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107-538: The Mali Empire ( Manding : Mandé or Manden Duguba ; Arabic : مالي , romanized :  Mālī ) was an empire in West Africa from c. 1226 to 1670. The empire was founded by Sundiata Keita ( c.  1214  – c.  1255 ) and became renowned for the wealth of its rulers, especially Mansa Musa (Musa Keita). At its peak, Mali was the largest empire in West Africa, widely influencing

214-508: A farin installed to rule over them. Mali was densely populated with the Tarikh al-Sudan stating: "The territory of Jenne is fertile and populated; many markets are held every day of the week. It is said there are 7077 villages [heavily disputed] situated very close to each other. The following will give an idea how close they are. If the Sultan, for example, wishes to summon an inhabitant of

321-472: A kafu (confederation) headed by a kafu-tigi . The Keita clan initially held the status of kafu-tigi before Sundiata 's expansion and the creation of the mansa (king/emperor). The Mandinka people have traditionally been a socially stratified society, as are many West African ethnic groups with castes . The Mandinka society, states Arnold Hughes, a professor of West African Studies and African Politics, has been "divided into three endogamous castes –

428-598: A marabout , who knows the protective formulas. In most cases, the people do not make important decisions without first consulting a marabout. Marabouts, who have Islamic training, write Qur'anic verses on slips of paper and sew them into leather pouches ( talisman ); these are worn as protective amulets. The conversion of the Mandinka to Islam took place over many centuries. According to Robert Wyndham Nicholls, Mandinka in Senegambia started converting to Islam as early as

535-589: A century later. Arab interest in the Mali Empire declined after the Songhai conquered the northern regions of the empire which formed the primary contact between Mali and the Arab world. For the later period of the Mali Empire, the major written primary sources are Portuguese accounts of the coastal provinces of Mali and neighboring societies. Mali , Mandé , Manden , and Manding are all various pronunciations of

642-526: A chief and group of elders. Mandinka has been an oral society , where mythologies, history and knowledge are verbally transmitted from one generation to the next. Their music and literary traditions are preserved by a caste of griots , known locally as jalolu (singular, jali ), as well as guilds and brotherhoods like the donso ( hunters ). Between the 16th and 19th centuries, many Muslim and non-Muslim Mandinka people, along with numerous other African ethnic groups, were captured, enslaved and shipped to

749-492: A city on what is now the border between Guinea and Mali, was the capital for most of the empire's history, and this notion has taken hold in the popular imagination. Djibril Tamsir Niane , a Guinean historian, has been a forceful advocate of this position in recent decades. The identification of Niani as imperial capital is rooted in an (possibly erroneous) interpretation of the Arab traveler al Umari's work, as well as some oral histories. Extensive archaeological digs have shown that

856-566: A contrasting account, and states that Traore himself had converted and married Muhammad 's granddaughter. The Traore's marriage with a Muhammad's granddaughter, states Toby Green, is fanciful, but these conflicting oral histories suggest that Islam had arrived well before the 13th century and had a complex interaction with the Mandinka people. Through a series of conflicts, primarily with the Fula -led jihads under Imamate of Futa Jallon , many Mandinka converted to Islam. In contemporary West Africa,

963-456: A council of upper-class elders and a chief who functions as a first among equals. In Mandinka society the lu (extended family) is the basic unit, and is led by a fa (family head) who manages relations with other fa . A dugu (village) is formed by a collection of lu , and the dugu is led by the fa of the most important lu , aided by the dugu-tigi ( village head or fa of the first lu that settled there). A group of dugu-tigi form

1070-487: A cow's tendons). It is played to accompany a griot's singing or simply on its own. A Mandinka religious and cultural site under consideration for World Heritage status is located in Guinea at Gberedou/Hamana . The kora has become the hallmark of traditional Mandinka musicians ". The kora with its 21 strings is made from half a calabash, covered with cow's hide fastened on by decorative tacks. The kora has sound holes in

1177-468: A description of Mali based on information given to him by Abu Sa’id 'Otman ed Dukkali (who had lived 35 years in the capital), reported the realm as being square and an eight-month journey from its coast at Tura (at the mouth of the Senegal River) to Muli. Umari also describes the empire as being south of Marrakesh and almost entirely inhabited except for few places. Mali's domain also extended into

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1284-444: A lack of archaeological evidence of significant trade activity, clearly described by Arab visitors, particularly during the 14th century, Mali's golden age. In fact, there is a conspicuous absence of archaeological samples of any kind from Niani dated to the late 13th through early 15th centuries, suggesting that Niani may have been uninhabited during the heyday of the Mali Empire. Various sources cite several other cities as capitals of

1391-461: A lack of definitive archaeological evidence, and the diversity of oral traditions all contribute to this uncertainty. A particular challenge lies in interpreting early Arabic manuscripts, in which, without vowel markings and diacritics, foreign names can be read in numerous different ways (e.g. Biti, Buti, Yiti, Tati). Ibn Battuta and Leo Africanus both call the capital "Mali." Early European writers such as Maurice Delafosse believed that Niani ,

