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91-454: The region of Mangualde has been a crossroads of many peoples: Viriathus 's warriors, transhumance shepherds, Romans, Moors and Christian conquerors, including soldiers from Castile or France, or even pilgrims. Mangualde was an important outpost in the textile trade from Covilhã, Seia and Gouveia. Its location, on the frontier with the Serra da Estrela and marginalized by its geography to north,

182-458: A ditch , to prevent them from escaping. Afterwards, Roman soldiers were sent in and began to massacre all the males of military age. The survivors are said to have been sold into slavery in Gaul . The relocation of an entire tribe, accompanied by slaughter or their reduction to the status of slaves was a punishment often inflicted on native populations who took part in revolts. Galba distributed

273-682: A Lusitanian ambush. Viriathus did not harm the Romans and let the soldiers and Servilianus go in exchange for a peace treaty that recognised Lusitanian rule over the land they dominated. This agreement was ratified by the Roman Senate and Viriathus was declared "amicus populi Romani", ( Greek : Rhômaiôn philos ), an ally of the Roman people. However, the peace brought by the treaty displeased Quintus Servilius Caepio , who got himself appointed successor to his brother, Q. Fabius Maximus Servilianus, in

364-622: A cataclysm known as " The Great Dying ", the third and most severe Phanerozoic mass extinction. The early Cambrian climate was probably moderate at first, becoming warmer over the course of the Cambrian, as the second-greatest sustained sea level rise in the Phanerozoic got underway. However, as if to offset this trend, Gondwana moved south, so that, in Ordovician time, most of West Gondwana (Africa and South America) lay directly over

455-445: A foothold on land. These early plants were the forerunners of all plant life on land. During this time, there were four continents: Gondwana (Africa, South America, Australia, Antarctica, Siberia), Laurentia (North America), Baltica (Northern Europe), and Avalonia (Western Europe). The recent rise in sea levels allowed many new species to thrive in water. The Devonian spanned from 419–359 million years ago. Also known as "The Age of

546-466: A little of the plunder to the army and a little to his friends, the native tribes that sided with him, and kept the rest. This incited a massive rebellion, with the entire Lusitanian tribe mustering as they waged war for three years against Rome, but met with many failures. Three years after the massacre, the rebellion was on the verge of defeat when Viriathus appeared and offered himself as leader. Through his understanding of Roman military methods he saved

637-527: A peace treaty with the Caucaei , of the Vaccaei tribe, after which he ordered his men to kill all the tribe's adult males, of which it is said only a few out of 30,000 escaped. Servius Sulpicius Galba joined forces with Lucius Licinius Lucullus and together started to depopulate Lusitania. While Lucullus invaded the country from the east, Galba attacked it from the south. Unable to sustain a war on two fronts,

728-502: A period of great expansion. In the 19th century, residential growth was significant, helped on by the construction of a new highway towards Guarda, which contributed to this development. Over time, the two original poles merged (in the 20th century), and Rossio took on a greater role: many of the social and economic functions of Mangualde concentrated in Rossio, including public services, banking, commercial shops and cafes. On 3 July 1986,

819-524: A series of gently-flowing ravines and rivers, such as the Ribeira de Frades, Ribeira do Castelo and the Ribeira de Videira, in the western extend of the municipality. The Fagilde reservoir is the largest extension of these limits, and supports the community to the north of Mangualde. Along the valleys there are many fertile alluvial lands, of which, the more fertile parcels are located in the central part of

910-422: A shepherd who became a hunter, then a soldier, thus following the path of most young warriors, the iuventus , who devoted themselves to cattle raiding, hunting and war. According to Appian , Viriathus was one of the few who escaped when Galba , the Roman governor, massacred the flos iuventutis , the flower of the young Lusitanian warriors, in 150 BC. Two years after the massacre, in 148 BC, Viriathus became

1001-428: A trap, like the one Lucullus had prepared for the Caucaei . When the unarmed Lusitanians, among them Viriathus, were gathered together by Galba to hand over their weapons and to be split into three groups (two of the points of the treaty that had been negotiated) and allocated to new lands, the trap was sprung. With the promise that they would be given new lands they waited unaware while Galba's army surrounded them with

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1092-440: A warrior were described by several authors. He was a man of great physical strength, probably in the very prime of life, an excellent strategist, and possessor of a brilliant mind. Some authors claim that the ancient authors described Viriathus with the precise features of a Celtic king. He was described as a man who followed the principles of honesty and fair dealing and was acknowledged for being exact and faithful to his word on

