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152-430: Generally speaking, the current knowledge of Viking art relies heavily upon more durable objects of metal and stone ; wood , bone , ivory and textiles are more rarely preserved. The artistic record, therefore, as it has survived to the present day, remains significantly incomplete. Ongoing archaeological excavation and opportunistic finds, of course, may improve this situation in the future, as indeed they have in

304-580: A chemical element such as iron ; an alloy such as stainless steel ; or a molecular compound such as polymeric sulfur nitride . The general science of metals is called metallurgy , a subtopic of materials science ; aspects of the electronic and thermal properties are also within the scope of condensed matter physics and solid-state chemistry , it is a multidisciplinary topic. In colloquial use materials such as steel alloys are referred to as metals, while others such as polymers, wood or ceramics are nonmetallic materials . A metal conducts electricity at

456-578: A plasma (physics) is a metallic conductor and the charged particles in a plasma have many properties in common with those of electrons in elemental metals, particularly for white dwarf stars. Metals are relatively good conductors of heat , which in metals is transported mainly by the conduction electrons. At higher temperatures the electrons can occupy slightly higher energy levels given by Fermi–Dirac statistics . These have slightly higher momenta ( kinetic energy ) and can pass on thermal energy. The empirical Wiedemann–Franz law states that in many metals

608-435: A semiconducting metalloid such as boron has an electrical conductivity 1.5 × 10 S/cm. With one exception, metallic elements reduce their electrical conductivity when heated. Plutonium increases its electrical conductivity when heated in the temperature range of around −175 to +125 °C, with anomalously large thermal expansion coefficient and a phase change from monoclinic to face-centered cubic near 100  °C. There

760-504: A "gripping beast" biting the terminal plate. The mixture of types seen in the 10th century Penrith Hoard is typical. Insular brooches had been taken back to Scandinavia, and began to be produced there in the 10th century for wearing singly by men at the shoulder; Viking women wore pairs of characteristic oval brooches on the upper breast. Most were simpler than Insular examples, and several hundred in "tinned bronze rather than silver" are known. The 10th century Danish Møllerløkken Brooch

912-454: A base metal as it is oxidized relatively easily, although it does not react with HCl. The term noble metal (also for elements) is commonly used in opposition to base metal . Noble metals are less reactive, resistant to corrosion or oxidation , unlike most base metals . They tend to be precious metals, often due to perceived rarity. Examples include gold, platinum, silver, rhodium , iridium, and palladium. In alchemy and numismatics ,

1064-467: A ceremonial parade weapon that was the property of a man of princely status, his burial clothes bearing elaborate embroidery and trimmed with silk and fur. On one face, the Mammen axe features a large bird with pelleted body, crest, circular eye, and upright head and beak with lappet. A large shell-spiral marks the bird's hip, from which point its thinly elongated wings emerge: the right wing interlaces with

1216-520: A claim by the landowner), and Waterhouse chose to link it to the site associated with the High Kings of Ireland, "fully aware that this would feed the Irish middle-class fantasy of being descended from them". Describing the trend in the mid-20th century, Adolf Mahr described the tendency for giving brooches —and more importantly their replicas— such titles as "fanciful (and sometimes ridiculous)...by

1368-579: A difference in decorative styles between front and back, with "Celtic" triskeles and other spiral motifs restricted to the back, while the front has more interlace and zoomorphic elements. These features are also shared by the most ornate brooches in London and Edinburgh, respectively the Londesborough and Hunterston Brooches . This may be because decoration on the backs relies more on engraving than filigree, which would risk wires getting caught in

1520-690: A few micrometres appear opaque, but gold leaf transmits green light. This is due to the freely moving electrons which reflect light. Although most elemental metals have higher densities than nonmetals , there is a wide variation in their densities, lithium being the least dense (0.534 g/cm ) and osmium (22.59 g/cm ) the most dense. Some of the 6d transition metals are expected to be denser than osmium, but their known isotopes are too unstable for bulk production to be possible Magnesium, aluminium and titanium are light metals of significant commercial importance. Their respective densities of 1.7, 2.7, and 4.5 g/cm can be compared to those of

1672-443: A few—beryllium, chromium, manganese, gallium, and bismuth—are brittle. Arsenic and antimony, if admitted as metals, are brittle. Low values of the ratio of bulk elastic modulus to shear modulus ( Pugh's criterion ) are indicative of intrinsic brittleness. A material is brittle if it is hard for dislocations to move, which is often associated with large Burgers vectors and only a limited number of slip planes. A refractory metal

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1824-515: A firm of Dublin jewellers". By the time the Tara brooch passed to what is now the National Museum of Ireland in the 1870s, the "Tara brooch" had become a generic term for Celtic Revival brooches, some of which were now being made by Indian workshops for export to Europe. Penannular brooches are a characteristic type of Berber traditional silver jewellery , worn until the second half of

1976-616: A group of runestones with animal and plant motifs in the Ringerike district north of Oslo . The most common motifs are lions, birds, band-shaped animals and spirals. Some elements appear for the first time in Scandinavian art, such as different types of crosses, palmettes and pretzel-shaped nooses that tie together two motifs. Most of the motifs have counterparts in Anglo-Saxon , Insular and Ottonian art . The Urnes Style

2128-536: A group of gilt-bronze harness mounts recovered from a ship grave in Borre mound cemetery near the village of Borre , Vestfold , Norway , and from which the name of the style derives. Borre Style prevailed in Scandinavia from the late 9th through to the late 10th century, a timeframe supported by dendrochronological data supplied from sites with characteristically Borre Style artifacts The 'gripping beast' with

2280-695: A key difference between Mammen and Ringerike ornament. The inter-relationship between the two styles is obvious, however, when comparing the Vang Stone animal with that found on the Jelling Stone . (HST DIG25846)]] With regard to metalwork, Ringerike Style is best seen in two copper-gilt weather-vanes , from Källunge, Gotland and from Söderala, Hälsingland (the Söderala vane ), both in Sweden. The former displays one face two axially-constructed loops in

2432-511: A lower atomic number) by neutron capture , with the two main modes of this repetitive capture being the s-process and the r-process . In the s-process ("s" stands for "slow"), singular captures are separated by years or decades, allowing the less stable nuclei to beta decay , while in the r-process ("rapid"), captures happen faster than nuclei can decay. Therefore, the s-process takes a more-or-less clear path: for example, stable cadmium-110 nuclei are successively bombarded by free neutrons inside

2584-564: A mark of royal status, along with wearing a purple cloak, and it is probably as such that they are worn by Christ on a high cross at Monasterboice and by the Virgin Mary on another. All surviving examples, numbering over 50 (not all complete) in the case of the Irish ones, have been recovered by excavation, or at least finding in the ground, but where the detailed circumstances of the find are known, few are from graves, and finds in hoards are much more common. When they were in graves,

2736-514: A real metal. In this respect they resemble degenerate semiconductors . This explains why the electrical properties of semimetals are partway between those of metals and semiconductors . There are additional types, in particular Weyl and Dirac semimetals . The classic elemental semimetallic elements are arsenic , antimony , bismuth , α- tin (gray tin) and graphite . There are also chemical compounds , such as mercury telluride (HgTe), and some conductive polymers . Metallic elements up to

