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105-664: Mahapurusha Srimanta Sankaradeva Viswavidyalaya is a university established through The Mahapurusha Srimanta Sankaradeva Viswavidyalaya Act, 2013 in the State of Assam , India in 2013. The university is located in Nagaon and is named after him. The university comprises the following departments: 26°20′57″N 92°40′52″E / 26.34923°N 92.68121°E / 26.34923; 92.68121 Assam Assam ( / ə ˈ s æ m , æ ˈ s æ m / ə- SAM , a- SAM ; Assamese: [ɔ'xɔm] )
210-730: A Tai state, situated in South-Western Yunnan of China, and established his kingdom in Upper Assam . In 1253, he founded the capital city in a hillock and named it Charaideo . At the time of his advent, the area was inhabited by Morans and Borahis, to the north, to the north-east was the Chutia kingdom and to the south was the Kachari kingdom and to the west on the plains were the Baro-Bhuyans . For more than two and
315-614: A bay. Even today the residents identify these waters as a bay, referring to it as a 'female sea', as opposed to the more violent open sea on the other side of the island of Mafia. Felix Chami has found archaeological evidence for extensive Roman trade on Mafia Island and, not far away, on the mainland, near the mouth of the Rufiji River, which he dated to the first few centuries. Furthermore, J. Innes Miller points out that Roman coins have been found on Pemba island , just north of Rhapta. Nevertheless, Carl Peters has argued that Rhapta
420-537: A combination of atlas and traveller's handbook . The Erythraean Sea ( Koinē Greek : Ἐρυθρὰ Θάλασσα , romanized: Erythrà Thálassa , lit. 'Red Sea') was an ancient geographical designation that always included the Gulf of Aden between Arabia Felix and the Horn of Africa and was often extended (as in this periplus) to include the present-day Red Sea , Persian Gulf , and Indian Ocean as
525-577: A half centuries, Sukapha and his descendants, while primarily focused on administering the kingdom, upheld their dominance in the valley through their military prowess. The reign of Suhungmung marked the first massive expansion of Ahom kingdom . Besides sending a punitive expeditions against the Nagas, they fought numerous battles with the Bhuyans, Chutias, Kacharis, Turko-Afghans, and the Naras. In 1522–23
630-510: A hub for trade with the interior, in the Gangetic plain: Besides this there are ex-ported great quantities of fine pearls, ivory, silk cloth, spikenard from the Ganges, malabathrum from the places in the interior, transparent stones of all kinds, diamonds and sapphires, and tortoise-shell; that from Chryse Island, and that taken among the islands along the coast of Damirica (Limyrike). They make
735-577: A huge army and fleet to invade Ahom kingdom. Here the Ahoms, lost at several places, and then captured the Ahom capital Garhgaon . During the rainy season Mir Jumla and his army suffered immeasurable hardship due to the climatic condition of the valley in addition the guerrilla fighting resorted against the invaders. And at last no noticeable gain, negotiation started and in January 1663, Treaty of Ghilajharighat
840-463: A little frankincense, (that known as far-side), the harder cinnamon, duaca, Indian copal and macir, which are imported into Arabia; and slaves, but rarely. Aksum is mentioned in the Periplus as an important market place for ivory, which was exported throughout the ancient world: From that place to the city of the people called Auxumites there is a five days' journey more; to that place all the ivory
945-455: A number of army and civil administration posts such as the Borbarua and Borphukan . Jayadhwaj Singha taking the advantage of War of succession between the sons of Shah Jahan , occupied the imperial territories up to Dhaka . Aurangzeb after becoming the emperor, appointed Mir Jumla II , to recover the lost territory. After fail negotiations. In November 1661, Mir Jumla proceeded with
1050-552: A port of call for merchants from Phoenicia , ancient Egypt , ancient Greece , Persia , Yemen , Nabataea , Azania , the Roman Empire , and elsewhere, as it possessed a strategic location along the coastal route from Azania to the Red Sea. Merchants from as far afield as Indonesia and Malaysia passed through Opōnē, trading spices, silks and other goods, before departing south for Azania or north to South Arabia or Egypt on
1155-548: A result of abundant rainfall, look green all year round. Assam receives more rainfall than most parts of India; this rain feeds the Brahmaputra River , whose tributaries and oxbow lakes provide the region with a distinctive hydro- geomorphic environment. The first dated mention of the region comes from Periplus of the Erythraean Sea (1st century) and Ptolemy 's Geographia (2nd century), which calls
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#17327810889411260-432: A rock cut stupa at Sri Surya Pahar has been dated to 200 BCE contemporary with rock cut Karle and Bhaja caves of Maharashtra. The site is located in a hilly terrain where several rock-cut shivalingas , votive stupas and the deities of Hindu, Buddhist and Jain pantheon are scattered. Samudragupta 's 4th-century-CE Allahabad pillar inscription mentions Kamarupa and Davaka (Central Assam) as frontier kingdoms of
1365-498: A single maritime area. The 10th-century Byzantine manuscript which forms the basis of present knowledge of the Periplus attributes the work to Arrian , but apparently for no better reason than its position beside Arrian's much later Periplus of the Euxine Sea . One historical analysis, published by Wilfred Harvey Schoff in 1912, narrowed the date of the text to AD 59–62, in agreement with present-day estimates of
1470-458: A water tank which may date from 1st century BCE and may be 2,000 years old. Experts speculate that another significant find at Ambari is Roman era Roman roulette pottery from the 2nd century BCE. According to a late text, Kalika Purana (c. 9th–10th century CE ), the earliest ruler of Assam was Mahiranga Danav of the Danava dynasty , which was removed by Naraka of Mithila and established