1183-663: Is considered the first Phanerozoic mass extinction event, and the second deadliest. The Silurian spanned from 444–419 million years ago. The Silurian saw the rejuvenation of life as the Earth recovered from the previous glaciation. This period saw the mass evolution of fish, as jawless fish became more numerous, jawed fish evolved, and the first freshwater fish evolved, though arthropods, such as sea scorpions , were still apex predators . Fully terrestrial life evolved, including early arachnids, fungi, and centipedes. The evolution of vascular plants ( Cooksonia ) allowed plants to gain

1274-575: Is the sudden appearance of nearly all of the invertebrate animal phyla in great abundance at the beginning of the Cambrian. The first vertebrates appeared in the form of primitive fish, which greatly diversified in the Silurian and Devonian Periods. The first animals to venture onto dry land were the arthropods. Some fish had lungs, and powerful bony fins that in the late Devonian, 367.5 million years ago, allowed them to crawl onto land. The bones in their fins eventually evolved into legs and they became

1365-605: The Appalachians , Caledonides , Ural Mountains , and mountains of Tasmania . The Cambrian spanned from 539–485 million years ago and is the first period of the Paleozoic Era of the Phanerozoic. The Cambrian marked a boom in evolution in an event known as the Cambrian explosion in which the largest number of creatures evolved in any single period of the history of the Earth. Creatures like algae evolved, but

1456-531: The Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse . Gondwana was glaciated as much of it was situated around the south pole. The Permian spanned from 299–252 million years ago and was the last period of the Paleozoic Era. At the beginning of this period, all continents joined together to form the supercontinent Pangaea, which was encircled by one ocean called Panthalassa . The land mass was very dry during this time, with harsh seasons, as

1547-645: The Early Palaeozoic Icehouse , culminating in the Hirnantian glaciation, 445  million years ago at the end of the Ordovician. The middle Paleozoic was a time of considerable stability. Sea levels had dropped coincident with the ice age, but slowly recovered over the course of the Silurian and Devonian. The slow merger of Baltica and Laurentia, and the northward movement of bits and pieces of Gondwana created numerous new regions of relatively warm, shallow sea floor. As plants took hold on

1638-566: The Lex Calpurnia created in 149 BC. The Lusitanians revolted first in 194 BC against the Romans. Iberia was divided between the tribes that supported Roman rule and the tribes that revolted against Roman rule, as they had been divided before by those who supported the Carthaginian and those who supported Romans. This period was marked by a number of broken treaties either by the Roman generals, or their senate, that would not ratify

1729-665: The Ptolemies . Some authors assert that he was probably from the Herminius Mons ( Serra da Estrela ), in the heart of Lusitania, (in central Portugal ) or the Beira Alta region. Most of his life and his war against the Romans are part of legend and Viriathus is considered the earliest Portuguese national hero , given the fact that he was the leader of the confederate tribes of Iberia who resisted Rome. The historian Appianus of Alexandria in his book about Iberia (in

1820-571: The South Pole . The early Paleozoic climate was strongly zonal, with the result that the "climate", in an abstract sense, became warmer, but the living space of most organisms of the time – the continental shelf marine environment – became steadily colder. However, Baltica (Northern Europe and Russia) and Laurentia (eastern North America and Greenland) remained in the tropical zone, while China and Australia lay in waters which were at least temperate. The early Paleozoic ended, rather abruptly, with

1911-550: The coal beds of Europe and eastern North America . Towards the end of the era, large, sophisticated synapsids and diapsids were dominant and the first modern plants ( conifers ) appeared. The Paleozoic Era ended with the largest extinction event of the Phanerozoic Eon , the Permian–Triassic extinction event . The effects of this catastrophe were so devastating that it took life on land 30 million years into

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2002-585: The lands of Zurara , between the Dão and Mondego Rivers. It was later confirmed by Afonso II , when the monarch issued his ordinances in February 1217, and by King Manuel in 1514, during his reforms. When Christian forces finally took the fortress, they discovered a privileged lookout that provided line-of-sight for thousands of miles. During the Middle Ages, the town of Mangualde grew from two distinct poles:

2093-481: The 'highest man' and the Latin equivalent would be summus vir . According to the historian Schulten , Viriathus had a Celtic name. For he was, as is agreed by all, valiant in dangers, prudent and careful in providing whatever was necessary, and that which was most considerable of all was, that whilst he commanded he was more beloved than ever any was before him. Little is known about Viriathus. The only reference to