1498-413: A larger area for a longer period of time than any other West African state before or since. What made this possible was the decentralised nature of administration throughout the state. According to Burkinabé writer Joseph Ki-Zerbo , the farther a person travelled from the capital, the more decentralised the mansa 's power became. Nevertheless, the mansa managed to keep tax money and nominal control over

1605-485: A part of many fragmented kingdoms that formed after the collapse of Ghana empire in the 11th century. During the rule of Sundiata Keita , these kingdoms were consolidated, and the Mandinka expanded west from the Niger River basin under Sundiata's general Tiramakhan Traore . This expansion was a part of creating a region of conquest, according to the oral tradition of the Mandinka people. This migration began in

1712-608: A professor of African American Religious History, Musa was highly influential in attracting North African and Middle Eastern Muslims to West Africa. The Mandinka people of Mali converted early, but those who migrated to the west did not convert and retained their traditional religious rites. One of the legends among the Mandingo of western Africa is that the general Tiramakhan Traore led the migration, because people in Mali had converted to Islam and he did not want to. Another legend gives

1819-512: A rich oral history that is passed down through sung versions by griots . This passing down of oral history through music has made the practice of music one of the most distinctive traits of the Mandinka. They have long been known for their drumming and also for their unique musical instrument, the kora . The kora is a twenty-one-stringed West African harp made from a halved, dried, hollowed-out gourd covered with cow or goat skin. The strings are made of fishing line (these were traditionally made from

1926-668: A series of short reigns, often ending in palace coups. While maintaining a firm grip in the south and west, and even expanding in some areas, imperial control of their northernmost provinces was slipping, as attested by the Mossi raids on Macina. In 1433–1434, the Empire lost control of Timbuktu to the Tuareg, led by Akil Ag-Amalwal. Three years later, Oualata also fell into their hands. The rising Songhai Empire conquered Mema , one of Mali's oldest possessions, in 1465. It then seized Timbuktu from

2033-515: A successful hajj , kept up correspondence with Morocco and Egypt. Upon Sulayman's death in 1360, the empire was ruled by a string of short-live, cruel, or incompetent rulers. The kankoro-sigui held increasing influence as a power behind the throne. During this period the Jolof Empire was founded, and soon dominated all of northern Senegambia . In the 1370s a war between Mali imperial forces and Berber Tuareg forces from Takedda devastated

2140-463: A third group expanded with Fakoli Kourouma. With the migration, many gold artisans and metal working Mandinka smiths settled along the coast and in the hilly Fouta Djallon and plateau areas of West Africa. Their presence and products attracted Mandika merchants and brought trading caravans from north Africa and the eastern Sahel , states Toby Green – a professor of African History and Culture. It also brought conflicts with other ethnic groups, such as

2247-457: A very large group of people; the mansa kept a personal guard of some 500 men, and he gave out so many alms and bought so many things that the value of gold in Egypt and Arabia depreciated for twelve years. When he passed through Cairo , historian al-Maqrizi noted "the members of his entourage proceeded to buy Turkish and Ethiopian slave girls, singing girls and garments, so that the rate of

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2354-405: A village near Lake Debo, the messenger sent goes to one of the gates of the ram-parts and from there shouts the message he is to transmit. From village to village, people repeat the words and the message arrives almost immediately at its destination and the man in question goes to the meeting place" The Gbara or Great Assembly would serve as the Mandinka deliberative body and council of state until

2461-586: Is Bamako , the capital of Mali. The Mandinka are the descendants of the Mali Empire , which rose to power in the 13th century under the rule of king Sundiata Keita , who founded an empire that would go on to span a large part of West Africa. They migrated west from the Niger River in search of better agricultural lands and more opportunities for conquest. Nowadays, the Mandinka inhabit the West Sudanian savanna region extending from The Gambia and

2568-480: Is also known through the account of Shihab al-'Umari , written in about 1340 by a geographer-administrator in Mamluk Egypt . His information about the empire came from visiting Malians taking the hajj , or pilgrim's voyage to Mecca . He had first-hand information from several sources, and from a second-hand source he learned of the visit of Mansa Musa . The traveller Ibn Battuta , who visited Mali in 1352 left

2675-526: Is evidenced in the memoirs of the 14th century Moroccan traveller and Islamic historian Ibn Battuta . Slaves were part of the socially stratified Mandinka people, and several Mandinka language words, such as Jong or Jongo refer to slaves. There were fourteen Mandinke kingdoms along the Gambia River in the Senegambia region during the early 19th century, for example, where slaves were a part of

2782-479: Is made in the village or compound for the return of the children. A celebration marks the return of these new adults to their families. As a result of these traditional teachings, in marriage a woman's loyalty remains to her parents and her family; a man's to his. The women among the Mandinka people, like other ethnic groups near them, have traditionally practiced female genital mutilation (FGM), traditionally referred to as "female circumcision." According to UNICEF ,

2889-496: Is minimal; the literacy rate in Latin script among these Mandinka is quite low. But, more than half the adult population can read the local Arabic script (including Mandinka Ajami ). Small Qur'anic schools for children where this is taught are quite common. Mandinka children are given their name on the eighth day after their birth. The children are almost always named after a very important person in their family. The Mandinka have