1575-433: Is "lakkos chromatinos" . The name lakkos appears nowhere else in ancient Greek or Roman literature. The name re-surfaces in late medieval Latin as lacca , borrowed from medieval Arabic lakk in turn borrowed from Sanskritic lakh , meaning lac i.e. a red-coloured resin native to India used as a lacquer and used also as a red colourant. Some other named trade goods remain obscure. Ships from Himyar regularly travelled
1680-585: Is a continuous length of coast, and a bay extending two thousand stadia or more, along which there are Nomads and Fish-Eaters living in villages; just beyond the cape projecting from this bay there is another market-town by the shore, Cana, of the Kingdom of Eleazus, the Frankincense Country; and facing it there are two desert islands, one called Island of Birds, the other Dome Island, one hundred and twenty stadia from Cana. Inland from this place lies
1785-619: Is a profit when exchanged for the money of the country; and ointment, but not very costly and not much. And for the King there are brought into those places very costly vessels of silver, singing boys, beautiful maidens for the harem, fine wines, thin clothing of the finest weaves, and the choicest ointments. There are exported from these places spikenard , costus [ Saussurea costus ], bdellium , ivory, agate and carnelian , lycium , cotton cloth of all kinds, silk cloth, mallow cloth, yarn, long pepper and such other things as are brought here from
1890-488: Is a state in northeastern India , south of the eastern Himalayas along the Brahmaputra and Barak River valleys. Assam covers an area of 78,438 km (30,285 sq mi). It is the second largest state in northeastern India by area and the largest in terms of population, with more than 31 million inhabitants. The state is bordered by Bhutan and Arunachal Pradesh to the north; Nagaland and Manipur to
1995-539: Is ambiguous, describing China as a "great inland city Thina " that is a source of raw silk . The Periplus says that a direct sailing route from the Red Sea to the Indian peninsula across the open ocean was discovered by Hippalus (1st century BC). Many trade goods are mentioned in the Periplus , but some of the words naming trade goods are found nowhere else in ancient literature, leading to guesswork as to what they might be. For example, one trade good mentioned
2100-484: Is another market-town, better than this, called Malao, distant a sail of about eight hundred stadia. The anchorage is an open roadstead, sheltered by a spit running out from the east. Here the natives are more peaceable. There are imported into this place the things already mentioned, and many tunics, cloaks from Arsinoe, dressed and dyed; drinking-cups, sheets of soft copper in small quantity, iron, and gold and silver coin, not much. There are exported from these places myrrh,
2205-462: Is believed to be the location of the ancient trade centre of Opōnē . Ancient Egyptian , Roman and Persian Gulf pottery has been recovered from the site by an archaeological team from the University of Michigan . Opōnē is in the thirteenth entry of the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea , which in part states: And then, after sailing four hundred stadia along a promontory, toward which place
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#17327810889412310-620: Is brought from the country beyond the Nile through the district called Cyeneum, and thence to Adulis. According to the Periplus , the ruler of Aksum was Zoscales , who, besides ruling in Aksum also held under his sway two harbours on the Red Sea : Adulis (near Massawa ) and Avalites ( Assab ). He is also said to have been familiar with Greek literature: These places, from the Calf-Eaters to
2415-412: Is called Abiria , but the coast is called Syrastrene . It is a fertile country, yielding wheat and rice and sesame oil and clarified butter, cotton and the Indian cloths made therefrom, of the coarser sorts. Very many cattle are pastured there, and the men are of great stature and black in color. The metropolis of this country is Minnagara , from which much cotton cloth is brought down to Barygaza. Under
2520-496: Is of another Kingdom, the Pandian . This place also is situated on a river, about one hundred and twenty stadia from the sea ... According to the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea (53:17:15-27), Limyrike began at Naura and Tyndis ; Ptolemy (7.1.8) mentions only Tyndis as its starting point. The region probably ended at Kanyakumari ; it thus roughly corresponds to the present-day Malabar Coast . Further, this area served as
2625-520: Is of the Kingdom of Cerobothra ; it is a village in plain sight by the sea. Muziris, of the same kingdom, abounds in ships sent there with cargoes from Arabia , and by the Greeks ; it is located on a river (River Periyar ), distant from Tyndis by river and sea five hundred stadia, and up the river from the shore twenty stadia. Nelcynda is distant from Muziris by river and sea about five hundred stadia, and
2730-723: The Ahom kingdom where the country was greatly depopulated and unorganised. The political rivalry between the nobles made a pathway for the Burmese to invade and weakened it more and finally leading to its annexation. The discovery of Camellia sinensis in 1834 in Assam was followed by testing in 1836–37 in London. The British allowed companies to rent land from 1839 onwards. Thereafter tea plantations proliferated in Eastern Assam, where
2835-585: The Barak valley region, alongside Bengali , which is also an official language in the Barak Valley. The state has 35 districts with 5 divisions . Guwahati (containing the state capital Dispur ) is the largest city in northeastern India . Assam is known for Assam tea and Assam silk . The state was the first site for oil drilling in Asia . Assam is home to the one-horned Indian rhinoceros , along with