2184-648: The Fish", the Devonian featured a huge diversification of fish, including armored fish like Dunkleosteus and lobe-finned fish which eventually evolved into the first tetrapods. On land, plant groups diversified rapidly in an event known as the Devonian explosion when plants made lignin , leading to taller growth and vascular tissue; the first trees and seeds evolved. These new habitats led to greater arthropod diversification. The first amphibians appeared and fish occupied

2275-467: The Lusitanian castros , or citanias , would have been granted peregrina stipendiaria but remaining an autonomous (Greek: αὐτονόμων) country through treaties ( foedus ). Lusitania's rich land was praised by ancient authors. Polybius in his Histories , "speaking of the natural wealth of Lusitania [...], tells us that owing to the favorable climate both men and animals are very prolific, and

2366-471: The Lusitanian embassy politely, and a peace treaty was agreed on the terms proposed by him. He commanded them to leave their homes and remain in open country. The Lusitanians probably lost their city and possessions and their land would have become Ager Publicus . The conquest of a territory, unless it had been given special conditions, could imply the acquisition, by the Romans, of the conquered territory and all that it contained. The treaty turned out to be

2457-603: The Lusitanian troops suffered several losses in engagements with the Romans. Fearing a long siege and the destruction the Roman siege engines would cause in their towns, the Lusitanians sent an embassy to Galba to negotiate a peace treaty, although for the Romans it would be perceived as the Deditio in dicionem , the surrender. The Lusitanians hoped they could at least renew the former treaty made with Atilius. Galba received

2548-483: The Lusitanian uprising. Some fifty years later, the renegade Roman general Quintus Sertorius , at the head of another insurrection in Iberia , would meet a similar fate. Viriathus became an enduring symbol of Portuguese nationality and independence, portrayed by artists and celebrated by its people throughout the centuries. In his epic poem Os Lusíadas , Luís Vaz de Camões exalts Viriathus' great deeds. The flag of

2639-527: The Lusitanians access to what is today's Spanish territory, modern Granada and Murcia . The results of Viriathus's efforts as well as those of the Numantine War caused many problems in Rome, the most notable being a drop in legionary recruitment rates. Learning of these events, Rome sent one of its best generals, Quintus Fabius Maximus Servilianus , to Iberia. Near Sierra Morena , the Romans fell into

2730-519: The Lusitanians defeated Vetilius, killing 4,000 out of 10,000 soldiers, including Vetilius himself. In response, Celtiberians were hired to attack the Lusitanians, but were destroyed. After that incident, the Lusitanians clashed with the armies of Gaius Plautius , Claudius Unimanus and Gaius Negidius , all of whom were defeated. During this period Viriathus inspired and convinced the Numantine and some Gauls to rebel against Roman rule. To complete

2821-658: The Mesozoic Era to recover. Recovery of life in the sea may have been much faster. The base of the Paleozoic is one of the major divisions in geological time representing the divide between the Proterozoic and Phanerozoic eons, the Paleozoic and Neoproterozoic eras and the Ediacaran and Cambrian periods. When Adam Sedgwick named the Paleozoic in 1835, he defined the base as the first appearance of complex life in

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2912-610: The Middle Carboniferous). An important evolutionary development of the time was the evolution of amniotic eggs , which allowed amphibians to move farther inland and remain the dominant vertebrates for the duration of this period. Also, the first reptiles and synapsids evolved in the swamps. Throughout the Carboniferous, there was a cooling trend, which led to the Permo-Carboniferous glaciation or

3003-629: The Palaeozoic had very few facultatively motile animals that could easily adjust to disturbance, with such creatures composing 1% of its assemblages in contrast to 50% in Cenozoic faunal assemblages. Non-motile animals untethered to the substrate, extremely rare in the Cenozoic, were abundant in the Palaeozoic. Palaeozoic phytoplankton overall were both nutrient-poor themselves and adapted to nutrient-poor environmental conditions. This phytoplankton nutrient poverty has been cited as an explanation for

3094-459: The Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras and the Permian and Triassic periods is marked by the first occurrence of the conodont Hindeodus parvus . This is the first biostratigraphic event found worldwide that is associated with the beginning of the recovery following the end- Permian mass extinctions and environmental changes. In non-marine strata, the equivalent level is marked by the disappearance of

3185-660: The Permian Dicynodon tetrapods . This means events previously considered to mark the Permian-Triassic boundary, such as the eruption of the Siberian Traps flood basalts , the onset of greenhouse climate, ocean anoxia and acidification and the resulting mass extinction are now regarded as being of latest Permian in age. The GSSP is near Meishan , Zhejiang Province, southern China. Radiometric dating of volcanic clay layers just above and below

