer. Giles produced the first edition entirely at his own risk, and it cost £2300, towards which the Foreign Office gave £300. The second edition cost £4800, towards which they gave £250. Giles' Chinese–English dictionary remained in "constant use" for generations. A compact edition

6528-490: The entries as they now stand, chiefly drawn from sources in which the Dictionary has been found to be deficient". The revised and enlarged second edition (1912) was likewise published by Kelly & Walsh and Bernard Quaritch in 7 fascicules printed from 1909 to 1912. It had 2 royal quarto volumes, with Part I comprising a 17-page preface (with extracts from the first edition) and 84 pages of tables; and Part II comprising

6630-408: The finals -io (in yo , chio , chʻio , hsio , lio and nio ) and -üo (in chüo , chʻüo , hsüo , lüo and nüo ), both of which are pronounced -üeh in modern Standard Chinese : yüeh , chüeh , chʻüeh , hsüeh , lüeh and nüeh . Wade–Giles writes the syllable [i] as i or yi depending on the character. A feature of the Wade–Giles system is the representation of

6732-621: The first edition and 8 in the second, for instance "導師 the guiding Teacher—Buddha". Herbert Giles created the first Chinese–English encyclopedic dictionary in two ways, with comprehensive explanations under head entries and with informative tables. His example was followed by many later Chinese–English dictionaries up to the present time. First, some dictionary entries include in-depth information. Take pǔlu 氆氇 "a woolen fabric made in Tibet" as an example. Giles gives P'u 氆 (9514) "An open-woven, thick woolen cloth, either plain or flowered, with

6834-647: The first edition, Giles uses 5 to denote alternate tonal pronunciations that he had heard, eruditely described as " tra cotanto senno " ( Italian for "amid such wisdom", from Dante's Inferno ). The prior dictionaries of Morrison, Williams, and Medhurst annotate tones in terms of the traditional four tones of Middle Chinese pronunciation used in rime dictionaries such as the Kangxi ; namely píng 平 "level" tone, shàng 上 "rising", qù 去 "departing", and rù 入"entering" tone. Giles uses an asterisk to indicate archaic entering tone , with denoting second tone with

6936-553: The first general histories of China, the (1901) A History of Chinese Literature , (1906) Religions of Ancient China , and (1911) The Civilization of China . Herbert Giles says he decided to compile A Chinese–English Dictionary after his review of Williams' A Syllabic Dictionary of the Chinese Language "brought down on my head many objurgations from the author's friends". As Giles explains in his previously unpublished (c. 1918–1925) typescript memoirs, [The] review

7038-462: The history of bilingual Chinese lexicography, Giles' Dictionary is the fourth major Chinese–English dictionary after Robert Morrison's (1815–1823) A Dictionary of the Chinese Language , Walter Henry Medhurst 's (1842) Chinese and English Dictionary , and Samuel Wells Williams ' (1874) A Syllabic Dictionary of the Chinese Language . Giles' dictionary was superseded by Robert Henry Mathews ' (1931) A Chinese–English Dictionary Compiled for

7140-532: The initial from [i] as in li ), and as -y in Gwoyeu Romatzyh and Simplified Wade . They are typically omitted in Zhùyīn (Bōpōmōfō) . Final o in Wade–Giles has two pronunciations in modern Peking dialect: [wo] and [ɤ] . What is pronounced in vernacular Peking dialect as a close-mid back unrounded vowel [ɤ] is written usually as ê , but sometimes as o , depending on historical pronunciation (at

7242-615: The maximum popular support, they withdrew support from a movement that deeply offended many supporters of the traditional writing system. In 2002, Zhou Youguang claimed that Joseph Stalin persuaded Mao Zedong against the complete romanization of Chinese during Mao's visit to Moscow in December 1949. In October 1949, the Association for Reforming the Chinese Written Language was established. Wu Yuzhang (one of

7344-399: The meaning "principles" under mou 謀 (8032) "to plot; to scheme", " Tai chi " 太極 under 極 (859), dàotái 道臺 "(historical) the magistrate of a dào district/circuit", and the syntactic use of 道 as a classifier or measure word for rivers/topics/etc. The first edition 道 entry gives 230 examples of words and phrases for tao "way; path" (e.g., "黃道 the ecliptic ; good luck;