2940-625: The Bengal Presidency , then in 1906 it was made a part of Eastern Bengal and Assam province, and in 1912 it was reconstituted into a chief commissioners' province. In 1913, a legislative council and, in 1937, the Assam Legislative Assembly, were formed in Shillong, the erstwhile capital of the region. The British tea planters imported labour from central India adding to the demographic canvas. The Assam territory
3045-648: The Bhauma dynasty . The last of these rulers, also Naraka, was slain by Krishna . Naraka's son Bhagadatta became the king, who (it is mentioned in the Mahabharata) fought for the Kauravas in the battle of Kurukshetra with an army of kiratas , chinas and dwellers of the eastern coast. At the same time towards the east in central Assam, Asura kingdom was ruled by another line of kings. Evidence indicates presence of civilisation in Assam around 2nd century BCE,
3150-607: The Chera kingdom , as well as the Early Pandyan Kingdom are mentioned in the Periplus as major centres of trade, pepper and other spices, metal work and semiprecious stones, between Damirica and the Roman Empire . According to the Periplus , numerous Greek seamen managed an intense trade with Muziris: Then come Naura ( Kannur ) and Tyndis , the first markets of Damirica or Limyrike , and then Muziris and Nelcynda , which are now of leading importance. Tyndis
3255-529: The Chutia kingdom was annexed and the captured tract was placed under the administration of Sadiya-Khowa-Gohain. After securing the eastern tract, Suhungmung than expanded his kingdom westwards through conquest and extended it till Marangi to the west of the Dhansiri river. When the Kacharis tried to regain the lost territory they were defeated and their capital Dimapur was sacked. Over the remaining part of
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3360-527: The Gupta Empire . Davaka was later absorbed by Kamarupa, which grew into a large kingdom that spanned from Karatoya river to near present Sadiya and covered the entire Brahmaputra valley, North Bengal , parts of Bangladesh and, at times Purnea and parts of West Bengal . The kingdom was ruled by three dynasties who traced their lineage from a mleccha or Kirata Naraka; the Varmanas (c. 350–650 CE),
3465-526: The Horn of Africa , the Persian Gulf , Arabian Sea and the Indian Ocean , including the modern-day Sindh region of Pakistan and southwestern regions of India . The text has been ascribed to different dates between the first and third centuries, but a mid-first-century date is now the most commonly accepted. While the author is unknown, it is a first-hand description by someone familiar with
3570-670: The Indian National Congress against the British from the early 20th century, with Gopinath Bordoloi emerging as the preeminent nationalist leader in the Assam Congress. Bordoloi's major political rival in this time was Sir Saidullah, who was representing the Muslim League , and had the backing of the influential Muslim cleric Maulana Bhasani . The Assam Postage Circle was established by 1873 under
3675-696: The Mlechchha dynasty (c.655–900 CE) and the Kamarupa-Palas (c. 900–1100 CE), from their capitals in present-day Guwahati ( Pragjyotishpura ), Tezpur ( Haruppeswara ) and North Gauhati ( Durjaya ) respectively. All three dynasties claimed descent from Narakasura . In the reign of the Varman king, Bhaskaravarman (c. 600–650 CE), the Chinese traveller Xuanzang visited the region and recorded his travels. Later, after weakening and disintegration (after
3780-572: The Mughals attacked Koch Hajo and his territory up to Barnadi River were annexed in the Mughal domain. This brought the Mughals with direct contact with Ahoms. Meanwhile, Parikshit was trying to renew his friendship with Ahoms, but got captured, and died on his way to his kingdom. Later Balinarayan , a brother of Parikshit who had taken refugee under the Ahoms was made the king of Darrang in 1615 by
3885-727: The National Democratic Front of Bodoland (NDFB). In November 1990, the Government of India deployed the Indian army , after which low-intensity military conflicts and political homicides have been continuing for more than a decade. In recent times, ethnically based militant groups have grown. The Panchayati Raj Act has been applied in Assam, after agitation of the communities due to the sluggish rate of development and general apathy of successive state governments towards Indigenous Assamese communities. Deadly floods hit
3990-585: The Sabaeans and Homerites in the southwest corner of Arabia. The kingdom is known to have been a Roman ally at this period. Charibael is stated in the Periplus to be "a friend of the (Roman) emperors, thanks to continuous embassies and gifts" and, therefore, Azania could fairly be described as a vassal or dependency of Rome, just as Zesan is described in the 3rd-century Chinese history, the Weilüe . Trade with
4095-416: The current also draws you, there is another market-town called Opone, into which the same things are imported as those already mentioned, and in it the greatest quantity of cinnamon is produced, (the arebo and moto), and slaves of the better sort, which are brought to Egypt in increasing numbers; and a great quantity of tortoiseshell , better than that found elsewhere. In ancient times, Opōnē operated as
4200-530: The gharial , a critically endangered fish-eating crocodilian, and the pink-headed duck (which may be extinct worldwide). For the state bird, the white-winged wood duck, Assam is a globally important area. In addition to the above, there are three other National Parks in Assam namely Dibru Saikhowa National Park, Nameri National Park and the Orang National Park. Assam has conserved the one-horned Indian rhinoceros from near extinction, along with