2996-635: Is of an unclear placement within Manding. The Manding languages have a strong oral tradition , but also have written forms: adaptations of the Arabic alphabet and the Latin alphabet and at least two indigenous scripts . Mandinka people Western Maninka , Eastern Maninka , Kita Maninka language , Mandinka The Mandinka or Malinke are a West African ethnic group primarily found in southern Mali , The Gambia , southern Senegal and eastern Guinea . Numbering about 11 million, they are

3103-443: Is the name of a town or a region. Ibn Battuta who visited the capital city from 1352 to 1353, called it Mali. The 1375 Catalan Atlas portrayed a "city of Melly" ( Catalan : ciutat de Melly ) in West Africa. Leo Africanus said that the capital city was called Melli. However, Ibn Fadlallah al-Umari gives Mali as the name of the capital province and Ibn Khaldun refers to Mali as a people, with each giving different names for

3210-409: Is the predominant profession among the Mandinka, men also work as tailors, butchers, taxi drivers, woodworkers, metalworkers, soldiers, nurses, and extension workers for aid agencies. Today, most Mandinka people practice Islam . Some Mandinka syncretise Islam and traditional African religions . Among these syncretists, it is believed that spirits can be controlled mainly through the power of

3317-512: Is unclear, as there are conflicting and imprecise accounts by both Arab chroniclers and oral traditionalists . The first ruler for which there is accurate written information is Sundiata Keita, a warrior-prince of the Keita dynasty who was called upon to free the local people from the rule of the king of the Sosso Empire , Soumaoro Kanté . The conquest of Sosso in c.  1235 marked

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3424-478: Is unclear, but there was evidently a power struggle of some kind involving the gbara or great council and donson ton or hunter guilds. Some oral traditions agree with Ibn Khaldun in indicating that a son of Sunjata, named Yerelinkon in oral tradition and Wali in Arabic, took power as Sunjata's successor. Two more of Sundiata's sons would reign, as well as a grandson, before a former slave Sakura , seized power. He

3531-867: The Americas . They intermixed with slaves and workers of other ethnicities, creating a Creole culture. The Mandinka people significantly influenced the African heritage of descended peoples now found in Brazil , the Southern United States and, to a lesser extent, the Caribbean . The history of Mandinka, as with many Mandé peoples, begins with the Ghana Empire , also known as Wagadu. Mande hunters founded communities in Manden , which would become

3638-536: The Casamance region in Senegal , Mali , Guinea and Guinea Bissau . Although widespread, the Mandinka constitute the largest ethnic group only in the countries of Mali, Guinea and The Gambia. Most Mandinka live in family-related compounds in traditional rural villages. Their traditional society has featured socially stratified castes. Mandinka communities have been fairly autonomous and self-ruled, being led by

3745-636: The Wolof Empire allowed Mali to reassert authority over some of its former subjects on the north bank of the Gambia, such as Wuli , by 1576. The swan song of the Mali Empire came in 1599, under the reign of Mansa Mahmud IV . The Songhai Empire had fallen to the Saadi Sultanate of Morocco eight years earlier, and Mahmud sought to take advantage of their defeat by trying to capture Jenne . Mahmud sought support from several other rulers, including

3852-455: The Wolof people , particularly the Jolof Empire . The caravan trade to North Africa and Middle East brought Islamic people into Mandinka people's original and expanded home region. The Muslim traders sought presence in the host Mandinka community, and this likely initiated proselytizing efforts to convert the Mandinka from their traditional religious beliefs into Islam. In Ghana , for example,

3959-459: The colonisation of Africa , which makes the picture complex and even confusing. The Mandinka people speak varieties from the first two groups. The differences between the western and eastern branches manifest themselves primarily phonetically . While dialects of the western group usually have 10 vowels (5 oral and 5 long/ nasal ), the eastern group, typified by Bambara, has 14 vowels (7 oral and 7 nasal): In addition, Sininkere (Burkina Faso)

4066-480: The "seat of government" in general rather than being the name of a specific city. Such impermanent capitals are a historically widespread phenomenon, having occurred in other parts of Africa such as Ethiopia , as well as outside Africa, such as in the Holy Roman Empire . The Mansas of Mali used several symbols to demonstrate their power and influence. A red banner struck with a golden disc, referred to as

4173-508: The 'Mali djondjon' or the 'Sun Banner' of Sundiata, appears in oral histories of his coronation. Written sources have Mansa Musa using a similar banner, 'with yellow symbols ( shi’ār ) on a red background', during his visit to Cairo, as well as a parasol. Ibn Battuta records the Mansa using golden and silver lances as imperial regalia. Other royal items included a ruler's cap, slippers, arrows, and bow. The material of which they were made indicated

4280-602: The 13th century. The Mandinka castes are hereditary, and marriages outside the caste was forbidden. Their caste system is similar to those of other ethnic groups of the African Sahel region. These castes are also common across Mandinka communities such as those in The Gambia , Mali , Guinea , and other countries. The Mandinka practice a rite of passage, kuyangwoo , which marks the beginning of adulthood for their children. At an age between four and fourteen,

4387-478: The 16th and 19th centuries. The Portuguese considered slave sources in Guinea and Senegambia parts of Mandinka territory as belonging to them; their 16th to 18th-century slave trade-related documents refer to "our Guinea" and complain about slave traders from other European nations superseding them in the slave trade. Their slave exports from this region nearly doubled in the second half of the 18th century compared to