3276-630: The Portuguese Assembly ratified the elevation of the town to the category of city. Mangualde is dominated by a plateau/table sloping to the south, cut by tributaries of the Dão and Mondego Rivers : the municipality is crossed in the north by the Dão River defining its northern frontier, while its southern border is limited by the Mondego. In addition to these rivers, Mangualde is crossed by

3367-486: The Romans between 147 BC and 139 BC before being betrayed by them and murdered while sleeping. Of him, Theodor Mommsen said, "It seemed as if, in that thoroughly prosaic age, one of the Homeric heroes had reappeared." There are several possible etymologies for the name Viriathus. The name can be composed of two elements: Viri and Athus . Viri may come from: The Celtic elite used the title uiros ueramos , meaning

3458-413: The Romans, proposed an escape plan. The Lusitanians, inflamed by his speech, made him their new commander. His first act was to rescue the trapped and resisting Lusitanians whom he then commanded, first by lining up for battle with the Romans, then scattering the army as they charged. As each wave broke apart and fled in different directions to meet up at a later location, Viriathus with 1,000 chosen men held

3549-400: The Romans, which left them only with their yearly earnings to pay the taxes. In 174 BC, when Publius Furius Philus was accused of paying very little for the cereals that Iberia was compelled to deliver to Rome, Cato defended the interests of the native tribes. The exploitation and extortion reached such an extreme degree in the provinces that Rome had to create a special tribunal and laws, like

3640-529: The Silurian Period, about 420 million years ago, when they began to transition onto dry land. Terrestrial flora reached its climax in the Carboniferous, when towering lycopsid rainforests dominated the tropical belt of Euramerica . Climate change caused the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse which fragmented this habitat, diminishing the diversity of plant life in the late Carboniferous and Permian periods. A noteworthy feature of Paleozoic life

3731-663: The Spanish province of Zamora , called la seña bermeja , has eight red stripes, which traditionally have been associated to the eight victories of Viriathus over the Romans. The historical authenticity of this origin is disputed. There is a street in Madrid named after him, in Chamberí neighborhood (near the metro station 'Iglesia'). The same is true of Lisbon, Zamora and many other towns in Spain and Portugal. The planet HD 45652 b

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3822-541: The army of 10,000 Romans in check by being in a position to attack. Once the rest of the army had fled, he and the thousand men escaped as well. Having effectively saved all of the Lusitanians soldiers, he immediately fortified the loyalty of the people around himself. Viriathus organized an attack against Caius Vetilius in Tribola . Since the Romans were better armed, he organized guerrilla tactics and sprang imaginative ambushes. Charging with iron spears, tridents and roars,

3913-549: The basal Cambrian Global Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP) at the base of the Treptichnus pedum assemblage of trace fossils and immediately above the last occurrence of the Ediacaran problematica fossils Harlaniella podolica and Palaeopsacichnus . The base of the Phanerozoic, Paleozoic and Cambrian is dated at 538.8+/-0.2 Ma and now lies below both the first appearance of trilobites and SSF. The boundary between

4004-516: The boundary confine its age to a narrow range of 251.902+/-0.024 Ma. The beginning of the Paleozoic Era witnessed the breakup of the supercontinent of Pannotia and ended while the supercontinent Pangaea was assembling. The breakup of Pannotia began with the opening of the Iapetus Ocean and other Cambrian seas and coincided with a dramatic rise in sea level. Paleoclimatic studies and evidence of glaciers indicate that Central Africa

4095-511: The climate of the interior of Pangaea was not regulated by large bodies of water. Diapsids and synapsids flourished in the new dry climate. Creatures such as Dimetrodon and Edaphosaurus ruled the new continent. The first conifers evolved, and dominated the terrestrial landscape. Near the end of the Permian, however, Pangaea grew drier. The interior was desert, and new taxa such as Scutosaurus and Gorgonopsids filled it. Eventually they disappeared, along with 95% of all life on Earth, in

4186-483: The command of the army and administration of affairs in Iberia. In his reports to the Roman Senate he claimed that the treaty was in the highest degree dishonourable to Rome. Livy seemed to have a different opinion as he writes it was a stain on Servilianus' military career but comments that the treaty was, aequis , fair. The senate authorised Q. Servilius Caepio, on his request, to harass Viriathus as long as it