7446-490: The most commonly used names of locations and persons, and other proper nouns. The romanized name for most locations, persons and other proper nouns in Taiwan is based on the Wade–Giles derived romanized form, for example Kaohsiung , the Matsu Islands and Chiang Ching-kuo . Wade–Giles was developed by Thomas Francis Wade , a scholar of Chinese and a British ambassador in China who was the first professor of Chinese at

7548-641: The national standard language also promoted by the Republican government, while Latinxua Sin Wenz was simply adapted to create new systems fit for various varieties of Chinese varieties. The eminent Moscow-based Chinese scholar Qu Qiubai (1899–1935) and the Russian linguist V. S. Kolokolov (1896–1979) devised a prototype romanization in 1929. In 1931, a coordinated effort between the Soviet sinologists B. M. Alekseev, A. A. Dragunov, and A. G. Shprintsin, with

7650-483: The nine varieties ("dialects") by their initial letter: C. Cantonese , H. Hakka , F. Foochow , W. Wênchow , N. Ningpo , P. Pekingese , M. "Mid-China", Y. Yangchow , and S. Ssuch'uan , as well as in K. Korean , J. Japanese , and A. Annamese languages. Tones are annotated with a superscript number in the upper right of a character or romanized word; the four tones of Beijing Mandarin are indicated as 1 "high-level", 2 "rising", 3 "dipping", and 4 "falling". In

7752-529: The path which leads to Nirvâna;} the truth; religion{; principles see 8032}. Of or belonging to Taoism { see 太極 859}. A district; a region; a political division of the empire, varying under different dynasties; a circuit; a Tao-t'ai . To speak; to tell. {A numerative; see entries.}. The 1912 second edition adds references to Christian Greek scriptural λόγος logos , Thomas William Kingsmill's (1899) Daodejing translation comparing dào with Sanskrit mārga "path; (Buddhist) paths to liberation ",

7854-513: The people themselves these changes are considered to be simple variations, which are of no consequence. And if we look into the English of Chaucer's or of Wickliffe's time, or the French of Marco Polo's age, we shall find a similar looseness and inattention to correct spelling, because these languages were written by few, and when the orthography was unsettled. Times are changed. Every poor man may now learn to read and write his own language in less than

7956-400: The problem by listing characters in their Latin form alphabetically. The Indian Sanskrit grammarians , who went to China two thousand years ago to work on the translation of Buddhist scriptures into Chinese and the transcription of Buddhist terms into Chinese, discovered the "initial sound", "final sound", and "suprasegmental tone" structure of spoken Chinese syllables. This understanding

8058-633: The promulgation on 1 November 1957 of a draft version by the State Council, to its final form being approved by the State Council in September 1978, to being accepted in 1982 by the International Organization for Standardization as the standard for transcribing Chinese. John DeFrancis has described Mao Zedong's belief that pinyin would eventually replace Chinese characters, but this has not come to pass, and in fact such

8160-407: The railways in northeastern China adopted Latinxua Sin Wenz for all telecommunications. For a time, the system was very important in spreading literacy in northern China, and more than 300 publications, totaling 500,000 issues, were printed in Latinxua Sin Wenz. Ultimately, promotion of the system ceased, because of its proposed target of superseding logographic Chinese characters altogether, which

8262-526: The same phonetic element and different graphic radicals are arranged together, for instance, the phonetic ai 艾 (number 32) "mugwort; artemisia" is followed by ai 哎 (33, with the mouth radical ) "an interjection of surprise", ai 餀 (34, food radical ) "food which has been spoilt", and ai 鴱 (35, bird radical ) "the hen of the tailor-bird". Pronunciations are glossed in late 19th-century Beijing Mandarin. In addition, Giles glosses pronunciations in archaic Middle Chinese rime ("R." according to

8364-518: The second, which is the hexagram's meaning. The English sinologist Charles Aylmer, who first published The Memoirs of H. A. Giles from a Cambridge University Library manuscript, gives a balanced evaluation on the dictionary. Aylmer says the second edition "impresses by its sheer bulk" but falls short of the "highest standards of the best 19th-century lexicography". First, the dictionary does not cite sources for terms, but diversely includes both Classical Chinese literary archaisms from sources like