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4494-558: The 17th century, and most of Mandinka leatherworkers there converted to Islam before the 19th century. Mandinka musicians, however, were last, converting to Islam mostly in the first half of the 20th century. As in other locales, these Muslims have continued some of their pre-Islamic religious practices as well, such as their annual rain ceremony and "sacrifice of the black bull" to their past deities. Most Mandinka live in family-related compounds in traditional rural villages. Mandinka villages are fairly autonomous and self-ruled, being led by

4601-619: The Almoravids had divided its capital into two parts by 1077, one part was Muslim and the other non-Muslim. The Muslim influence from North Africa had arrived in the Mandinka region before this, via Islamic trading diasporas. In 1324, Mansa Musa who ruled Mali , went on Hajj pilgrimage to Mecca with a caravan carrying gold. Shihab al-Umari , the Arabic historian, described his visit and stated that Musa built mosques in his kingdom, established Islamic prayers and took back Maliki school of Sunni jurists with him. According to Richard Turner –

4708-468: The Caribbean until the period between the mid-18th through to the 19th century. During these years, slave trade records show that nearly 33% of the slaves from Senegambia and Guinea-Bissau coasts were Mandinka people. Hawthorne suggests three causes of Mandinka people being taken captive as slaves during this era: small-scale jihads by Muslims against non-Muslim Mandinka, non-religious reasons such as

4815-407: The Mali Empire, and the identification of the listed provinces is controversial. Several of the names are spelled in a variety of ways in different manuscripts. Al-ʿUmari's list, which is quoted with slight differences by al-Qalqashandi, is as follows: Al-ʿUmari also indicates that four Amazigh tribes were subjects of Mali: Gomez instead suggests that these tribes would have inhabited territory in

4922-539: The Mali Empire, some in competition with the Niani hypothesis and others addressing different time periods. A city called Dieriba or Dioliba is sometimes mentioned as the capital or main urban center of the province of Mande in the years before Sundiata, that was later abandoned. Many oral histories point to a town called Dakajalan as the original home of the Keita clan and Sundiata's childhood home and base of operations during

5029-465: The Mandinka are predominantly Muslim, with a few regions where significant portions of the population are not Muslim, such as Guinea Bissau, where 35 percent of the Mandinka practice Islam, more than 20 percent are Christian, and 15 percent follow traditional beliefs. Slave raiding, capture and trading in the Mandinka regions may have existed in significant numbers before the European colonial era, as

5136-422: The Mandinka since pre-Islamic days. A Mandinka man is legally allowed to have up to four wives, as long as he is able to care for each of them equally. Mandinka believe the crowning glory of any woman is the ability to produce children, especially sons. The first wife has authority over any subsequent wives. The husband has complete control over his wives and is responsible for feeding and clothing them. He also helps

5243-541: The Mansa's ultimate authority and paid tribute. At the local level (village, town and city), kun-tiguis (heads of family) elected a dougou-tigui (village-master) from a bloodline descended from that locality's founder. The county level administrators called kafo-tigui were appointed by the governor of the province. Only at the state or province level was there any real interference from the central authority. Provinces picked their own governors via their own custom (election, inheritance, etc.) and, regardless of their title in

5350-633: The Portuguese, primarily from the Jolof people, along with some Mandinka, started in the 15th century, states Green, but the earliest evidence of a trade involving Mandinka slaves is from and after 1497 CE. In parallel with the start of the trans-Atlantic slave trade, the institution of slavery and slave-trading of West Africans into the Mediterranean region and inside Africa continued as a historic normal practice. Slavery grew significantly between

5457-584: The Songhai Empire, sacked the capital of Mali and purportedly used the royal palace as a latrine. However, the Songhai did not maintain their hold on the Malian capital. Mali's fortunes seem to have improved in the second half of the 16th century. Around 1550, Mali attacked Bighu in an effort to regain access to its gold. Songhai authority over Bendugu and Kala declined by 1571, and Mali may have been able to reassert some authority over them. The breakup of

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5564-605: The Sosso army at the Battle of Kirina in approximately 1235. Maghan Sundiata was declared mansa over all the 12 kingdoms in an alliance that became the Mali Empire. During his reign, Sundiata's generals continued to expand the empire's frontiers, reaching from Kaabu in the west, Takrur , Oualata and Audaghost in the north, and the Soninke Wangara goldfields in the south. The transfer of power following Sunjata's death

5671-451: The Tuareg in 1468 under Sunni Ali Ber . In 1477, the Mossi emperor Nasséré made yet another raid into Macina, this time conquering it and the old province of BaGhana (Wagadou). In an attempt to stem the tide, Mansa Mahmud Keita II opened diplomatic relations with Portugal , receiving the envoys Pêro d'Évora and Gonçalo Enes in 1487. In 1493 he sent another envoy proposing an alliance against

5778-518: The apparent cognate status of Mali and Mandé . The first Mande people entered the Manding region during the period of the Ghana Empire . The Manden city-state of Ka-ba (present-day Kangaba ) served as the capital and name of the province. From at least the beginning of the 11th century, Mandinka kings ruled Manden from Ka-ba in the name of the Ghanas. The ruler was elected from among the heads of