4277-561: The continental margins, oxygen levels increased and carbon dioxide dropped, although much less dramatically. The north–south temperature gradient also seems to have moderated, or metazoan life simply became hardier, or both. At any event, the far southern continental margins of Antarctica and West Gondwana became increasingly less barren. The Devonian ended with a series of turnover pulses which killed off much of middle Paleozoic vertebrate life, without noticeably reducing species diversity overall. There are many unanswered questions about

4368-411: The death of Viriathus, the Lusitanians kept fighting under the leadership of Tautalus (Greek: Τάυταλος). Laenas would finally give the Lusitanians the land they originally had asked for before the massacre. Nevertheless, total pacification of Lusitania was only achieved under Augustus . Under Roman rule , Lusitania and its people gradually acquired Roman culture and language . Viriathus stands as

4459-545: The district seat of Viseu, the municipality of Mangualde is surrounded by Penalva do Castelo (to the north), Viseu (to the west), Nelas, Seia and Gouveia (to the south) and Fornos de Algodres (to the east). Administratively, the municipality is divided into 12 civil parishes ( freguesias ): Stellantis has a plant in Mangualde founded in 1962 by Citroën which began operations in 1964. Light industry in metallurgy, textiles, timber, stone and construction are also found in

4550-651: The east, the Serra do Bom Successo, extend to Guimarães de Tavares. In addition, other mountainous areas include the Serras de Abrunhosa-a-Velha, Cunha Alta and Almeidinha which link to the Serra da Senhora do Castelo. Disperse and running along lower elevations, the topography is highlighted by the higher elevations in Tabosa, Roda an Fagilde. The climate is Mediterranean, influenced by continental systems, resulting in cold winters and warm, dry summers. Located 15 kilometres from

4641-507: The empty continent of Gondwana. By the end of the Ordovician, Gondwana was at the south pole, early North America had collided with Europe, closing the intervening ocean. Glaciation of Africa resulted in a major drop in sea level, killing off all life that had established along coastal Gondwana. Glaciation may have caused the Ordovician–Silurian extinction events , in which 60% of marine invertebrates and 25% of families became extinct, and

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4732-480: The end of the Cantabrian Wars . The Lusitanian War is one of the most well documented episodes of the conquest. Rome's dominion of Iberia met with much opposition. In 197 BC, Rome divided the southeastern coast of Iberia into two provinces, Hispania Citerior and Hispania Ulterior , and two elected praetors were assigned to command the legions . As with many other tribes of Iberia, the inhabitants of

4823-560: The end of the Permian period. In late middle Permian the pareiasaurs originated, successful herbivores and the only sauropsids that could reach sizes comparable to some of the largest synapsids. The Palaeozoic marine fauna was notably lacking in predators relative to the present day. Predators made up about 4% of the fauna in Palaeozoic assemblages while making up 17% of temperate Cenozoic assemblages and 31% of tropical ones. Infaunal animals made up 4% of soft substrate Palaeozoic communities but about 47% of Cenozoic communities. Additionally,

4914-461: The first tetrapods, 390  million years ago , and began to develop lungs. Amphibians were the dominant tetrapods until the mid-Carboniferous, when climate change greatly reduced their diversity, allowing amniotes to take over. Amniotes would split into two clades shortly after their origin in the Carboniferous; the synapsids, which was the dominant group, and the sauropsids . The synapsids continued to prosper and increase in number and variety till

5005-513: The first was designated Cabo da Vila and the other Rossio . With time, even the population of Rossio began to develop into another distinct neighborhood. Around this time (the middle of the 17th century) the new space was nothing more than some modest dwellings occupied by locals. After the 17th century, with the creation of the Misericórdia by Philip II , the institution of "outside" judges by King John IV (1655), Mangualde experienced

5096-456: The fort constructed on the site referred to as Castelo de Zurara (or also Castelo de Azurara ), over time becoming transliterated in ancient name of the municipality: Azurara da Beira . In 1058, the medieval castle was conquered from the Moors, by the forces of Ferdinand I of León and Castile . By 1102, Count Henrique and Countess Theresa, before the independence of Portugal, issued a foral to

5187-407: The land is constantly productive." The Romans charged the native tribes with heavy taxes: a fixed vectigal or land-tax, the tributum and a certain quantity of cereals. Taxes were not the only source of income; mine exploitation and peace treaties were a source of denarius as well as war spoils and war prisoners who were sold as slaves. The indigenous towns had to deliver their own treasures to