2888-479: A regular pattern of small tapering projections, like the two lowest brooches from the Penrith Hoard illustrated here. These, and other globular endings to terminals and pin-heads, were common, but flattened terminals continued to be made, now ornamented by round silver bosses amid simple repeated patterns, or interlace that is larger in scale than in the earlier ornate badges. In these, the ring often ends in

3040-407: A result of a neutron star merger, thereby increasing the abundance of elements heavier than helium in the interstellar medium . When gravitational attraction causes this matter to coalesce and collapse new stars and planets are formed . The Earth's crust is made of approximately 25% of metallic elements by weight, of which 80% are light metals such as sodium, magnesium, and aluminium. Despite

3192-491: A ribbon-shaped body continues as a characteristic of this and earlier styles. As with geometric patterning in this phase, the visual thrust of the Borre Style results from the filling of available space: ribbon animal plaits are tightly interlaced and animal bodies are arranged to create tight, closed compositions. As a result, any background is markedly absent – a characteristic of the Borre Style that contrasts strongly with

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3344-464: A ring; the pin can move freely around the ring as far as the terminals, which are close together. In the true penannular type, the ring is not closed; there is a gap between the terminals wide enough for the pin to pass through. In the pseudo-penannular type, the ring is closed, but there are still two separately defined terminals, which are joined by a further element. The penannular type is a simple and efficient way of fastening loosely woven cloth (where

3496-483: A role as investments and a store of value . Palladium and platinum, as of summer 2024, were valued at slightly less than half the price of gold, while silver is substantially less expensive. In electrochemistry, a valve metal is a metal which passes current in only one direction due to the formation of any insulating oxide later. There are many ceramic compounds which have metallic electrical conduction, but are not simple combinations of metallic elements. (They are not

3648-526: A seasonal basis. Subsequently, Viking activities diversified to include trading voyages to the east, west, and south of their Scandinavian homelands, with repeated and regular voyages following river systems east into Russia and the Black and Caspian Sea regions, and west to the coastlines of the British Isles , Iceland and Greenland . Evidence exists for Vikings reaching Newfoundland well before

3800-479: A shield. One of these scenes depicted the god Thor 's fishing expedition, which motif is also referenced in a 10th-century poem by Úlfr Uggason describing the paintings in a newly constructed hall in Iceland. A continuous artistic tradition common to most of north-western Europe and developing from the 4th century CE formed the foundations on which Viking Age art and decoration were built: from that period onwards,

3952-533: A small section joining the two terminals. Others have fully joined terminals, and emphasize in their design the central area where the gap would be—for example the Tara Brooch. Pseudo-penannular brooches may also be described as "annular", or as "ring brooches". The terms "open brooch" or "open ring brooch" are also sometimes used for penannular brooches. There is a scheme of classification originally set out, in relation to earlier types, by Elizabeth Fowler in

4104-677: A star that are heavier than helium . In this sense the first four "metals" collecting in stellar cores through nucleosynthesis are carbon , nitrogen , oxygen , and neon . A star fuses lighter atoms, mostly hydrogen and helium, into heavier atoms over its lifetime. The metallicity of an astronomical object is the proportion of its matter made up of the heavier chemical elements. The strength and resilience of some metals has led to their frequent use in, for example, high-rise building and bridge construction , as well as most vehicles, many home appliances , tools, pipes, and railroad tracks. Precious metals were historically used as coinage , but in

4256-400: A star until they form cadmium-115 nuclei which are unstable and decay to form indium-115 (which is nearly stable, with a half-life 30 000 times the age of the universe). These nuclei capture neutrons and form indium-116, which is unstable, and decays to form tin-116, and so on. In contrast, there is no such path in the r-process. The s-process stops at bismuth due to the short half-lives of

4408-471: A temperature of absolute zero , which is a consequence of delocalized states at the Fermi energy. Many elements and compounds become metallic under high pressures, for example, iodine gradually becomes a metal at a pressure of between 40 and 170 thousand times atmospheric pressure . Sodium becomes a nonmetal at pressure of just under two million times atmospheric pressure, and at even higher pressures it

4560-665: A well-preserved and highly decorated longship discovered in a large burial mound at the Oseberg farm near Tønsberg in Vestfold , Norway , which also contained a number of other richly decorated wooden objects. Currently located at the Viking Ship Museum , Bygdøy , and over 70 feet long, the Oseberg Ship held the remains of two women and many precious objects that were probably removed by robbers early before it

4712-420: A wolf, with surface ornamentation in the form of interwoven animals that twist and turn as they are gripping and snapping. The Broa style , named after a bridle-mount found at Broa, Halla parish, Gotland, is sometimes included with the Oseberg style, and sometimes held as its own. The Borre Style embraces a range of geometric interlace / knot patterns and zoomorphic (single animal) motifs, first recognised in

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4864-403: Is Latin for "brooch" and is used in modern languages to describe the many types of Roman and post-Roman Early Medieval brooches with pins and catches behind the main face of the brooch. The brooches discussed here are sometimes also called fibulae , but rarely by English-speaking specialists. With a penannular brooch, the pin is pushed through folds of the cloth, which are then pulled back inside

5016-403: Is a metal that is very resistant to heat and wear. Which metals belong to this category varies; the most common definition includes niobium, molybdenum, tantalum, tungsten, and rhenium as well as their alloys. They all have melting points above 2000 °C, and a high hardness at room temperature. Several compounds such as titanium nitride are also described as refractory metals. A white metal

5168-551: Is almost the full range known to man." Two techniques that do not appear are the "true pierced openwork interasile , much used in Byzantine jewellery", and the cloisonné work that typified much Western European jewellery, and especially large fibulae, at the time, whether in enamel or stone inlays like the garnets used so effectively at Sutton Hoo and in the Anglo-Saxon Staffordshire Hoard . In

5320-611: Is any of a range of white-colored alloys with relatively low melting points used mainly for decorative purposes. In Britain, the fine art trade uses the term "white metal" in auction catalogues to describe foreign silver items which do not carry British Assay Office marks, but which are nonetheless understood to be silver and are priced accordingly. A heavy metal is any relatively dense metal, either single element or multielement. Magnesium , aluminium and titanium alloys are light metals of significant commercial importance. Their densities of 1.7, 2.7 and 4.5 g/cm range from 19 to 56% of

5472-484: Is composed mostly of iron, is thought to be the source of Earth's protective magnetic field. The core lies above Earth's solid inner core and below its mantle. If it could be rearranged into a column having a 5 m (54 sq ft) footprint it would have a height of nearly 700 light years. The magnetic field shields the Earth from the charged particles of the solar wind, and cosmic rays that would otherwise strip away

5624-572: Is evidence that this and comparable behavior in transuranic elements is due to more complex relativistic and spin interactions which are not captured in simple models. All of the metallic alloys as well as conducting ceramics and polymers are metals by the same definition; for instance titanium nitride has delocalized states at the Fermi level. They have electrical conductivities similar to those of elemental metals. Liquid forms are also metallic conductors or electricity, for instance mercury . In normal conditions no gases are metallic conductors. However,