5885-469: The area for defence or putting down rebellions. This system tended to promote assimilation into the empire. The mansa's second in command was a general, thought to have been chief of the armed forces. The santigui was the chief of the treasury and managed the royal granaries and valuable goods such as gold and gems. The griot played a very important role in the royal court. He was the tutor of princes and master of ceremonies, and served as an advisor to

5992-415: The area was an important trade and manufacturing center in the 15th century, but no firm evidence of royal residence has come to light. Niani's reputation as an imperial capital may derive from its importance in the late imperial period, when the Songhai Empire to the northeast pushed Mali back to the Manding heartland. Several 21st century historians have firmly rejected Niani as a capital candidate based on

6099-458: The area without agitating his subjects into revolt. The Malian state balanced centralization and decentralization by dividing the empire into a series of provinces and vassal states that had been either conquered or annexed, respectively. These were administered in different ways. The Mali Empire reached its largest area under the Abubakrids, the lineage of Mansa Musa. Al-Umari, who wrote down

6206-541: The capital city itself. Whether Mali originated as the name of a town or region, the name was subsequently applied to the entire empire ruled from Mali. Another hypothesis suggests that the name Mali is derived from Mandé mali " hippopotamus ", an animal that had special significance to the Keitas, and that Mandé means "little manatee". A legend claims that Sunjata transformed into a hippopotamus. However, these hypotheses have been rejected by locals and are inconsistent with

6313-543: The capital in 1670. The Mali Empire rapidly disintegrated, being replaced by independent chiefdoms. The Keitas retreated to the town of Kangaba , where they became provincial chiefs. Much of the recorded information about the Mali Empire comes from 14th century Tunisian historian Ibn Khaldun , 14th century Moroccan traveller Ibn Battuta and 16th century Andalusian traveller Leo Africanus . The other major source of information comes from Mandinka oral tradition , as recorded by storytellers known as griots . Imperial Mali

6420-613: The centers of this slavery-perpetuating violence. Farim of Kaabu (the commander of Mandinka people in Kaabu) energetically hunted for slaves on a large scale. Martin Klein (a professor of African Studies) states that Kaabu was one of the early suppliers of African slaves to European merchants. The historian Walter Rodney states that Mandinka and other ethnic groups already held slaves who had inherited slavery by birth, and who could be sold. The Islamic armies from Sudan had long established

6527-437: The city of Gao . The area around it became independent of Malian control around this time. Still, by the time of Mansa Musa Keita II's death in 1387, Mali was financially solvent and in control of all of its previous conquests except Gao and Dyolof. Forty years after the reign of Mansa Musa Keita I, the Mali Empire still controlled some 1,100,000 square kilometres (420,000 sq mi) of land. The late 14th century again saw

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6634-479: The collapse of the empire in 1645. Its first meeting, at the famous Kouroukan Fouga (Division of the World), had 29 clan delegates presided over by a belen-tigui (master of ceremony). The Kouroukan Fouga put in place social and economic reforms including prohibitions on the maltreatment of prisoners and slaves, installing documents between clans which clearly stated who could say what about whom. Also, Sundiata divided

6741-406: The culture of the region through the spread of its language , laws, and customs. The empire began as a small Mandinka kingdom at the upper reaches of the Niger River , centered around the Manding region . It began to develop during the 11th and 12th centuries as the Ghana Empire , or Wagadu, declined and trade epicentres shifted southward. The history of the Mali Empire before the 13th century

6848-616: The desert. He describes it as being north of Mali but under its domination implying some sort of vassalage for the Antasar, Yantar'ras, Medussa and Lemtuna Berber tribes, with garrisons kept at Oualata , Timbuktu , Koumbi , and Gao , and responsibility of governing the Sahara given to the military commander ( sura farin ). The empire's total area included nearly all the land between the Sahara Desert and coastal forests. It spanned

6955-560: The economic greed of Islamic elites who wanted imports of goods and tools from the coast, and attacks by the Fula people on the Mandinka's Kaabu , with consequent cycle of violence. In the 21st century, the Mandinka continue as rural subsistence farmers who rely on peanuts , rice , millet , maize , and small-scale husbandry for their livelihood. During the wet season , men plant peanuts as their main cash crop. Men also grow millet. The women grow rice (traditionally, African rice ), tending

7062-477: The emergence of Mali as a major power, with the Kouroukan Fouga as its constitution. Following the death of Sundiata Keita, in c.  1255 , the kings of Mali were referred to by the title mansa . In c.  1285 Sakoura , a former royal court slave, became emperor and was one of Mali's most powerful rulers, greatly expanding the empire's territory. He made a pilgrimage to Mecca during

7169-483: The end of Mali's Golden Age and the beginning of a slow decline. The Tarikh al-Sudan records that Mali was still a sizeable state in the 15th century. At that time, the Venetian explorer Alvise Cadamosto and Portuguese traders confirmed that the peoples who settled within Gambia River were still subject to the mansa of Mali. Upon Leo Africanus 's visit at the beginning of the 16th century, his descriptions of