5278-548: The late Paleozoic. The Mississippian (early Carboniferous Period) began with a spike in atmospheric oxygen, while carbon dioxide plummeted to new lows. This destabilized the climate and led to one, and perhaps two, ice ages during the Carboniferous. These were far more severe than the brief Late Ordovician ice age; but, this time, the effects on world biota were inconsequential. By the Cisuralian Epoch, both oxygen and carbon dioxide had recovered to more normal levels. On

5369-419: The leader of a Lusitanian army. Viriathus was thought by some to have a very obscure origin, although Diodorus Siculus also says that Viriathus "approved himself to be a prince" and that he said he was "lord and owner of all". His family was unknown to the Romans who were familiar with the native aristocratic warrior society. His personality and his physical and intellectual abilities as well as his skills as

5460-514: The location of his native tribe was made by the Greek historian Diodorus Siculus , who claims he was from the Lusitanian tribes of the ocean side. He belonged to the class of warriors, the occupation of the minority ruling elites. He was known to the Romans as the dux of the Lusitanian army, as the adsertor (protector) of Hispania, or as an imperator , probably of the confederated Lusitanian and Celtiberian tribes. Livy described him as

5551-504: The majority of Ediacaran to Cambrian rock sequences are composed of siliciclastic rocks where skeletal fossils are rarely preserved. This led the International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS) to use trace fossils as an indicator of complex life. Unlike later in the fossil record, Cambrian trace fossils are preserved in a wide range of sediments and environments, which aids correlation between different sites around

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5642-434: The most rapid and widespread diversification of life in Earth's history, known as the Cambrian explosion , in which most modern phyla first appeared. Arthropods , molluscs , fish , amphibians , reptiles , and synapsids all evolved during the Paleozoic. Life began in the ocean but eventually transitioned onto land, and by the late Paleozoic, great forests of primitive plants covered the continents, many of which formed

5733-417: The most successful leader who ever opposed the Roman conquest in Iberia. During the course of his campaigns he was only defeated in battle against the Romans once, and from a military standpoint can be said to have been one of the most successful generals to have ever opposed Rome's expansion. Ultimately, even the Romans recognized that it was more prudent to use treachery rather than open confrontation to defeat

5824-603: The most ubiquitous of that period were the armored arthropods, like trilobites. Almost all marine phyla evolved in this period. During this time, the supercontinent Pannotia begins to break up, most of which later became the supercontinent Gondwana. The Ordovician spanned from 485–444 million years ago. The Ordovician was a time in Earth's history in which many of the biological classes still prevalent today evolved, such as primitive fish, cephalopods, and coral. The most common forms of life, however, were trilobites, snails and shellfish. The first arthropods went ashore to colonize

5915-562: The municipality, around the civil parishes of Mangualde, Fornos de Maceira Dão, Espinho and Alcafache. Geomorphologically, Mangualde is part of the Maciço Antigo ( Old Massif ), dating to the Paleozoic . It was affected by a period of prolonged erosion, that was later rejuvenated by upheaval associated with mountain-building. Most of the area is composed of granite, and mitigated by mountain hydrology. A small group of mountains along

6006-606: The municipality. Agriculture, including blueberry production, forestry and animal production, specially sheep and poultry , are other important economic activities in Mangualde Municipality. Viriathus Viriathus (also spelled Viriatus ; known as Viriato in Portuguese and Spanish ; died 139 BC ) was the most important leader of the Lusitanian people that resisted Roman expansion into

6097-782: The one who received the title of regnator Hiberae magnanimus terrae , the "magnanimous ruler of the Iberian land". In the 3rd century BC, Rome started its conquest of the Iberian Peninsula . The Roman conquest of Iberia began during the Second Punic War , when the senate sent an army to Iberia to block Carthaginian reinforcements from helping Hannibal in the Italian Peninsula . This began Roman involvement in 250 years of subsequent fighting throughout Iberia, resulting in its eventual conquest in 19 BC with

6188-520: The other hand, the assembly of Pangaea created huge arid inland areas subject to temperature extremes. The Lopingian Epoch is associated with falling sea levels, increased carbon dioxide and general climatic deterioration, culminating in the devastation of the Permian extinction. While macroscopic plant life appeared early in the Paleozoic Era and possibly late in the Neoproterozoic Era of the earlier eon, plants mostly remained aquatic until

6279-442: The rebel Lusitanians by a simple though clever escape plan. Viriathus became the leader of the Lusitanians and caused much grief to the Romans in revenge for the massacre of his people. And, in fine, he carried on the war not for the sake of personal gain or power nor through anger, but for the sake of warlike deeds in themselves; hence he was accounted at once a lover of war and a master of war. ~ Cassius Dio The war with Viriathus