5776-422: Is expected to become a metal again. When discussing the periodic table and some chemical properties the term metal is often used to denote those elements which in pure form and at standard conditions are metals in the sense of electrical conduction mentioned above. The related term metallic may also be used for types of dopant atoms or alloying elements. In astronomy metal refers to all chemical elements in

5928-517: Is frequently recovered from Viking period graves , on account of the widespread practice of making burials accompanied by grave goods . The deceased was dressed in their best clothing and jewelry, and was interred with weapons, tools, and household goods. Less common, but significant nonetheless, are finds of precious metal objects in the form of treasure hoards , many apparently concealed for safe-keeping by owners later unable to recover their contents, although some may have been deposited as offerings to

6080-575: Is inevitably true of the textile arts, although weaving and embroidery were clearly well-developed crafts." With the exception of the Gotlandic picture stones prevalent in Sweden early in the Viking period, stone carving was apparently not practiced elsewhere in Scandinavia until the mid-10th century and the creation of the royal monuments at Jelling in Denmark . Subsequently, and likely influenced by

6232-548: Is no external voltage . When a voltage is applied some move a little faster in a given direction, some a little slower so there is a net drift velocity which leads to an electric current. This involves small changes in which wavefunctions the electrons are in, changing to those with the higher momenta. Quantum mechanics dictates that one can only have one electron in a given state, the Pauli exclusion principle . Therefore there have to be empty delocalized electron states (with

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6384-628: Is no ring, but the elaborate head is connected to a pin of very variable length by a short tab of metal that can move on joints at both ends; there is also usually a cord for winding round the pin to secure it. Only 14 of these brooches have been found to date in Ireland, many incomplete, and none elsewhere; five of these are from Dublin, the earliest from the 940s. They appear for about a further two centuries; typical medieval ring brooches dated to after 1200 have few distinctively Irish characteristics. The brooches we have today have been discovered since

6536-474: Is not. In the context of metals, an alloy is a substance having metallic properties which is composed of two or more elements . Often at least one of these is a metallic element; the term "alloy" is sometimes used more generally as in silicon–germanium alloys. An alloy may have a variable or fixed composition. For example, gold and silver form an alloy in which the proportions of gold or silver can be varied; titanium and silicon form an alloy TiSi 2 in which

6688-575: Is positioned at the center of a cube of eight others. In fcc and hcp, each atom is surrounded by twelve others, but the stacking of the layers differs. Some metals adopt different structures depending on the temperature. Many other metals with different elements have more complicated structures, such as rock-salt structure in titanium nitride or perovskite (structure) in some nickelates. The electronic structure of metals means they are relatively good conductors of electricity . The electrons all have different momenta , which average to zero when there

6840-551: Is the most elaborate example known, with a simple overall design with ball terminals and pin-head, but with rich detailing such as interlace panels on the ring and filigree sections on the balls. Other Insular types were also produced in Viking areas of England, especially Scandinavian York . The penannular brooch fell from common use by the end of the 11th century, a time when Ireland and Scotland, and Scandinavia, were adopting general Western European styles in many areas of both art and life. A distinctly Irish type of brooch found at

6992-474: The Burgers vector of the dislocations are fairly small, which also means that the energy needed to produce one is small. In contrast, in an ionic compound like table salt the Burgers vectors are much larger and the energy to move a dislocation is far higher. Reversible elastic deformation in metals can be described well by Hooke's Law for the restoring forces, where the stress is linearly proportional to

7144-453: The Kashmir shawls that were also fashionable at the time were often loosely woven and not unsuitable for fastening in the original way. Different versions were made at different price levels, though even the most expensive struggled to recreate the full intricacy of the originals. The National Museum of Ireland is clearly not correct in saying that the fashion began after Queen Victoria

7296-479: The Lindisfarne Gospels , thought to date to about 698–715. Many of the similarities are to the carpet pages , highly detailed ornamental pages filled with decoration, which share with the brooch a certain horror vacui that leaves no area unembellished, and also complex decoration that is extremely small and perfectly executed, and best appreciated when seen at a larger than actual scale, whether in

7448-415: The periodic table . If there are several, the most stable allotrope is considered. The situation changes with pressure: at extremely high pressures, all elements (and indeed all substances) are expected to metallize. Arsenic (As) has both a stable metallic allotrope and a metastable semiconducting allotrope at standard conditions. A similar situation affects carbon (C): graphite is metallic, but diamond

7600-539: The strain . A temperature change may lead to the movement of structural defects in the metal such as grain boundaries , point vacancies , line and screw dislocations , stacking faults and twins in both crystalline and non-crystalline metals. Internal slip , creep , and metal fatigue may also ensue. The atoms of simple metallic substances are often in one of three common crystal structures , namely body-centered cubic (bcc), face-centered cubic (fcc), and hexagonal close-packed (hcp). In bcc, each atom

7752-486: The vicinity of iron (in the periodic table) are largely made via stellar nucleosynthesis . In this process, lighter elements from hydrogen to silicon undergo successive fusion reactions inside stars, releasing light and heat and forming heavier elements with higher atomic numbers. Heavier elements are not usually formed this way since fusion reactions involving such nuclei would consume rather than release energy. Rather, they are largely synthesised (from elements with

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7904-538: The 17th century, and their odds on their survival once found have increased greatly over that period, as their value as artefacts has overtaken their scrap value. In the 19th century, as part of the Celtic Revival , many brooches copying or inspired by earlier styles were made. Much of the responsibility for the fashion for high-quality Celtic Revival jewellery belongs to George Waterhouse, a jeweller from Sheffield , England, who moved to Dublin in 1842. Before

8056-410: The 1960s, which has since been extended in various versions to cover later types. Brooches of either penannular or annular type, where the pin is very large in relation to the ring, so that the ring cannot play any part in the fastening of the brooch, may be called "ring brooches", "pin brooches", or "brooch-pins"; or, especially where the ring is small and plain, "ringed pins". In these, the design of

8208-473: The 20th century by Berber ( endonym : Amazigh) women in the Maghreb . They were usually worn in symmetrical pairs and used to fix parts of unsewn draped garments, one to each side, with the pins pointing straight up. Traditionally made by Jewish silversmiths, some are plain and large brooches, not unlike some later Celtic or Viking examples, and other types have a very elaborately decorated triangular base to

8360-576: The 8th century, before being largely replaced (especially in southern Scandinavia) by Style D. Styles C and D provided the inspiration for the initial expression of animal ornament within the Viking Age, Style E, commonly known as the Oseberg / Broa Style. Both Styles D and E developed within a broad Scandinavian context which, although in keeping with north-western European animal ornamentation generally, exhibited little influence from beyond Scandinavia . Although preliminary formulations were made in

8512-645: The British Isles and combining Germanic, Celtic, Pictish and Mediterranean elements. Although some simpler and relatively early penannular brooches are found in Anglo-Saxon contexts, and some sub-types predominantly so, as far as is known the Anglo-Saxons did not use these brooch styles for prestige elite jewellery. However, there are elements in the style of Irish and Scottish brooches deriving from Anglo-Saxon art , and related to Insular work in other media, especially illuminated manuscripts . Fibula