4305-501: The pygmy hog , tiger and numerous species of birds, and it provides one of the last wild habitats for the Asian elephant . Kaziranga and Manas are both World Heritage Sites . The state contains Sal tree forests and forest products, much depleted from earlier times. A land of high rainfall, Assam displays greenery. The Brahmaputra River tributaries and oxbow lakes provide the region with hydro- geomorphic environment. The state has
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4410-479: The trade routes that spanned the length of the Indian Ocean 's rim. As early as AD 50, Opōnē was well known as a center for the cinnamon trade, along with the trading of cloves and other spices , ivory , exotic animal skins and incense . The ancient port city of Malao , situated in present-day Berbera in northern Somalia, is also mentioned in the Periplus: After Avalites there
4515-413: The wild water buffalo , pygmy hog , tiger and various species of Asiatic birds, and provides one of the last wild habitats for the Asian elephant . The Assamese economy is aided by wildlife tourism to Kaziranga National Park and Manas National Park , which are World Heritage Sites . Dibru-Saikhowa National Park is famed for its feral horses . Sal tree forests are found in the state which, as
4620-435: The 1850s, the industry started seeing some profits. The industry saw initial growth, when in 1861, investors were allowed to own land in Assam and it saw substantial progress with the invention of new technologies and machinery for preparing processed tea during the 1870s. Despite the commercial success, tea labourers continued to be exploited, working and living under poor conditions. Fearful of greater government interference,
4725-626: The Ahom king Pratap Singha . From 1616, onwards many battles were fought the Mughal without any tangible result, with the first Battle of Samdhara till after the last battle where the treaty was concluded in 1639 which fixed the Asurar ali on the south bank and the Barnadi on the north bank of the Brahmaputra as the boundary between the two. Pratap Singha had also enacted the Paik system and created
4830-601: The Ahom kingdom, the Chutia regions were annexed, and by around 1536, the Kacharis were confined to the areas of Cachar and North Cachar. At this point, they became more of an ally to the Ahoms than a rival force. The Ahoms , a Tai group, ruled Upper Assam for almost 600 years. In the year 1228 the Tai-Ahoms came to the Brahmaputra Valley under the leadership of Sukapha along with 9,000 men from Mong Mao ,
4935-494: The Ahoms achieved no notable military achievement. During this period from, Siva Singha to Rajeswar Singha , the kingdom witnessed peace and prosperity and was significant for constructive activities and other development. In the field of religion also, Ekasarana Dharma spread all over the kingdom and started to influence all aspects of people's life. The religious heads of Vaisnavite monastery exalted great influence with royal patronage and established numerous Satras and most of
5040-522: The Assam Geologic Province. The region is prone to natural disasters like annual floods and frequent mild earthquakes. Strong earthquakes were recorded in 1869, 1897 , and 1950 . The total population of Assam was 26.66 million with 4.91 million households in 2001. Higher population concentration was recorded in the districts of Kamrup , Nagaon , Sonitpur , Barpeta , Dhubri , Darrang , and Cachar . Assam's population
5145-469: The Azanian capital, Rhapta, remains unknown. However, archaeological indicators reported above suggest that it was located on the coast of Tanzania, in the region of the Rufiji River and Mafia Island. It is in this region where the concentration of Panchaea/Azanian period settlements has been discovered. If the island of Menuthias mentioned in the Periplus was Zanzibar , a short voyage south would land one in
5250-589: The Barak valley) is the second most populous city in Assam and an important centre of business. Other large cities include Dibrugarh , an oil and natural gas industry centre, With the tropical monsoon climate , Assam is temperate (summer max. at 95–100 °F or 35–38 °C and winter min. at 43–46 °F or 6–8 °C) and experiences heavy rainfall and high humidity. The climate is characterised by heavy monsoon downpours reducing summer temperatures and affecting foggy nights and mornings in winters, frequent during
5355-456: The British gradually annexed the entire region. Thereafter the court language and medium of instruction in educational institutions of Assam was made Bengali , instead of Assamese. Starting from 1836 until 1873, this imposition of a foreign tongue created greater unemployment among the People of Assam and Assamese literature naturally suffered in its growth. Initially, Assam was made a part of
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#17327810889415460-534: The Chief Commissioner. With the partition of India in 1947, Assam became a constituent state of India. The Sylhet District of Assam (excluding the Karimganj subdivision) was given up to East Pakistan, which later became Bangladesh. The government of India, which has the unilateral powers to change the borders of a state, divided Assam into several states beginning in 1970 within the borders of what
5565-539: The East African coast. The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea describes the trading empire of Himyar and Saba , regrouped under a single ruler, " Charibael " (probably Karab'il Watar Yuhan'em II), who is said to have been on friendly terms with Rome : 23. And after nine days more there is Saphar, the metropolis, in which lives Charibael, lawful king of two tribes, the Homerites and those living next to them, called
5670-532: The Erythraean Sea ( Koinē Greek : Περίπλους τῆς Ἐρυθρᾶς Θαλάσσης , Períplous tē̂s Erythrâs Thalássēs ), also known by its Latin name as the Periplus Maris Erythraei , is a Greco-Roman periplus written in Koine Greek that describes navigation and trading opportunities from Roman Egyptian ports like Berenice Troglodytica along the coast of the Red Sea and others along