7276-513: The end of the Mali Empire. As founded by Mari Djata, it was composed of the "three freely allied states" of Mali, Mema and Wagadou plus the Twelve Doors of Mali . The Twelve Doors of Mali were a coalition of conquered or allied territories, mostly within Manden, with sworn allegiance to Sundiata and his descendants. Upon stabbing their spears into the ground before Sundiata's throne, each of

7383-399: The female genital mutilation practices. Marriages are traditionally arranged by family members rather than by either the bride or groom. This practice is particularly prevalent in the rural areas. The suitor's family formally sends Kola nuts, a bitter nut from a tree, to the male elders of the bride-to-be. If they accept the nuts, the courtship may begin. Polygamy has been practiced among

7490-540: The female genital mutilation prevalence rates among the Mandinka of The Gambia is the highest at over 96%, followed by FGM among the women of the Jola people at 91%, and Fula people at 88%. Among the Mandinka women of some other countries of West Africa, the FGM prevalence rates are lower, but still range between 40% and 90%. This cultural practice, locally called Niaka or Kuyungo or Musolula Karoola or Bondo , involves

7597-431: The first account of a West African kingdom made directly by an eyewitness; the others are usually second-hand. The third great account is that of Ibn Khaldun , who wrote in the early 15th century. While the accounts are of limited length, they provide a fairly good picture of the empire at its height. After Ibn Khaldun's death in 1406, there are no further Arab primary sources except for Leo Africanus , who wrote more than

7704-467: The first, and most of these slaves disembarked in Brazil. Scholars have offered several theories on the source of the transatlantic slave trade of Mandinka people. According to Boubacar Barry, a professor of History and African Studies, chronic violence between ethnic groups such as the Mandinka people and their neighbours, combined with weapons sold by slave traders and lucrative income from slave ships to

7811-441: The freeborn ( foro ), slaves ( jongo ), and artisans and praise singers ( nyamolo ). The freeborn castes are primarily farmers. The enslaved strata included labor providers to the farmers, as well as leather workers, pottery makers, metal smiths, griots , and others. The Mandinka Muslim clerics and scribes have traditionally been considered a separate occupational caste called Jakhanke , with their Islamic roots traceable to about

7918-546: The gold dinar fell by six dirhams ." In addition to his famous hajj, Musa built mosques and palaces in Timbuktu and Gao , and took control of the valuable salt mine of Taghazza . Mansa Musa's son Maghan I ruled for only a few years before being succeeded (or overthrown) by his uncle Sulayman . Sulayman's reign continued Mali's golden age, as attested by the writer Ibn Battuta who arrived in Mali in July 1352, and he made

8025-590: The governor of Kala, Bukar. Bukar professed his support, but believing Mahmud's situation to be hopeless, secretly went over to the Moroccans. The Malian and Moroccan armies fought at Jenne on 26 April , the last day of Ramadan, and the Moroccans were victorious thanks to their firearms and Bukar's support, but Mahmud was able to escape. Around 1610, Mahmud Keita IV died. Oral tradition states that he had three sons who fought over Manden's remains. No single Keita ever ruled Manden after Mahmud Keita IV's death, resulting in

8132-437: The king. The mansa often liked to play the role "father of his people", dispensing justice himself in solemn sessions, and he listened personally to a subject's grievances against a farin . The post of farin was very prestigious, and his descendants could inherit it with the mansa' s approval. The mansa could also replace a farin swiftly. Most of the empire consisted of autonomous kingdoms of communities who recognized

8239-549: The lands amongst the people assuring everyone had a place in the empire and fixed exchange rates for common products. The final incarnation of the Gbara, according to the surviving traditions of northern Guinea , held 32 positions occupied by 28 clans. It functioned as the ruler's cabinet, with different dignitaries given different portfolios (war, justice, economy, foreign relations, religion, etc.), and all major social groups of Mande society were represented. The Mali Empire covered

8346-631: The largest subgroup of the Mandé peoples and one of the largest ethnolinguistic groups in Africa . They speak the Manding languages in the Mande language family, which are a lingua franca in much of West Africa. Virtually all of Mandinka people are adherent to Islam , mostly based on the Maliki jurisprudence. They are predominantly subsistence farmers and live in rural villages. Their largest urban center

8453-600: The later part of the 13th century. The beginnings of Mandinka We originated from Tumbuktu in the land of the Mandinka: the Arabs were our neighbours there... All the Mandinka came from Mali to Kaabu . — Mandinka de Bijini , Transl: Toby Green The oral traditions in Guinea-Bissau Another group of Mandinka people, under Faran Kamara – the son of the king of Tabou – expanded southeast of Mali, while

8560-402: The latter may have begun as a suburb of the former. According to Jules Vidal and Levtzion, citing oral histories from Kangaba and Keyla, another onetime capital was Manikoro or Mali-Kura, founded after the destruction of Niani. Parallel to this debate, many scholars have argued that the Mali Empire may not have had a permanent "capital" in the sense that the word is used today, and historically