8664-779: The College in Dublin, one a silver shawl brooch, in smaller size than the original" was her reaction to the November gift. A later gift from Albert included a setting of a cairngorm he had picked up when walking in the Scottish Highlands , a more authentic type of gem than the brightly coloured foreign stones used in much Celtic Revival jewellery. The discovery of the Tara Brooch in 1850 could therefore not have been better timed in terms of attracting public interest. It

8816-515: The Hørning plank is dated by dendrochronology to c. 1060–1070. There is, however, evidence suggesting that the mid-Urnes style was developed before 1050 in the manner it is represented by the runemasters Fot and Balli . The mid-Urnes Style would stay popular side by side with the late Urnes style of the runemaster Öpir . He is famous for a style in which the animals are extremely thin and make circular patterns in open compositions. This style

8968-409: The Irish tradition would have used casting. The brooches appear to have been made by "native" metalworkers, but worn by both Vikings and Gaels. The very popular thistle brooches have terminals and often pin-heads that are like thistle flowers, with a ball topped by a round projection, often flared; they are called by the term regardless of whether or not the ball is "brambled"—that is, formed with

9120-612: The Paris Exposition Universelle (1855) , as well as the Dublin exhibition visited by the Queen in 1853 (Victoria had already seen it; it had been specially sent to Windsor Castle for her inspection). Waterhouse had invented the brooch's name; in fact, it has nothing to do with the Hill of Tara , and while likely found some 28 km away the actual circumstances of its find still remain unclear (essentially to avoid

9272-504: The Scottish ones mostly retain true penannular forms. Most are silver-gilt , the gilding often partial. Some are gilded base metal, of bronze or copper-alloy; only one solid gold Irish brooch is known, a 9th-century one from Loughan, County Londonderry , which is less elaborate than most of the series, though the standard of work is very high. However, some brooches have a hidden recess which may have contained small lead weights to make

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9424-428: The Tara Brooch has been displayed set up in both ways. The latter arrangement seems more common in later brooches, of the 9th century. It is fair to say that scholars remain slightly puzzled that the effective and simple penannular brooch developed in this direction, though it is presumed that the reuniting of the terminals of pseudo-penannular brooches was partly to strengthen the brooch. In many penannular brooches,

9576-414: The Viking world, notable admixtures from external cultures and influences frequently appear. In the British Isles, for example, art historians identify distinct, 'Insular' versions of Scandinavian motifs, often directly alongside 'pure' Viking decoration. The Oseberg Style characterises the initial phase in what has been considered Viking art. The Oseberg Style takes its name from the Oseberg Ship grave,

9728-483: The addition of chromium , nickel , and molybdenum to carbon steels (more than 10%) results in stainless steels with enhanced corrosion resistance. Other significant metallic alloys are those of aluminum , titanium , copper , and magnesium . Copper alloys have been known since prehistory— bronze gave the Bronze Age its name—and have many applications today, most importantly in electrical wiring. The alloys of

9880-599: The air to form oxides over various timescales ( potassium burns in seconds while iron rusts over years) which depend upon whether the native oxide forms a passivation layer that acts as a diffusion barrier . Some others, like palladium , platinum , and gold , do not react with the atmosphere at all; gold can form compounds where it gains an electron (aurides, e.g. caesium auride ). The oxides of elemental metals are often basic . However, oxides with very high oxidation states such as CrO 3 , Mn 2 O 7 , and OsO 4 often have strictly acidic reactions; and oxides of

10032-489: The axe head towards the haft. The Ringerike Style receives its name from the Ringerike district north of Oslo , Norway, where the local reddish sandstone was widely employed for carving stones with designs of the style. The type object most commonly used to define Ringerike Style is a 2.15-metre (7 ft 1 in) high carved stone from Vang in Oppland . Apart from a runic memorial inscription on its right edge,

10184-624: The beginning of the Early Medieval period in Ireland and Britain, although they are found in other times and places—for example, forming part of traditional female dress in areas in modern North Africa. Beginning as utilitarian fasteners in the Iron Age and Roman period, they are especially associated with the highly ornate brooches produced in precious metal for the elites of Ireland and Scotland from about 700 to 900, which are popularly known as Celtic brooches or similar terms. They are

10336-527: The bird's neck, while the left wing interlaces with its body and tail. The outer wing edge displays a semi-circular nick typical of Mammen Style design. The tail is rendered as a triple tendril, the particular treatment of which on the Mammen axe – with open, hook-like ends – forming a characteristic of the Mammen Style as a whole. Complicating the design is the bird's head-lappet, interlacing twice with neck and right wing, whilst also sprouting tendrils along

10488-446: The blade edge. At the top, near the haft, the Mammen axe features an interlaced knot on one side, a triangular human mask (with large nose, moustache and spiral beard) on the other; the latter would prove a favoured Mammen Style motif carried over from earlier styles. On the other side, the Mammen axe bears a spreading foliate (leaf) design, emanating from spirals at the base with thin, 'pelleted' tendrils spreading and intertwining across

10640-534: The brooches found with the Ardagh Chalice show both types. The main body was normally cast, and a number of elements of two-piece moulds have been found. Many brooches have cells for studs or bosses that are most often round hemispheres, but may be square, lozenges or other shapes; very often the studs themselves are now missing. These are in a variety of materials including glass, enamel, amber , and gemstones found locally, although not including any of

10792-542: The brooches or suspended ornaments from the bottom of the brooches. Men wore rings on their fingers, arms and necks, and held their cloaks closed with penannular brooches , often with extravagantly long pins. Their weapons were often richly decorated on areas such as sword hilts . The Vikings mostly used silver or bronze jewelry, the latter sometimes gilded , but a small number of large and lavish pieces or sets in solid gold have been found, probably belonging to royalty or major figures. Decorated metalwork of an everyday nature

10944-596: The burials are often much later than the date of the brooch, as in a brooch in the Irish 8th century style found in a Norse burial in Westray , Orkney , and possibly the Kilmainham Brooch. Elaborate brooches often have one or more names—presumed to be those of owners—scratched on the reverse, often in runes . Plainer brooches in bronze and similar alloys continue to be found in much larger numbers. The most elaborate Irish brooches are pseudo-penannular, while

11096-606: The classic modern "precious stones", or even the garnets found in Anglo-Saxon jewellery. However the millefiori glass rods sometimes used appear to have been imported from Italy, like those used in the Anglo-Saxon jewellery from Sutton Hoo ; examples of the rods have been excavated in both Ireland and England. Like the Insular chalices and other metalwork, the very ornate Irish brooches were mostly made in many pieces which are pinned or slotted together. Filigree decoration

11248-411: The clothing on which the brooch was worn. Few of the major brooches, or indeed other metalwork, have been found in contexts that can be easily dated, and much of the dating of at least the earlier ones comes from comparison with Insular illuminated manuscripts , though the dating of these is often itself far from certain. The Tara Brooch has long been recognised as having clear stylistic similarities to