5775-514: The Indian harbour of Barygaza is described extensively in the Periplus . Nahapana , ruler of the Indo-Scythian Western Satraps is mentioned under the name Nambanus , as ruler of the area around Barigaza : 41. Beyond the gulf of Baraca is that of Barygaza and the coast of the country of Ariaca, which is the beginning of the Kingdom of Nambanus and of all India. That part of it lying inland and adjoining Scythia
5880-772: The Kachari and Jaintia kingdoms, and had captured their kings and forced to accept Ahom suzerainty and agreed them to pay annual tribute. Other than that, several expeditions were sent against the Miris, the Daflas, the Naga Mishmis and the Nagas of Namsung, Dayang and the Rengma Nagas during late 17th century and early 18th century. Rudra Singha had made extensive preparations for his invasion of Bengal but remained unfulfilled due to his sudden death in 1714. After Rudra Singha ,
5985-401: The Kachari kingdom, a new king Detsung was placed as a tributary, but Detsung proved disloyal and revolted against the Ahoms. He was subsequently executed. A new dependent king was set up on the Kachari throne with the name of Nirbhaynarayan. Since then the Kachari kings were regarded as 'thapita sanchita' meaning - established and maintained by the Ahom rulers. Suhungmung's reign also witnessed
6090-500: The Kamarupa-Palas), the Kamarupa tradition was extended to c. 1255 CE by the Lunar I (c. 1120–1185 CE) and Lunar II (c. 1155–1255 CE) dynasties. The Medieval Assam history may have started with the advent of Ahoms in the early part of the 13th century and covers their entire rule of 600 years till 1826. The medieval history of Assam is especially known for its conflict with Muslim powers under Turko-Afghan and Mughals , finally resulting in Assamese victory, however, this military glory
6195-409: The Rufiji region. The 2nd-century geographer Ptolemy locates Rhapta at latitude 8° south, which is the exact latitude of the Rufiji Delta and Mafia Island. The metropolis was on the mainland about one degree west of the coast near a large river and a bay with the same name. While the river should be regarded as the modern Rufiji River, the bay should definitely be identified with the calm waters between
6300-411: The Sabaites; through continual embassies and gifts, he is a friend of the Emperors. The Frankincense kingdom is described further east along the southern coast of the Arabian Peninsula , with the harbour of Cana (South Arabic Qana , modern Bi'r Ali in Hadramaut ). The ruler of this kingdom is named Eleazus , or Eleazar, thought to correspond to King Iliazz Yalit I: 27. After Eudaemon Arabia there
6405-429: The South Indian Plateau system. In the south, the Barak originating in the Barail Range (Assam-Nagaland border) flows through the Cachar district with a 25–30 miles (40–50 km) wide valley and enters Bangladesh with the name Surma River . Urban centres include Guwahati , one of the 100 fastest growing cities in the world. Guwahati is also referred to as the "Gateway to the North-East India". Silchar , (in
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#17327810889416510-481: The Western Satraps, Barigaza was one of the main centres of Roman trade in the subcontinent . The Periplus describes the many goods exchanged: 49. There are imported into this market-town (Barigaza), wine, Italian preferred, also Laodicean and Arabian ; copper, tin, and lead; coral and topaz; thin clothing and inferior sorts of all kinds; bright-colored girdles a cubit wide; storax, sweet clover, flint glass, realgar , antimony , gold and silver coin, on which there
6615-462: The accession of Gadadhar Singha , fought the final Battle of Itakhuli where the Mughals were badly defeated. And the since then the border was fixed at Manah on the north bank and the Nagarbera hill on the south bank of the Brahmaputra till its annexation by the East India Company in 1826. Rudra Singha succeeded Gadadhar Singha , his reign is notable because of his military achievements and his socio-culture contributions. He had both subjugated
6720-596: The afternoons. Spring (March–April) and autumn (September–October) are usually pleasant with moderate rainfall and temperature. Assam's agriculture usually depends on the south-west monsoon rains. Every year, rivers like the Brahmaputra and Barak overflow due to heavy rainfall, causing widespread flooding across Assam. The rising water levels submerge nearby areas, washing away houses, livestock, and damaging infrastructure such as bridges, railway tracks, and roads, leading to communication breakdowns in many regions. This natural disaster also results in numerous fatalities throughout
6825-456: The area and is nearly unique in providing accurate insights into what the ancient Hellenic world knew about the lands around the Indian Ocean . A periplus ( Koinē Greek : περίπλους , romanized: períplous , lit. 'a sailing-around') is a logbook recording sailing itineraries and commercial, political, and ethnological details about the ports visited. In an era before maps were in general use, it functioned as
6930-868: The bank of the Brahmaputra River , and the Manas Wildlife Sanctuary , near the border with Bhutan. The Kaziranga is a refuge for the fast-disappearing Indian one-horned rhinoceros. The state is the last refuge for numerous other endangered and threatened species including the white-winged wood duck or deohanh , Bengal florican , black-breasted parrotbill , red-headed vulture , white-rumped vulture , greater adjutant , Jerdon's babbler , rufous-necked hornbill , Bengal tiger , Asian elephant , pygmy hog , gaur , wild water buffalo , Indian hog deer , hoolock gibbon , golden langur , capped langur , barasingha , Ganges river dolphin , Barca snakehead , Ganges shark , Burmese python , brahminy river turtle , black pond turtle , Asian forest tortoise , and Assam roofed turtle . Threatened species that are extinct in Assam include