8667-550: The major clans, and at this time had little real power. Wagadou's control over Manden ended in the 12th century. The Kangaba province, free of Soninké influence, splintered into twelve kingdoms with their own faama . In approximately 1140 the Sosso kingdom of Kaniaga , another former vassal of Wagadou, began conquering the lands of its old rulers. In 1203, the Sosso king and sorcerer Soumaoro Kanté came to power and reportedly terrorised much of Manden. Sundiata Keita , born during

8774-458: The modern-day countries of Senegal, southern Mauritania , Mali, northern Burkina Faso , western Niger , the Gambia , Guinea-Bissau , Guinea, the Ivory Coast and northern Ghana. By 1350, the empire covered approximately 478,819 square miles (1,240,140 km). Al-ʿUmari reported that Mali had fourteen provinces. His list does not necessarily accurately reflect the actual organization of

8881-441: The monarch were governed by strict protocol. Conquered areas were ruled directly by the state through a farin (also called farin-ba or farba ), essentially a military governor, chosen by the Mansa. Duties of the farin included managing the garrison, collecting taxes and customs duties, and controlling the local administration of justice. He could also take power away from the native administration if required and raise an army in

8988-544: The partial or total removal of the clitoris, or alternatively, the partial or total removal of the labia minora with the clitoris. Some surveys, such as those by the Gambia Committee on Traditional Practices (GAMCOTRAP), estimate FGM is prevalent among 100% of the Mandinka in Gambia . In 2010, after community efforts of UNICEF and the local government bodies, several Mandinka women's organization pledged to abandon

9095-497: The plants by hand. This is extremely labour-intensive and physically demanding work. Only about 50% of the rice consumption needs are met by local planting; the rest is imported from Asia and the United States. The oldest male is the head of the family, and marriages are commonly arranged. Small mud houses with conical thatch or tin roofs make up their villages, which are organised on the basis of clan groups. While farming

9202-641: The political and cultural center of the Mandinka, but also in Bambuk and the Senegal river valley. The Mande diaspora from Ghana extended from the Atlantic Ocean to Gao . The mythical ancestors of the Malinké and the Bambara people are Kontron and Sanin, the founding "hunter brotherhood". Manden was famous for the large number of animals and game that it sheltered, as well as its dense vegetation, so

9309-464: The practice of slave raids and trade. Fula jihad from Futa Jallon plateau perpetuated and expanded this practice. These jihads captured the highest number of slaves to sell to Portuguese traders at the ports controlled by Mandinka people. The insecure ethnic groups, states Rodney, stopped working productively and tried to withdraw for security, which made their social and economic conditions more desperate. Though less powerful, such groups also joined

9416-566: The province, were recognised as dyamani-tigui (province-master) by the mansa . Dyamani-tiguis had to be approved by the mansa and were subject to his oversight. If the mansa didn't believe the dyamani-tigui was capable or trustworthy, a farba might be installed to oversee the province or administer it outright. Conquered territories that had proven quiescent could receive this level of autonomy rather than remain under direct rule, but territories that were crucial to trade or subject to revolt could and did lose this privilege as well and have

9523-412: The rank of the holder: gold was the highest, and reserved for the Mansa, followed in descending order by silver, brass, iron, and wood. The rulers of Kaabu held a silver lance, for example, while the king of Guinala , one of their subordinates, held a bow and arrows of iron. The majority of the population were farmers, with this being the base of the economy, and food was abundant. Whilst cattle-rearing

9630-480: The reign of Mamluk Sultan An-Nasir Muhammad (r. 1298–1308), but died on his voyage home. Mansa Musa took the throne in c.  1312 . He made a famous pilgrimage to Mecca from 1324 to 1326, where his generous gifts and his expenditure of gold caused significant inflation in Egypt. Maghan I succeeded him as mansa in 1337, but was deposed by his uncle Suleyman in 1341. It was during Suleyman's 19-year reign that Ibn Battuta visited Mali. Suleyman's death marked

9737-521: The retaliatory cycle of slave raids and violence. Walter Hawthorne (a professor of African History) states that the Barry and Rodney explanation was not universally true for all of Senegambia and Guinea, where high concentrations of Mandinka people have traditionally lived. Hawthorne says that numerous Mandinka were not exported to the various European colonies in North America, South America and

9844-499: The rise of Kaniaga, was the son of Niani's faama , Nare Fa (also known as Maghan Kon Fatta, meaning the handsome prince). Upon his father's death, he was forced into exile along with his mother and two sisters. After many years in exile, Sundiata led the combined armies of Mema , Wagadou and the Mandinka city-states in a revolt against the Kaniaga Kingdom around 1234. The combined forces of northern and southern Manden defeated

9951-458: The same word across different languages and dialects. The version recorded by medieval Arab geographers is Mali ( Arabic : مالي , romanized :  Mālī ). Mali is the Fula form of the word. In the Manding languages , the modern descendants of the language spoken at the core of the Mali Empire, Manden or Manding is the name of the region corresponding to the heartland of the Mali Empire. Medieval sources are divided over whether Mali

10058-431: The slave sellers, fed the practice of groups raiding for captives, conducting manhunts, and taking slaves. The victimised ethnic group felt justified in retaliating. Slavery was already an accepted practice before the 15th century, when most enslaved people were taken on routes to North Africa and western Asia by Arab traders. As the demand grew, states Barry, Futa Jallon, led by an Islamic military theocracy, became one of