11400-406: The densities of other structural metals, such as iron (7.9) and copper (8.9) and their alloys. The term base metal refers to a metal that is easily oxidized or corroded , such as reacting easily with dilute hydrochloric acid (HCl) to form a metal chloride and hydrogen . The term is normally used for the elements, and examples include iron, nickel , lead , and zinc. Copper is considered

11552-495: The detailed structure of the metal's ion lattice. Taking into account the positive potential caused by the arrangement of the ion cores enables consideration of the electronic band structure and binding energy of a metal. Various models are applicable, the simplest being the nearly free electron model . Modern methods such as density functional theory are typically used. The elements which form metals usually form cations through electron loss. Most will react with oxygen in

11704-470: The developing styles characteristic of wider Viking artistic endeavor. A non-visual source of information for Viking art lies in skaldic verse , the complex form of oral poetry composed during the Viking Age and passed on until written down centuries later. Several verses speak of painted forms of decoration that have but rarely survived on wood and stone. The 9th-century skald poet Bragi Boddason , for example, cites four apparently unrelated scenes painted on

11856-507: The durability of precious metals , in particular, has preserved much artistic expression and endeavor. Jewelry was worn by both men and women, though of different types. Married women fastened their overdresses near the shoulder with matching pairs of large brooches. Modern scholars often call them "tortoise brooches" because of their domed shape. The shapes and styles of women's paired brooches varied regionally, but many used openwork . Women often strung metal chains or strings of beads between

12008-456: The elements from fermium (Fm) onwards are shown in gray because they are extremely radioactive and have never been produced in bulk. Theoretical and experimental evidence suggests that these uninvestigated elements should be metals, except for oganesson (Og) which DFT calculations indicate would be a semiconductor. Metallic Network covalent Molecular covalent Single atoms Unknown Background color shows bonding of simple substances in

12160-424: The end of the Viking period is the kite brooch , whose name derives from the almond shape called a "kite" in heraldry , though the shapes of the heads are actually highly variable. They were apparently worn, like the larger brooches, singly with the pin pointing upwards. Only "about half a dozen" exist in silver, including examples that are much larger than average, with pins up to 7.9 cm long. In these, there

12312-498: The end of the decade, he and the long-established Dublin firm West & Son of College Green (later moving to Grafton Street ) were finding it necessary to register their designs to prevent copying. Of the various types of objects made, the brooches were both the "most resonant" and those which could be sold with the least alteration to the original form and design, although the jewellers generally reduced their size and fitted them with conventional pins and catches behind, even though

12464-433: The f-block elements. They have a strong affinity for oxygen and mostly exist as relatively low-density silicate minerals. Chalcophile elements are mainly the less reactive d-block elements, and the period 4–6 p-block metals. They are usually found in (insoluble) sulfide minerals. Being denser than the lithophiles, hence sinking lower into the crust at the time of its solidification, the chalcophiles tend to be less abundant than

12616-454: The filigree wire employed in the finest pieces of craftsmanship. The Jellinge Style is a phase of Scandinavian animal art during the 10th century. The style is characterized by markedly stylized and often band-shaped bodies of animals. It was originally applied to a complex of objects in Jelling , Denmark , such as Gorm's Cup and Harald Bluetooth 's great runestone, but more recently

12768-420: The first known appearance of bronze in the fifth millennium BCE. Subsequent developments include the production of early forms of steel; the discovery of sodium —the first light metal —in 1809; the rise of modern alloy steels ; and, since the end of World War II, the development of more sophisticated alloys. Most metals are shiny and lustrous , at least when polished, or fractured. Sheets of metal thicker than

12920-511: The form of snakes, which in turn sprout symmetrically-placed tendrils. The snake heads, as well as the animal and snake on the reverse, find more florid treatment than on the Vang Stone: all have lip lappets, the snakes bear pigtails, while all animals have a pear-shaped eye with the point directed towards the snout – a diagnostic feature of Ringerike Style. The Ringerike Style evolved out of the earlier Mammen Style . It received its name from

13072-472: The gap between the terminals is now too narrow for the pin to pass through; whether this was always the case is uncertain. Small and simple penannular brooches in bronze, iron, and, rarely, silver were common in the Roman period as a practical fastener, but were not used for high-status objects, and any decoration was normally limited to bands around the ring or other simple patterns. Often the extra thickness at

13224-537: The gilded brooches, enamel is restricted to studs that punctuate the composition like gems; the larger areas of champlevé found on the flared terminals of earlier types perhaps continue in simpler types, though dating is difficult. On some brooches the decoration is too detailed to be appreciated when the brooch is being worn, and some of the most elaborate brooches have their backs, invisible when worn, decorated almost as elaborately as their fronts. The Tara Brooch shows both features, and in addition, shares with some others

13376-449: The gods. Recently, given the increasing popularity and legality of metal-detecting , an increasing frequency of single, chance finds of metal objects and ornaments (most probably representing accidental losses) is creating a fast expanding corpus of new material for study. Viking coins fit well into this latter category, but nonetheless form a separate category of Viking period artefact, their design and decoration largely independent of

13528-403: The great majority of the island, and were able to draw tribute from the Viking towns. The period is characterised by a greatly increased availability of silver, presumably the result of Viking raiding and trading, and most brooches are made from silver throughout, as gilding and decoration in other materials nearly disappears. The brooches are often large and relatively massive, but plainer than

13680-724: The higher momenta) available at the highest occupied energies as sketched in the Figure. In a semiconductor like silicon or a nonmetal like strontium titanate there is an energy gap between the highest filled states of the electrons and the lowest unfilled, so no accessible states with slightly higher momenta. Consequently, semiconductors and nonmetals are poor conductors, although they can carry some current when doped with elements that introduce additional partially occupied energy states at higher temperatures. The elemental metals have electrical conductivity values of from 6.9 × 10 S /cm for manganese to 6.3 × 10 S/cm for silver . In contrast,

13832-497: The increasing understanding of Viking art as a cultural expression. The art of the Viking Age is organized into a loose sequence of stylistic phases which, despite the significant overlap in style and chronology, may be defined and distinguished on account both of formal design elements and of recurring compositions and motifs: Unsurprisingly, these stylistic phases appear in their purest form in Scandinavia itself; elsewhere in

13984-559: The inhabitants of the region. Viking raiders attacked wealthy targets on the north-western coasts of Europe from the late 8th until the mid-11th century CE. Pre-Christian traders and sea raiders, the Vikings first enter recorded history with their attack on the Christian monastic community on Lindisfarne Island in 793. The Vikings initially employed their longships to invade and attack European coasts, harbors and river settlements on

14136-436: The known examples of half-metals are oxides , sulfides , or Heusler alloys . A semimetal is a material with a small energy overlap between the bottom of the conduction band and the top of the valence band , but they do not overlap in momentum space . Unlike a regular metal, semimetals have charge carriers of both types (holes and electrons), although the charge carriers typically occur in much smaller numbers than in

14288-622: The late 19th century, the history of Viking art first achieved maturity in the early 20th century with the detailed publication of the ornate wood carvings discovered in 1904 as part of the Oserberg ship-burial by the Norwegian archaeologist Haakon Shetelig . Importantly, it was the English archaeologist David M. Wilson , working with his Danish colleague Ole Klindt-Jensen to produce the 1966 survey work Viking Art , who created foundations for