7035-438: The banks of the Rufiji River just south of Dar es Salaam . The Periplus informs us that: Two runs beyond this island [Menuthias = Zanzibar ?] comes the very last port of trade on the coast of Azania, called Rhapta ["sewn"], a name derived from the aforementioned sewn boats, where there are great quantities of ivory and tortoise shell. Chami summarizes the evidence for Rhapta's location as follows: The actual location of
7140-443: The description of places is sufficiently accurate to identify their present locations; for others, there is considerable debate. For instance, " Rhapta " is mentioned as the farthest market down the African coast of " Azania ", but there are at least five locations matching the description, ranging from Tanga to south of the Rufiji River delta. The description of the Indian coast mentions the Ganges River clearly, yet after that it
7245-466: The east; Meghalaya , Tripura , Mizoram and Bangladesh to the south; and West Bengal to the west via the Siliguri Corridor , a 22-kilometre-wide (14 mi) strip of land that connects the state to the rest of India. Assamese and Bodo are two of the official languages for the entire state and Meitei ( Manipuri ) is recognised as an additional official language in three districts of Barak Valley and Hojai district . in Hojai district and for
7350-647: The entire Brahmaputra valley , was called Assam (e.g. Mughals used Asham ); and the British province too was called Assam. Though the precise etymology of Assam is not clear, the name Assam is associated with the Ahom people , originally called Shyam ( Shan ). Assam and adjoining regions have evidences of human settlement from the beginning of the Stone Age . The hills at the height of 1,500 to 2,000 feet (460–615 m) were popular habitats probably due to availability of exposed dolerite basalt, useful for tool-making. Ambari site in Guwahati has revealed Shunga - Kushana era artefacts including flight of stairs and
7455-563: The estimated 1,314 orchid species found in India. Assam has petroleum , natural gas, coal, limestone and other minor minerals such as magnetic quartzite , kaolin , sillimanites , clay and feldspar . A small quantity of iron ore is available in western districts. Discovered in 1889, all the major petroleum-gas reserves are in Upper parts. A recent USGS estimate shows 399 million barrels (63,400,000 m ) of oil, 1,178 billion cubic feet (3.34 × 10 m ) of gas and 67 million barrels (10,700,000 m ) of natural gas liquids in
7560-434: The first Muslim-invasions of the kingdom. After a series of battle, the invaders were roundly defeated and were chased up to Karatoya River . The Sultan of Bengal, terrified by the approaching army of Suhungmung, made peace by offering his two daughters and five paraganas, along with other articles as dowry to the king. The rising Koch king Biswa Singha also offered his submission, and the Ahom general Ton-Kham granted him all
7665-677: The fragmentation of Assam. In 1961, the government of Assam passed legislation making use of the Assamese language compulsory. It was withdrawn later under pressure from Bengali speaking people in Cachar . In the 1980s the Brahmaputra valley saw a six-year Assam Agitation triggered by the discovery of a sudden rise in registered voters on electoral rolls. It tried to force the government to identify and deport foreigners illegally migrating from neighbouring Bangladesh and to provide constitutional, legislative, administrative and cultural safeguards for
7770-621: The headship of the Deputy Post Master General. At the turn of the 20th century, British India consisted of eight provinces that were administered either by a governor or a lieutenant-governor. Assam Province was one among the major eight provinces of British India. The table below shows the major original provinces during British India covering the Assam Province under the Administrative Office of
7875-546: The indigenous Assamese majority, which they felt was under threat due to the increase of migration from Bangladesh. The agitation ended after an accord (Assam Accord 1985) between its leaders and the Union Government, which remained unimplemented, causing simmering discontent. The post 1970s experienced the growth of armed separatist groups such as the United Liberation Front of Asom (ULFA) and
7980-454: The island of Mafia and the Rufiji area. The peninsula east of Rhapta would have been the northern tip of Mafia Island. The southern part of the bay is protected from the deep sea by numerous deltaic small islets separated from Mafia Island by shallow and narrow channels. To the north the bay is open to the sea and any sailor entering the waters from that direction would feel as if he were entering
8085-584: The journey up the Nile and across the desert from Coptos ", Schoff prefers to pinpoint the author's residence to " Berenice rather than Alexandria ". John Hill maintains that "the Periplus can now be confidently dated to between AD 40 and 70 and, probably, between AD 40 and 50." This dating corresponds with the argumentation of L. Casson ("between A.D. 40 and 70") in his key book The Periplus Maris Erythraei: Text with Introduction, Translation and Commentary. The work consists of 66 sections, most of them about
8190-608: The largest population of the wild water buffalo in the world. The state has the highest diversity of birds in India with around 820 species. With subspecies the number is as high as 946. The mammal diversity in the state is around 190 species. Assam is remarkably rich in Orchid species and the Foxtail orchid is the state flower of Assam. The recently established Kaziranga National Orchid and Biodiversity Park boasts more than 500 of
8295-567: The length of a long paragraph. For instance, the short section 9 reads in its entirety: From Malao ( Berbera ) it is two courses to the mart of Moundou, where ships anchor more safely by an island lying very close to the land. The imports to this are as aforesaid [Chapter 8 mentions iron, gold, silver, drinking cups, etc.], and from it likewise are exported the same goods [Chapter 8 mentions myrrh, douaka, makeir, and slaves], and fragrant gum called mokrotou (cf. Sanskrit makaranda ). The inhabitants who trade here are more stubborn. In many cases,