6370-497: The rebellious tribes who had broken out into war and that the legions should remain in Iberia to protect them. The praetor of Hispania Ulterior , Servius Sulpicius Galba commanded the Roman troops in Iberia c.150 BC, and at the same time Lucius Licinius Lucullus was appointed Governor of the Hispania Citerior and commander of an army. In the year 151 BC, Lucullus "being greedy of fame and needing money", made

6461-590: The region until the 5th century, when barbarians invaded the peninsula. Romanization of these lands resulted in a diffusion and assimilation of cultural structures, political hierarchies, social institutions, the economy and religious services. Mangualde was one of the principal access-ways in Lusitânia, connecting Emerita Augusta (Mérida) to Bracara Augusta (Braga). Along the roadway, millennium or road markers were discovered in Abrunhosa-a-Velha, noting

6552-536: The regions of western Hispania (as the Romans called it) or western Iberia (as the Greeks called it), where the Roman province of Lusitania would be finally established after the conquest. Viriathus developed alliances with other Celtic groups, even far away from his usual theatres of war, inducing them to rebel against Rome. He led his army, supported by most of the Lusitanian and Vetton tribes as well as by other Celtic and Iberian allies, to several victories over

6643-468: The repairs completed to the road under emperors Hadrian and Numerian . Similarly, a second via crossed the Alcafache bridge (a Roman-built structure) towards Espinho, while another crossed the rivers from the north. After the barbarian invasions, the region was also taken by Muslim forces, who occupied the area of Nossa Senhora do Castelo. This place became known by the military governor, Zurara , and

6734-401: The rock record as shown by the presence of trilobite -dominated fauna. Since then evidence of complex life in older rock sequences has increased and by the second half of the 20th century, the first appearance of small shelly fauna (SSF), also known as early skeletal fossils, were considered markers for the base of the Paleozoic. However, whilst SSF are well preserved in carbonate sediments,

6825-478: The section Historia Romana , Roman History), commented that Viriathus "killed numerous Romans and showed great skill". It has been argued that Silius Italicus , in his epic poem entitled Punica , mentions a former Viriathus who would have been a contemporary of Hannibal. He is referenced as primo Viriatus in aeuo , and was a leader of the Gallaeci and of the Lusitanians. The historical Viriathus would be

6916-479: The short, but apparently severe, late Ordovician ice age. This cold spell caused the second-greatest mass extinction of the Phanerozoic Eon. Over time, the warmer weather moved into the Paleozoic Era. The Ordovician and Silurian were warm greenhouse periods, with the highest sea levels of the Paleozoic (200 m above today's); the warm climate was interrupted only by a 30 million year cool period,

7007-646: The start of the Mesozoic Era. The Paleozoic is subdivided into six geologic periods (from oldest to youngest), Cambrian , Ordovician , Silurian , Devonian , Carboniferous and Permian . Some geological timescales divide the Paleozoic informally into early and late sub-eras: the Early Paleozoic consisting of the Cambrian, Ordovician and Silurian; the Late Paleozoic consisting of the Devonian, Carboniferous and Permian. The name Paleozoic

7098-562: The subjugation of Lusitania, Rome sent Quintus Fabius Maximus Aemilianus , with 15,000 soldiers and 2,000 cavalry to strengthen Gaius Laelius Sapiens who was a personal friend of Scipio Aemilianus Africanus . Despite accomplishing the retreat of the Lusitanians in an initial victory, Aemilianus returned to Rome without having taken down Viriathus, and the Romans lost most of his reinforcements in Ossuma and Beja in Alentejo . This gave

7189-554: The top of the food chain. Earth's second Phanerozoic mass extinction event (a group of several smaller extinction events), the Late Devonian extinction , ended 70% of existing species. The Carboniferous is named after the large coal deposits laid down during the period. It spanned from 359–299 million years ago. During this time, average global temperatures were exceedingly high; the early Carboniferous averaged at about 20 degrees Celsius (but cooled to 10 °C during

7280-771: The treaties and alliances he made. Livy gives him the title of vir duxque magnus with the implied qualities that were nothing more than the ideals of the ancient virtues. A more modern current claims Viriathus belonged to an aristocratic Lusitanian clan who were owners of cattle. For Cassius Dio, he did not pursue power or wealth, but carried on the war for the sake of military glory. His aims could then be compared to pure Roman aristocratic ideals of that time: to serve and gain military glory and honor. Viriathus did not fight for war spoils or material gain, like common soldiers. The Lusitanians honored Viriathus as their Benefactor , (Greek: euergetes ), and Savior (Greek: soter ), typically Hellenistic honorifics used by kings like