14440-488: The later voyages of Christopher Columbus came to the New World . Trading and merchant activities were accompanied by settlement and colonization in many of these territories. Wood was undoubtedly the primary material of choice for Viking artists, being relatively easy to carve, inexpensive, and abundant in northern Europe. The importance of wood as an artistic medium is underscored by chance survivals of wood artistry at

14592-482: The less electropositive metals such as BeO, Al 2 O 3 , and PbO, can display both basic and acidic properties. The latter are termed amphoteric oxides. The elements that form exclusively metallic structures under ordinary conditions are shown in yellow on the periodic table below. The remaining elements either form covalent network structures (light blue), molecular covalent structures (dark blue), or remain as single atoms (violet). Astatine (At), francium (Fr), and

14744-408: The lithophiles. On the other hand, gold is a siderophile, or iron-loving element. It does not readily form compounds with either oxygen or sulfur. At the time of the Earth's formation, and as the most noble (inert) of metallic elements, gold sank into the core due to its tendency to form high-density metallic alloys. Consequently, it is relatively rare. Some other (less) noble ones—molybdenum, rhenium,

14896-410: The main field of the Vang Stone is filled with a balanced tendril ornament springing from two shell spirals at the base: the main stems cross twice to terminate in lobed tendrils. At the crossing, further tendrils spring from loops and pear-shaped motifs appear from the tendril centres on the upper loop. Although axial in conception, a basic asymmetry arises in the deposition of the tendrils. Surmounting

15048-407: The metallic alloys in use today, the alloys of iron ( steel , stainless steel , cast iron , tool steel , alloy steel ) make up the largest proportion both by quantity and commercial value. Iron alloyed with various proportions of carbon gives low-, mid-, and high-carbon steels, with increasing carbon levels reducing ductility and toughness. The addition of silicon will produce cast irons, while

15200-412: The modern era, coinage metals have extended to at least 23 of the chemical elements. There is also extensive use of multi-element metals such as titanium nitride or degenerate semiconductors in the semiconductor industry. The history of refined metals is thought to begin with the use of copper about 11,000 years ago. Gold, silver, iron (as meteoric iron), lead, and brass were likewise in use before

15352-416: The more modest earlier brooches are developed and elaborated upon. There was no previous tradition of very ornate brooches in Ireland, and this development may have come from contact with Continental elites who wore large fibulae as marks of status. Such contacts were certainly made, especially by travelling monks. Archaeological, and some literary, evidence suggests that brooches in precious metal were

15504-511: The more open and fluid compositions that prevailed in the overlapping Jellinge Style. A more particular diagnostic feature of Borre Style lies in a symmetrical, double-contoured 'ring-chain' (or 'ring-braid'), whose composition consists of interlaced circles separated by transverse bars and a lozenge overlay. The Borre ring-chain occasionally terminates with an animal head in high relief, as seen on strap fittings from Borre and Gokstad. The ridges of designs in metalwork are often nicked to imitate

15656-430: The most elaborate earlier ones, neither using older local decorative styles nor the Viking styles that were adopted in other media. This continues a trend that can be detected in later brooches from the preceding period, before much Viking influence can have made itself felt. The 9th century Roscrea Brooch is one of a number of transitional brooches; though its form is highly ornate, with a large flat triangular pin head,

15808-462: The most significant objects in high-quality secular metalwork from Early Medieval Celtic art , or Insular art , as art historians prefer to call it. The type continued in simpler forms such as the thistle brooch into the 11th century, during what is often known as the Viking Age in Ireland and Scotland. Both penannular and pseudo-penannular brooches feature a long pin attached by its head to

15960-500: The native Irish were more successful than the English and Scots in preventing large-scale Viking takeovers of areas for settlement by farmers. By about the year 1000, the situation was relatively stable, with a mixed population of Norse-Gaels in the towns and areas close to them, while the Gaelic Irish, whose elite often formed political alliances, trading partnerships and inter-marriages with Viking leaders, remained in control of

16112-401: The next two elements, polonium and astatine, which decay to bismuth or lead. The r-process is so fast it can skip this zone of instability and go on to create heavier elements such as thorium and uranium. Metals condense in planets as a result of stellar evolution and destruction processes. Stars lose much of their mass when it is ejected late in their lifetimes, and sometimes thereafter as

16264-493: The nitrogen. However, unlike most elemental metals, ceramic metals are often not particularly ductile. Their uses are widespread, for instance titanium nitride finds use in orthopedic devices and as a wear resistant coating. In many cases their utility depends upon there being effective deposition methods so they can be used as thin film coatings. There are many polymers which have metallic electrical conduction, typically associated with extended aromatic components such as in

16416-689: The noses and the necks. The early style has received a dating which is mainly based on runestone U 343 , runestone U 344 and a silver bowl from c. 1050, which was found at Lilla Valla. The early version of this style on runestones comprises England Runestones referring to the Danegeld and Canute the Great and works by Åsmund Kåresson . The mid-Urnes Style has received a relatively firm dating based on its appearance on coins issued by Harald Hardrada (1047–1066) and by Olav Kyrre (1080–1090). Two wood carvings from Oslo have been dated to c. 1050–1100 and

16568-623: The older structural metals, like iron at 7.9 and copper at 8.9 g/cm . The most common lightweight metals are aluminium and magnesium alloys. Metals are typically malleable and ductile, deforming under stress without cleaving . The nondirectional nature of metallic bonding contributes to the ductility of most metallic solids, where the Peierls stress is relatively low allowing for dislocation motion, and there are also many combinations of planes and directions for plastic deformation . Due to their having close packed arrangements of atoms

16720-604: The original or in photographs. Both combine elements from many stylistic origins into a style that is distinctly Insular: La Tène Celtic art, Germanic animal style , and classical and other Mediterranean styles. The Vikings began to raid Ireland from 795, with catastrophic effect for the monasteries in particular. However, although the Vikings established several longphorts , initially fortified encampments for over-wintering, and later towns like Dublin , Wexford , Cork , and Waterford (the first real urban centres in Ireland),

16872-702: The other three metals have been developed relatively recently; due to their chemical reactivity they need electrolytic extraction processes. The alloys of aluminum, titanium, and magnesium are valued for their high strength-to-weight ratios; magnesium can also provide electromagnetic shielding . These materials are ideal for situations where high strength-to-weight ratio is more important than material cost, such as in aerospace and some automotive applications. Alloys specially designed for highly demanding applications, such as jet engines , may contain more than ten elements. Metals can be categorised by their composition, physical or chemical properties. Categories described in

17024-423: The output of Scandinavian artists was broadly focused on varieties of convoluted animal ornamentation used to decorate a wide variety of objects. The art historian Bernhard Salin was the first to systematise Germanic animal ornament, dividing it into three styles (I, II, and III). The latter two were subsequently subdivided by Arwidsson into three further styles: Style C, flourishing during the 7th century and into

17176-400: The overall scarcity of some heavier metals such as copper, they can become concentrated in economically extractable quantities as a result of mountain building, erosion, or other geological processes. Metallic elements are primarily found as lithophiles (rock-loving) or chalcophiles (ore-loving). Lithophile elements are mainly the s-block elements, the more reactive of the d-block elements, and