10165-521: The social strata in all these kingdoms. According to Toby Green, selling slaves along with gold was already a significant part of the trans-Saharan caravan trade across the Sahel between West Africa and the Middle East after the 13th century. With the arrival of Portuguese explorers in Africa as they looked for a sea route to India, the European purchase of slaves had begun. The shipment of slaves by

10272-565: The territorial domains of Mali showed that it was still a kingdom of considerable size. However, from 1507 onwards neighboring states such as Diarra , Great Fulo , Yatenga , and the Songhai Empire chipped away at Mali's borders. In 1542, the Songhai invaded the capital but were unsuccessful in conquering the empire. During the 17th century, the Mali Empire faced incursions from the Bamana Empire , who ultimately sacked and burned

10379-591: The threat of Tenguella , but this came to nothing. Songhai forces under the command of Askia Muhammad I defeated the Mali general Fati Quali Keita in 1502 and seized the province of Diafunu. In 1514, the Denianke dynasty was established in Tekrour and it was not long before the new kingdom of Great Fulo was warring against Mali's remaining provinces. In 1544 or 1545, a Songhai force led by kanfari Dawud , who later succeeded his brother Askia Ishaq as ruler of

10486-450: The twelve kings relinquished their kingdom to the Keita dynasty. In return for their submission, they became "farbas", a combination of the Mandinka words "farin" and "ba" (great farin). Farin was a general term for northern commander at the time. These farbas would rule their old kingdoms in the name of the mansa with most of the authority they held prior to joining the empire. The Mansa held ultimate, unquestioned authority. Audiences with

10593-479: The vicinity of Mema, Ghana, and Diafunu. The identity of the capital city of the Mali Empire is a matter of dispute among historians. Scholars have located the capital in Niani, or somewhere on the Niger, or proposed that it changed several times, that there was no true capital, or even that it lay as far afield as the upper Gambia River in modern-day Senegal . Seemingly contradictory reports written by Arab visitors,

10700-627: The war against the Soso. It may have been located close to modern Kangaba . Mande bards in the region speak of the Dakajalan site, containing Sundiata's grave, as sacrosanct. Kangaba became the last refuge of the Keita royal family after the collapse of the Mali Empire, and so has for centuries been associated with Sundiata in the cultural imagination of Mande peoples. If Dakajalan was, in fact, situated near Kangaba, this may also have contributed to their conflation, beginning with Delafosse's speculation that

10807-412: The wives' parents when necessary. Wives are expected to live together in harmony , at least superficially. They share work responsibilities of the compound, such as cooking, laundry, and other tasks. Mandinka culture is rich in tradition, music, and spiritual ritual. The Mandinka continue a long oral history tradition through stories, songs, and proverbs. In rural areas, the influence of western education

10914-430: The youngsters have their genitalia ritually mutilated (see articles on male and female genital mutilation ), in separate groups according to their sex. In years past, the children spent up to a year in the bush, but that has been reduced now to coincide with their physical healing time, between three and four weeks. During this time, they learn about their adult social responsibilities and rules of behaviour. Preparation

11021-516: Was a speciality of the Fulani , peoples of the Niger were raising sheep, goats, and cattle by the 14th century. The Bozo , Somono , and Sorko people specialised in fishing. Manding languages The Manding languages, the differences from one another and relationships among them are matters that continue to be researched. In addition, the nomenclature is a mixture of indigenous terms and words applied by English and French speakers since before

11128-459: Was a very popular hunting ground. The Camara (or Kamara) are believed to be the oldest family to have lived in Manden, after having left Wagadou, due to drought. They founded the first village of Manding, Kiri, then Kirina, Siby , Kita . A very large number of families that make up the Mandinka community were born in Manden. Manding is the province from which the Mali Empire started, under the leadership of Sundiata Keita . The Manden were initially

11235-597: Was able to stabilize the political situation in Mali. Under his leadership, Mali conquered new territories and trade with North Africa increased. After Sakura's death, power returned to the line of Sunjata, with Qu taking the throne. He was succeeded by his son Muhammad , who launched two voyages to explore the Atlantic Ocean . After the loss of the first expedition, Muhammad led the second expedition himself. He left his cousin Kanku Musa in charge during his absence. Eventually, due to Muhammad's failure to return, Musa

11342-527: Was recognized as mansa in approximately 1312. The reign of Kankan Musa, better known as Mansa Musa , is considered the golden age of Mali. A devout and well-educated Muslim, he took an interest in the scholarly city of Timbuktu , which he peaceably annexed in 1324, and transformed Sankore from an informal madrasah into an Islamic university. Mansa Musa Keita's crowning achievement was his famous 1324 pilgrimage to Mecca . Accounts of how many people and how much gold he spent vary. All of them agree that he took

11449-429: Was used in the Mediterranean world. Rather, authority would rest with the mansa and his court, wherever he went. Therefore, Arabic visitors may have assigned the "capital" label merely to whatever major city the mansa was based out of at the time of their visit. It has been suggested that the name given in the Arabic sources for the capital of Mali is derived the Manding word "bambi", meaning " dais ", and as such refers to

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