7371-413: The treaties, or by the native people. In 152 BC the Lusitanians made a peace agreement with Marcus Atilius , after he conquered Oxthracae , Lusitania's biggest city. In Roman law , peregrini dediticii was the designation given to peoples who had surrendered themselves after taking up arms against the Romans. The terms offered were such that, as soon as Atilius returned to Rome, they rebelled and broke

7462-462: The treaty. Then they attacked the tribes that were Roman subjects and that had sided with the Romans in helping to attack and plunder the Lusitanian towns. Possibly the Lusitanians recovered some of the booty the Romans had divided with those tribes. In 151 BC the Celtiberians who had become Roman allies, fearing the revenge of the rebels who considered them traitors, asked the Romans to punish

7553-521: The world. Trace fossils reflect the complexity of the body plan of the organism that made them. Ediacaran trace fossils are simple, sub-horizontal feeding traces. As more complex organisms evolved, their more complex behaviour was reflected in greater diversity and complexity of the trace fossils they left behind. After two decades of deliberation, the ICS chose Fortune Head , Burin Peninsula, Newfoundland as

7644-425: Was called "War of Fire" by the Greek historian Polybius of Megalopolis . Two types of war were carried on by Viriathus, bellum ('war'), when he used a regular army, and latrocinium , when the fighting involved small groups of combatants and the use of guerrilla tactics . For many authors Viriathus is the model of the guerrilla fighter. Nothing is known about Viriathus until his first feat of war in 149 BC. He

7735-475: Was done secretly. The treaty was in effect for one year. During that time Q. Servilius Caepio harassed Viriathus and kept pressuring with his reports until he was authorised publicly to declare war. Knowing that the Lusitanian resistance was largely due to Viriathus' leadership, Caepio bribed Audax, Ditalcus and Minurus , who had been sent by Viriathus as an embassy to establish peace ( Appian ). These ambassadors returned to their camp and killed Viriathus while he

7826-469: Was first used by Adam Sedgwick (1785–1873) in 1838 to describe the Cambrian and Ordovician periods. It was redefined by John Phillips (1800–1874) in 1840 to cover the Cambrian to Permian periods. It is derived from the Greek palaiós (παλαιός, "old") and zōḗ (ζωή, "life") meaning "ancient life". The Paleozoic was a time of dramatic geological, climatic, and evolutionary change. The Cambrian witnessed

7917-539: Was most likely in the polar regions during the early Paleozoic. The breakup of Pannotia was followed by the assembly of the huge continent Gondwana ( 510  million years ago ). By the mid-Paleozoic, the collision of North America and Europe produced the Acadian-Caledonian uplifts, and a subducting plate uplifted eastern Australia . By the late Paleozoic, continental collisions formed the supercontinent of Pangaea and created great mountain chains, including

8008-630: Was named Viriato in 2019 after Viriathus. Paleozoic The Paleozoic ( / ˌ p æ l i . ə ˈ z oʊ . ɪ k , - i . oʊ -, ˌ p eɪ -/ PAL-ee-ə-ZOH-ik , -⁠ee-oh- , PAY- ; or Palaeozoic ) Era is the first of three geological eras of the Phanerozoic Eon. Beginning 538.8 million years ago (Ma), it succeeds the Neoproterozoic (the last era of the Proterozoic Eon) and ends 251.9 Ma at

8099-476: Was nonetheless a channel of pre-historic cultures associated with the dolmens that are found through the region. The mount of Nossa Senhora do Castelo, is one such example of the pre-Romanic castros that were used by the early settlers, then reappropriated by the Roman soldiers as forts. The Romans, attracted by the riches of the Iberian Peninsula (primarily minerals), began to progressively occupy

8190-469: Was sleeping. Eutropius claims that when Viriathus' assassins asked Quintus Servilius Caepio for their payment he answered that "it was never pleasing to the Romans, that a general should be killed by his own soldiers." Or, in a version more common in modern Portugal and Spain , that "Rome does not pay traitors who kill their chief". Quintus Servilius Caepio was refused his Triumph by the Senate . After

8281-402: Was with an army of ten thousand men that invaded southern Turdetania . Rome sent the praetor Caius Vetilius to fight the rebellion. He attacked a group of Lusitanian warriors who were out foraging, and after several of them were killed, the survivors took refuge in a place that was surrounded by the Roman army. They were about to make a new agreement with the Romans when Viriathus, mistrusting

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