8466-519: The so-called neutral tone is written leaving the syllable with no diacritic mark at all. In Tongyòng Pinyin, a ring is written over the vowel. There are several adaptations of Wade–Giles. The Romanization system used in the 1943 edition of Mathews' Chinese–English Dictionary differs from Wade–Giles in the following ways: Examples of Wade–Giles derived English language terminology: Romanization of Chinese Romanization of Chinese ( Chinese : 中文拉丁化 ; pinyin : zhōngwén lādīnghuà )

8568-624: The spiritus asper, sometimes omitting them when copying texts, unaware that they represent vital information. Hànyǔ Pīnyīn addresses this issue by employing the Latin letters customarily used for voiced stops, unneeded in Mandarin, to represent the unaspirated stops: b, p, d, t, g, k, j, q, zh, ch. Partly because of the popular omission of apostrophe-like characters, the four sounds represented in Hànyǔ Pīnyīn by j , q , zh , and ch often all become ch , including in many proper names. However, if

8670-552: The standard in the Western world until the 1958 official international pinyin system. In 1867, Giles passed the competitive Foreign Office examination for a Student Interpretership in China, and began studying the Chinese language at Peking. He later criticized his first Chinese book, a Part II reprint of Robert Morrison 's (1815–1823) A Dictionary of the Chinese Language, in Three Parts , because it failed to mark aspiration , "much as if an English–Chinese dictionary, for

8772-404: The state of the spoken dialects of China. The most various shades of pronunciation are common, arising from the want of the analytic process of writing by means of an alphabet. A Chinaman has no conception of the number or character of the sounds which he utters when he says mau-ping; indeed one man will call it maw (mor)-bing, and another mo-piang, without the first man perceiving the difference. By

8874-464: The syllable. This contrasts with the use of diacritics to represent the tones in Pīnyīn. For example, the Pīnyīn qiàn (fourth tone) has the Wade–Giles equivalent chʻien . ( s ; t ; lit ) Wade–Giles uses hyphens to separate all syllables within a word (whereas Pīnyīn separates syllables only in specially defined cases, using hyphens or closing (right) single quotation marks as appropriate). If

8976-478: The system of Gwoyeu Romatzyh (National Romanization) bypasses the issue of introducing non-letter symbols by changing the letters within the syllable, as in mha, ma, maa, mah , each of which contains the same vowel, but a different tone. The Wade, Wade–Giles, and Postal systems still appear in the European literature, but generally only within a passage cited from an earlier work. Most European language texts use

9078-469: The system. Examples using the spiritus asper: p , pʻ , t , tʻ , k , kʻ , ch , chʻ . The use of this character preserves b , d , g , and j for the romanization of Chinese varieties containing voiced consonants, such as Shanghainese (which has a full set of voiced consonants) and Min Nan (Hō-ló-oē) whose century-old Pe̍h-ōe-jī (POJ, often called Missionary Romanization)

9180-434: The time Wade–Giles was developed). Specifically, after velar initials k , kʻ and h (and a historical ng , which had been dropped by the time Wade–Giles was developed), o is used; for example, "哥" is ko (Pīnyīn gē ) and "刻" is kʻo (Pīnyīn kè ). In Peking dialect, o after velars (and what used to be ng ) have shifted to [ɤ] , thus they are written as ge , ke , he and e in Pīnyīn. When [ɤ] forms

9282-629: The time prevented any positive outcome from the formation of this unit. A new voluntary working subcommittee was independently formed by a group of five scholars who strongly advocated romanization. The committee, which met twenty-two times over a twelve-month period (1925–1926), consisted of Zhao Yuanren , Lin Yutang , Qian Xuantong , Li Jinxi ( 黎錦熙 ), and one Wang Yi. They developed the Gwoyeu Romatzyh ( 國語羅馬字 ; Guóyǔ Luómǎzì ; 'National Language Romanization') system, proclaimed on 26 September 1928. The most distinctive aspect of this new system