8400-684: The life-line of Assam, is an antecedent river older than the Himalayas, which has entrenched itself since they started rising. The river with steep gorges and rapids in Arunachal Pradesh entering Assam, becomes a braided river (at times 10 mi/16 km wide) and with tributaries, creates a flood plain (Brahmaputra Valley: 50–60 mi/80–100 km wide, 600 mi/1000 km long). The hills of Karbi Anglong , North Cachar and those in and close to Guwahati (also Khasi-Garo Hills) now eroded and dissected are originally parts of
8505-499: The lost territory. After numerous battles, finally after the Battle of Saraighat the Mughals were forced to retreat. The period after 1671 was very unstable due to the rivalry among the nobles, who wanted to arrest their own political power and influence by placing their own choice of prince in the throne. In 1679, Laluksola Borphukan , in hopes of becoming king with the help of Mughals, surrendered Guwahati without any battle. But after
8610-414: The metropolis Sabbatha, in which the King lives. All the frankincense produced in the country is brought by camels to that place to be stored, and to Cana on rafts held up by inflated skins after the manner of the country, and in boats. And this place has a trade also with the far-side ports, with Barygaza and Scythia and Ommana and the neighboring coast of Persia . Ras Hafun in northern Somalia
8715-668: The middle of the 1st century. Schoff additionally provides a historical analysis as to the text's original authorship, and arrives at the conclusion that the author was a " Greek in Egypt , a Roman subject". By Schoff's calculations, this would have been during the time of Tiberius Claudius Balbilus , who coincidentally also was an Egyptian Greek. Schoff continues by noting that the author could not have been "a highly educated man" as "is evident from his frequent confusion of Greek and Latin words and his clumsy and sometimes ungrammatical constructions". Because of "the absence of any account of
8820-554: The name of Meghalaya. In 1972, Arunachal Pradesh (the North East Frontier Agency ) and Mizoram (from the Mizo Hills in the south) were separated from Assam as union territories; both became states in 1986. Since the restructuring of Assam after independence, communal tensions and violence remain. Separatist groups began forming along ethnic lines, and demands for autonomy and sovereignty grew, resulting in
8925-523: The other Berber country, are governed by Zoscales; who is miserly in his ways and always striving for more, but otherwise upright, and acquainted with Greek literature. Research by the Tanzanian archaeologist Felix A. Chami has uncovered remains of Roman trade items near the mouth of the Rufiji River and the nearby Mafia island , and makes a case that the ancient port of Rhapta was situated on
9030-458: The people became their disciples. So got the Ahom court greatly came under the influence of Sakta Brahman priests and astrologers. The religious policies concluded by Phuleshwari and the persecutions of unfavored Satras, embroiled the situation more along with the pressure of Paik system in the 18th century. This finally resulted in the Moamoria rebellion (1769–1805), which greatly weakened
9135-517: The region Kirrhadia , apparently after the Kirata population. In the classical period and up to the 12th century, the region east of the Karatoya river , largely congruent to present-day Assam, was called Kamarupa , and alternatively, Pragjyotisha . Though a western portion of Assam as a region continued to be called Kamrup , the Ahom kingdom that emerged in the east, and which came to dominate
9240-495: The soil and the climate were most suitable. Problems with the imported Han Chinese labourers from China and hostility from native Assamese resulted in the migration of forced labourers from central and eastern parts of India. After initial trial and error with planting the Chinese and the Assamese-Chinese hybrid varieties, the planters later accepted the local Camellia assamica as the most suitable variety for Assam. By
9345-411: The state in 2020 and 2022 . A significant geographical aspect of Assam is that it contains three of six physiographic divisions of India – The Northern Himalayas (Eastern Hills), The Northern Plains (Brahmaputra plain) and Deccan Plateau (Karbi Anglong). As the Brahmaputra flows in Assam the climate here is cold and there is rainfall most of the month. Geomorphic studies conclude that the Brahmaputra,
9450-488: The state. Assam is one of the richest biodiversity zones in the world and consists of tropical rainforests , deciduous forests, riverine grasslands , bamboo orchards and numerous wetland ecosystems; Many are now protected as national parks and reserved forests. Assam has wildlife sanctuaries, the most prominent of which are two UNESCO World Heritage Sites -the Kaziranga National Park , on
9555-508: The tea growers formed the Indian Tea Association in 1888 to lobby to retain the status quo. The organisation was successful in this, but even after India's independence, conditions of the labourers have improved very little. In the later part of the 18th century, religious tensions and atrocities by the nobles led to the Moamoria rebellion (1769–1805), resulting in tremendous casualties of lives and property. The rebellion
9660-522: The territories that were received as dowry from the Sultan of Bengal on the condition of annual tribute. The successors of Suhungmung, Suklenmung and Sukhaamphaa , sent many expeditions against the Bhuyans and Nagas. But were significant with the wars with the Koch. During the reign of Sukhaamphaa , the Ahoms lost to a Koch army led by Chilarai and the Ahoms had to accept Koch supremacy and had to give up