17328-498: The pin head typically shows that the pin is intended to sit underneath the ring (seen from the front), rather than on top of it as in the larger brooches. "Celtic" is a term avoided by specialists in describing objects, and especially artistic styles, of the Early Middle Ages from the British Isles, but is firmly fixed in the popular mind. The term Insular art is used to describe the distinct style of art originating in

17480-656: The pin is now often about twice the diameter of the ring. The Irish cultural zone in this period included much of Western Scotland, and in Pictish East Scotland a similar development took place, though the forms are somewhat different here. The decoration paralleled that on other metalwork fittings such as pieces of harness-tackle, and the few remaining early Christian reliquaries and other pieces of church metalwork. By shortly after 700, highly elaborate, large brooches in precious metal and gems were being produced. These were clearly expressions of high status for

17632-471: The pin was fitted with a bolt or rivet to make it removable. A further complication is that in some pseudo-penannular brooches the pin is fixed to lie in front of the ring, as in the Londesborough Brooch (below), but in others it crosses through the ring, starting with the head end in front of the ring, but the middle of the pin behind the ring by the point where it crosses at the other side;

17784-401: The pin will not leave a permanent hole), but the pseudo-penannular type is notably less efficient. The brooches were worn by both men and women, usually singly at the shoulder by men and on the breast by women, and with the pin pointing up; an Irish law code says that in the event of injury from a pin to another person, the wearer is not at fault if the pin did not project too far and the brooch

17936-621: The pin, which can dwarf the ring. A heavy necklace often hangs between the two brooches, usually attached to a ring at the bottom of the brooch. Local names for the brooches are said to include melia , melehfa , bzima , kitfiyya , and khellala in Maghrebi Arabic , and tabzimt , tizerzay , and tazersit in Berber languages. As brooches similar in form and function are known from the Bronze Age and later Roman and Visigoth brooches , such fibulae are believed to have been in use in

18088-420: The platinum group metals (ruthenium, rhodium, palladium, osmium, iridium, and platinum), germanium, and tin—can be counted as siderophiles but only in terms of their primary occurrence in the Earth (core, mantle, and crust), rather the crust. These otherwise occur in the crust, in small quantities, chiefly as chalcophiles (less so in their native form). The rotating fluid outer core of the Earth's interior, which

18240-547: The polymers indicated in the Figure. The conduction of the aromatic regions is similar to that of graphite, so is highly directional. A half-metal is any substance that acts as a conductor to electrons of one spin orientation, but as an insulator or semiconductor to those of the opposite spin. They were first described in 1983, as an explanation for the electrical properties of manganese -based Heusler alloys . Although all half-metals are ferromagnetic (or ferrimagnetic ), most ferromagnets are not half-metals. Many of

18392-459: The precious metal used seem more valuable than it actually was. In Ireland, the head of the pin might be turned into a focus for decoration, sometimes using a "kite"-shaped plate, such as that on the Tara Brooch; in Scotland, the pin-heads were simple circles formed by bending the pin back on itself. Scottish terminals are more often distinct lobed or square shapes extending beyond the circle of

18544-408: The ratio between thermal and electrical conductivities is proportional to temperature, with a proportionality constant that is roughly the same for all metals. The contribution of a metal's electrons to its heat capacity and thermal conductivity, and the electrical conductivity of the metal itself can be approximately calculated from the free electron model . However, this does not take into account

18696-415: The ratio of the two components is fixed (also known as an intermetallic compound ). Most pure metals are either too soft, brittle, or chemically reactive for practical use. Combining different ratios of metals and other elements in alloys modifies the properties to produce desirable characteristics, for instance more ductile, harder, resistant to corrosion, or have a more desirable color and luster. Of all

18848-469: The recent past. Viking art is usually divided into a sequence of roughly chronological styles, although outside Scandinavia itself local influences are often strong, and the development of styles can be less clear. The Vikings' regional origins lay in Scandinavia, the northernmost peninsula of continental Europe, while the term 'Viking' likely derived from their own term for coastal raiding—the activity by which many neighboring cultures became acquainted with

19000-429: The ring hanging unattached to the cloth; this does not seem very secure. The third method relied on a length of chain or cord attached to the ring near the "terminals" (which in pseudo-penannular brooches do not actually terminate), which was used to secure the pin by tying it down, perhaps with a small pin at the end, which was also put through the cloth. The Tara Brooch was probably fastened in this way. In some cases

19152-531: The ring is thick plain silver, the gold filigree panels occupy relatively small areas, and their workmanship is a "coarse" or "crude" imitation of that of earlier works. The Kilamery Brooch is another ornate and high quality example, with a marked emphasis on plain flat silver surfaces. There are rare exceptions in which a highly decorated brooch shows Scandinavian stylistic and technical influence, notably an Irish brooch from Rathlin Island , with areas stamped where

19304-407: The ring on both sides, while in Irish examples, the terminals typically extend inside the ring forming another curve, but not much outside it, or sometimes form a straight line across the interior of the ring. Irish brooches may only join the two terminals by narrow strips, or not only eliminate the gap entirely, but have a central zone of decoration where the gap between the terminals would have been;

19456-466: The ring. These are found especially in southwestern Britain and Wales , and seem to have developed in these areas. This type fell from favour in southern Britain by the 5th century, but was developed in Ireland by the 6–7th centuries. These types considerably extended the size of the terminals, which now presented a flattish area often decorated with enamel or glass inlay, mostly using abstracted patterns but sometimes zoomorphic decoration. The length of

19608-401: The ring; the free end of the pin passes through the gap in the ring. The pin is then rotated around the ring by 90 degrees or so, so that as long as the pin is held down by slight pressure it cannot escape over the terminals, and the fastening is secure. With pseudo-penannular brooches, things are not so simple and the manner in which they were used is still debated; the method was probably not

19760-408: The sale price of the metal(s) involved make it economically feasible to mine lower concentration sources. Penannular brooch The Celtic brooch , more properly called the penannular brooch , and its closely related type, the pseudo-penannular brooch , are types of brooch clothes fasteners, often rather large; penannular means formed as an incomplete ring. They are especially associated with

19912-416: The same as cermets which are composites of a non-conducting ceramic and a conducting metal.) One set, the transition metal nitrides has significant ionic character to the bonding, so can be classified as both ceramics and metals. They have partially filled states at the Fermi level so are good thermal and electrical conductors, and there is often significant charge transfer from the transition metal atoms to

20064-405: The same for all brooches. One method may have been to pull folds of the cloth through the ring until they could be pierced by the pin, and then pull the cloth back until the pin rested on the ring. This would work best with brooches with a pin not much longer than the diameter of the ring, which some have, but others do not. The second method might have been simply to pin the cloth vertically, leaving

20216-616: The second half of the 12th century. Metal A metal (from Ancient Greek μέταλλον ( métallon )  'mine, quarry, metal') is a material that, when polished or fractured, shows a lustrous appearance, and conducts electricity and heat relatively well. These properties are all associated with having electrons available at the Fermi level , as against nonmetallic materials which do not. Metals are typically ductile (can be drawn into wires) and malleable (they can be hammered into thin sheets). A metal may be