9384-604: The tones, was not lost, however. It was used e.g. by Michał Boym and his two Chinese assistants in the first publication of the original and romanized text of the Xi'an Stele , which appeared in China Illustrata (1667)—an encyclopedic-scope work compiled by Athanasius Kircher . In 1626 the Jesuit missionary Nicolas Trigault devised a romanization system in his Xiru Ermu Zi ( 西儒耳目资 ; 西儒耳目資 ; Xīrú ěrmù zī ; 'Aid to

9486-483: The use of the Chinese, were published without the letter h , showing no difference between the conjunction and and the [h]and of the body". Herbert A. Giles wrote some 60 publications on Chinese culture and language (see Wikisource list ), which may be divided into four broad categories: reference works, language textbooks, translations, and miscellaneous writings. His pioneering reference books established new standards of accuracy. Of all his publications, Giles

9588-673: Was badly mauled" in the Daily Press (Hong Kong) , "received unstinted praise" in the North China Daily News , and was supported in the Chinese Recorder and Missionary Journal , which said "the Dictionary is in fault in most of the instances given." Giles sent a copy of his brochure to Williams, but received no reply. Since Williams reprinted his dictionary from stereotype plates , he was unable to make corrections, and added, in 1883, an Errata and Corrections on

9690-496: Was based on the Beijing dialect and was the system of transcription familiar in the English-speaking world for most of the 20th century. Both of these kinds of transcription were used in postal romanizations (romanized place-names standardized for postal uses). In mainland China , Wade–Giles has been mostly replaced by Hanyu Pinyin , which was officially adopted in 1958, with exceptions for the romanized forms of some of

9792-418: Was deemed too radical: In 1944 the latinization movement was officially curtailed in the communist-controlled areas [of China] on the pretext that there were insufficient trained cadres capable of teaching the system. It is more likely that, as the communists prepared to take power in a much wider territory, they had second thoughts about the rhetoric that surrounded the latinization movement; in order to obtain

9894-469: Was most proud of (1892, 1912) A Chinese–English Dictionary , and (1898) A Chinese Biographical Dictionary . Giles' textbooks for Chinese language learners include (1873) A Dictionary of Colloquial Idioms in the Mandarin Dialect and two Chinese phrasebooks transliterated phonetically according to the English alphabet, "so that anyone could pick up the book and read off a simple sentence with

9996-508: Was never extensively used for any purpose other than delivering the pronunciation of specific Chinese characters in dictionaries. The complexity of its tonal system was such that it was never popular. Work towards designing Latinxua Sin Wenz began in Moscow as early as 1928, when the Soviet Scientific Research Institute on China sought to create a means through which the large Chinese population living in

10098-436: Was of Dr Williams' Syllabic Dictionary ( Evening Gazette , 16 Sept., 1874), for which I was freely bespattered with abuse from all American quarters. I showed up a multiplicity of absurd blunders and equally egregious omissions; and I wound up with these prophetic words: "We do not hesitate to pronounce Dr Williams the lexicographer, not for the future, but of the past." I at once began upon a dictionary of my own. Provoked by

10200-428: Was reprinted by Paragon Books (Chicago) in 1964, Ch'eng Wen (Taipei) in 1978, and is still available online. Giles learned that Edmund Backhouse , one of his first Chinese language students at Cambridge, had been trying for years to compile a Chinese–English dictionary. In 1925, he used it to metaphorically describe Chinese bilingual lexicography in terms of international sports competition . [Backhouse's dictionary]

10302-458: Was that, rather than relying upon marks or numbers, it indicated the tonal variations of the "root syllable" by a systematic variation within the spelling of the syllable itself. The entire system could be written with a standard QWERTY keyboard. ...the call to abolish [the written] characters in favor of a romanized alphabet reached a peak around 1923. As almost all of the designers of [Gwoyeu Romatzyh] were ardent supporters of this radical view, it

10404-422: Was then adopted". He also emphatically stated: In future, we shall adopt the Latin alphabet for the Chinese phonetic alphabet. Being in wide use in scientific and technological fields and in constant day-to-day usage, it will be easily remembered. The adoption of such an alphabet will, therefore, greatly facilitate the popularization of the common speech [i.e. Putonghua ( Standard Chinese )]. The development of

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