9765-500: The tracts of north of Brahmaputra. However, the lost tract was soon recovered with further military expeditions. Soon after the death of Nara Narayan his kingdom, got divided between the sons of Nara Narayan and Chilarai as Koch Hajo and Koch Bihar . In 1609, Laxmi Narayan king of Cooch Behar accepted the vassalage of Mughals , and the Koch Hajo king Raghudev and later his son Parikshit sought assistance from Ahoms. In 1612,
9870-669: The various market-towns. Those bound for this market-town from Egypt make the voyage favorably about the month of July, that is Epiphi. Goods were also brought down in quantity from Ujjain , the capital of the Western Satraps: 48. Inland from this place and to the east, is the city called Ozene, formerly a royal capital; from this place are brought down all things needed for the welfare of the country about Barygaza, and many things for our trade: agate and carnelian, Indian muslins and mallow cloth, and much ordinary cloth. The lost port city of Muziris (near present day Kodungallur ) in
9975-475: The voyage to this place in a favorable season who set out from Egypt about the month of July, that is Epiphi. The Periplus also describes the annual fair in present-day Northeast India, on the border with China. Every year there turns up at the border of Thina, a certain tribe, short in body and very flat-faced ... called Sêsatai ... They come with their wives and children bearing great packs resembling mats of green leaves and then remain at some spot on
10080-527: The year 1524. The rivalry between the Chutias and Ahoms for the supremacy of eastern Assam led to a series of conflicts between them from the early 16th century. The Dimasa, a Bodo-Kachari dynasty that ruled from the 13th century until 1854, controlled territories stretching from the Dikhow River to central and southern Assam, with their capital at Dimapur. By the early 17th century, with the expansion of
10185-650: Was concluded. According to the treaty, the Ahoms had to acknowledging Mughal supremacy, ceded the territory west of the Bharali on the north bank and the Kalang on the south bank along with a huge amount of war indemnity and handing over the sons of the Gohains as hostage and two Ahom princesses to the Mughal harem. Soon after the departure of Mir Jumla , Jayadhwaj Singha died and the new king Chakradhwaj Singha began preparations to overthrow Mughal supremacy and to recover
10290-856: Was defeated after fierce resistance, which led to the Burmese occupation of Assam. A reign of terror was unleashed by the Burmese on the Assamese people, who fled to neighbouring kingdoms and British-ruled Bengal . The Burmese reached the East India Company 's borders, and the First Anglo-Burmese War ensued in 1824. The war ended under the Treaty of Yandabo in 1826, with the Company taking control of Western Assam and installing Purandar Singha as king of Upper Assam in 1833. The arrangement lasted until 1838 and thereafter
10395-510: Was estimated at 28.67 million in 2006 and at 30.57 million in 2011 and is expected to reach 34.18 million by 2021 and 35.60 million by 2026. As per the 2011 census, the total population of Assam was 31,169,272. The total population of the state has increased from 26,638,407 to 31,169,272 in the last ten years with a growth rate of 16.93%. Periplus of the Erythraean Sea The Periplus of
10500-545: Was first separated from Bengal in 1874 as the 'North-East Frontier' non-regulation province , also known as the Assam Chief-Commissionership. It was incorporated into the new province of Eastern Bengal and Assam in 1905 after the partition of Bengal (1905–1911) and re-established in 1912 as Assam Province . After a few initially unsuccessful attempts to gain independence for Assam during the 1850s, anti-colonial Assamese joined and actively supported
10605-607: Was near modern-day Quelimane in Mozambique, citing the fact that (according to the Periplus ) the coastline there ran down towards the southwest. Peters also suggests that the description of the "Pyralaoi" (i.e., the "Fire people") – "situated at the entry to the [Mozambique] Channel" – indicates that they were the inhabitants of the volcanic Comoro Islands. He also maintains that Menuthias (with its abundance of rivers and crocodiles) cannot have been Zanzibar; i.e., Madagascar seems more likely. The Periplus informs us that Rhapta,
10710-458: Was shattered in the early 19th century when it failed to resist the Burmese invasions , which led to its annexation. Chutia , a Bodo-Kachari group by origin, held the regions on both the banks of Brahmaputra with its domain in the area eastwards from Vishwanath (north bank) and Buridihing (south bank), in Upper Assam and in the state of Arunachal Pradesh . It was annexed by the Ahoms in
10815-471: Was suppressed but the kingdom was severely weakened by the civil war. Political rivalry between Prime Minister Purnananda Burhagohain and Badan Chandra Borphukan , the Ahom Viceroy of Western Assam, led to an invitation to the Burmese by the latter, in turn leading to three successive Burmese invasions of Assam . The reigning monarch Chandrakanta Singha tried to check the Burmese invaders but he
10920-655: Was then Assam. In 1963, the Naga Hills district became the 16th state of India under the name of Nagaland . Part of Tuensang was added to Nagaland. In 1970, in response to the demands of the Khasi, Jaintia and Garo people of the Meghalaya Plateau , the districts containing the Khasi Hills, Jaintia Hills, and Garo Hills were formed into an autonomous state within Assam; in 1972 this became a separate state under
11025-408: Was under the firm control of a governor appointed by Arabian king of Musa, taxes were collected, and it was serviced by "merchant craft that they staff mostly with Arab skippers and agents who, through continual intercourse and intermarriage, are familiar with the area and its language". The Periplus explicitly states that Azania (which included Rhapta) was subject to " Charibael ", the king of both
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