20368-489: The sons of minor kings need wear only silver brooches. "Annular" means formed as a ring and "penannular" formed as an incomplete ring; both terms have a range of uses. "Pseudo-penannular" is a coinage restricted to brooches, and refers to those brooches where there is no opening in the ring, but the design retains features of a penannular brooch—for example, emphasizing two terminals. Some pseudo-penannular brooches are very similar in design to other penannular brooches, but have

20520-418: The spread of Christianity, the use of carved stone for permanent memorials became more prevalent. Beyond the discontinuous artifactual records of wood and stone, the reconstructed history of Viking art to date relies most on the study of decoration of ornamental metalwork from a great variety of sources. Several types of archaeological context have succeeded in preserving metal objects for present study, while

20672-463: The style is included in the Mammen style. The Mammen Style takes its name from its type object, an axe recovered from a wealthy male burial marked a mound (Bjerringhø) at Mammen , in Jutland , Denmark (on the basis of dendrochronology, the wood used in construction of the grave chamber was felled in winter 970–971). Richly decorated on both sides with inlaid silver designs, the iron axe was probably

20824-635: The subsections below include ferrous and non-ferrous metals; brittle metals and refractory metals ; white metals; heavy and light metals; base , noble , and precious metals as well as both metallic ceramics and polymers . The term "ferrous" is derived from the Latin word meaning "containing iron". This can include pure iron, such as wrought iron , or an alloy such as steel . Ferrous metals are often magnetic , but not exclusively. Non-ferrous metals and alloys lack appreciable amounts of iron. While nearly all elemental metals are malleable or ductile,

20976-426: The systematic characterization of the field still employed today, together with a developed chronological framework. David Wilson continued to produce mostly English-language studies on Viking art in subsequent years, joined over recent decades by the Norwegian art-historian Signe Horn Fuglesang with her own series of important publications. Together these scholars have combined authority with accessibility to promote

21128-456: The tendril pattern appears a large striding animal in double-contoured rendering with spiral hips and a lip lappet. Comparing the Vang Stone animal design with the related animal from the Mammen axe-head, the latter lacks the axiality seen in the Vang Stone and its tendrils are far less disciplined: the Mammen scroll is wavy, while the Vang scroll appears taut and evenly curved, these features marking

21280-474: The term base metal is contrasted with precious metal , that is, those of high economic value. Most coins today are made of base metals with low intrinsic value ; in the past, coins frequently derived their value primarily from their precious metal content; gold , silver , platinum , and palladium each have an ISO 4217 currency code. Currently they have industrial uses such as platinum and palladium in catalytic converters , are used in jewellery and also

21432-480: The terminal, necessary to prevent the pin just falling off, is achieved simply by turning back the ends of the ring. In the late Roman period in Britain in the 3rd and 4th centuries, a type of penannular brooch with zoomorphic decoration to the terminals appeared, with human or animal heads, still not much wider than the rest of the ring. Some examples had enamel decoration, and the pin did not extend much beyond

21584-571: The tradition of making runestones had died out when the mixed style made its appearance since it is well represented in Gotland and on the Swedish mainland. The Urnes-Romanesque Style can be dated independently of style thanks to representations from Oslo in the period 1100–1175, dendrochronological dating of the Lisbjerg frontal in Denmark to 1135, as well as Irish reliquaries that are dated to

21736-496: The upper atmosphere (including the ozone layer that limits the transmission of ultraviolet radiation). Metallic elements are often extracted from the Earth by mining ores that are rich sources of the requisite elements, such as bauxite . Ores are located by prospecting techniques, followed by the exploration and examination of deposits. Mineral sources are generally divided into surface mines , which are mined by excavation using heavy equipment, and subsurface mines . In some cases,

21888-628: The very beginning and end of the Viking period, namely, the Oseberg ship-burial carvings of the early 9th century and the carved decoration of the Urnes Stave Church from the 12th century. As summarised by James Graham-Campbell : "These remarkable survivals allow us to form at least an impression of what we are missing from original corpus of Viking art, although wooden fragments and small-scale carvings in other materials (such as antler, amber, and walrus ivory) provide further hints. The same

22040-477: The wearer, and use the full repertoire of goldsmith 's techniques at a very high level of skill. They continued to be produced for about 200 years; the Pictish brooches are much more homogeneous in design than the Irish ones, which may indicate a shorter period of production, possibly from "the mid-eighth to the beginning of the ninth centuries". Each surviving design is unique, but the range of types established in

22192-464: Was found. The Oseberg ship itself is decorated with a more traditional style of animal interlace that does not feature the gripping beast motif. However, five carved wooden animal-head posts were found in the ship, and the one known as the Carolingian animal-head post is decorated with gripping beasts, as are other grave goods from the ship. The Carolingian head represents a snarling beast, possibly

22344-414: Was immediately recognised as the culminating masterpiece (though early in date) of the Irish development of large and superbly worked ornate brooches, a status it has retained ever since. The brooch was soon acquired by George Waterhouse, who used it as the centre of displays of his replicas and imitations of Celtic brooches in his Dublin shop, also exhibiting it at The Great Exhibition in London in 1851 and

22496-524: Was not unique to Öpir and Sweden, but it also appears on a plank from Bølstad and on a chair from Trondheim , Norway . The Jarlabanke Runestones show traits both from this late style and from the mid-Urnes style of Fot and Balli, and it was the Fot-Balli type that would mix with the Romanesque style in the 12th century. The Urnes-Romanesque Style does not appear on runestones which suggests that

22648-414: Was often made on "trays" which fitted into the main ring — on the Tara Brooch many of these are now missing (most were still in place when it was found in 1850). Techniques include chip-carving , cast "imitation chip-carving", filigree , engraving , inlays of various types including niello , glass and champlevé enamel, and various hammering and chasing techniques: "the range of materials and techniques

22800-608: Was presented with a replica of the "Cavan Brooch" on her visit to Dublin to see the Great Industrial Exhibition in 1853; the Royal Collection has two brooches that Prince Albert bought for her from West & Son in 1849 on an earlier visit to Dublin, which were already being made in editions. Albert presented them in November and at Christmas that year: "...such beautiful souvenirs, both made after those very curious old Irish ornaments we saw in

22952-785: Was the last phase of Scandinavian animal art during the second half of the 11th century and in the early 12th century. The Urnes Style is named after the northern gate of the Urnes stave church in Norway , but most objects in the style are runestones in Uppland , Sweden , which is why some scholars prefer to call it the Runestone style . The style is characterized by slim and stylised animals that are interwoven into tight patterns. The animals heads are seen in profile, they have slender almond-shaped eyes and there are upwardly curled appendages on

23104-458: Was worn in these ways by the sexes. The most elaborate examples were clearly significant expressions of status at the top of society, which were also worn by clergy, at least in Ireland, though probably to fasten copes and other vestments rather than as everyday wear. The Senchas Mór , an early Irish law tract, specified that the sons of major kings, when being fostered , should have "brooches of gold having crystal inserted in them", while

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