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130-787: The Marshall Islands ( Marshallese : Ṃajeḷ ), officially the Republic of the Marshall Islands ( Marshallese : Aolepān Aorōkin Ṃajeḷ ), is an island country west of the International Date Line and north of the equator in the Micronesia region of the Northwestern Pacific Ocean . The territory consists of 29 coral atolls and five main islands as well as 1,220 other very small ones, divided across two island chains : Ratak in

260-512: A y , which does not otherwise exist in the Marshallese alphabet. One source of orthographic variation is in the representation of vowels. Pure monophthongs are written consistently based on vowel quality. However, short diphthongs may often be written with one of the two vowel sounds that they contain. (Alternate phonetic realizations for the same phonemic sequences are provided purely for illustrative purposes.) Modern orthography has

390-632: A United Nations member state since 1991. Politically, the Marshall Islands is a parliamentary republic with an executive presidency in free association with the United States, with the U.S. providing defense, subsidies, and access to U.S.-based agencies such as the Federal Communications Commission and the United States Postal Service . With few natural resources, the islands' wealth

520-516: A piloting technique of interpreting disruptions in ocean swells to determine the location of low coral atolls below the horizon. They noticed that swells refracted around the undersea slope of atolls. When refracted swells from different directions met, they created noticeable disruption patterns, which Marshallese pilots could read to determine the direction of an island. When interviewed by anthropologists, some Marshallese sailors noted that they piloted their canoes by both sight and feeling changes in

650-438: A voiced fricative articulation as [ zʲ ] (or [ ʑ ] or [ ʝ ] ) but not when geminated . /tʲ/ is used to adapt foreign sibilants into Marshallese. In phonetic transcription, this article uses [ tʲ ] and [ zʲ ] as voiceless and voiced allophones of the same phoneme. Marshallese has no distinct /tʷ/ phoneme. The dorsal consonants /k ŋ kʷ ŋʷ/ are usually velar but with

780-491: A ] rather than cardinal [ ɑ ] for the open back unrounded vowel . Naan (2014) is the only reference providing a vowel trapezium for its own vowels, and differs especially from the other vowel models in splitting the front allophones of /i/ into two realizations ( [ ɪ ] before consonants and [ i ] in open syllables), merging the front allophones of /ɛ/ and /e/ as [ ɛ ] before consonants and [ e ] in open syllables, merging

910-509: A base year. The result would be that the GDP in 2000 equals $ 300 million × 1 ⁄ 2 = $ 150 million , in 1990 monetary terms. We would see that the country's GDP had realistically increased 50 percent over that period, not 200 percent, as it might appear from the raw GDP data. The GDP adjusted for changes in money value in this way is called the real GDP . The factor used to convert GDP from current to constant values in this way

1040-445: A bias in certain spelling choices in which both possibilities are equally clear between two non-approximant consonants. In a syllable whose first consonant is rounded and whose second consonant is palatalized, it is common to see the vowel between them written as one of a ō ū , usually associated with a neighboring velarized consonant: The exception is long vowels and long diphthongs made up of two mora units, which are written with

1170-402: A common test for phonemicity. For example, [mʲæ] ( mā , 'breadfruit'), [mʲɑ] ( ma , 'but'), and [mʲɒ] ( mo̧ , 'taboo') are separate Marshallese words. However, the uneven distribution of glide phonemes suggests that they underlyingly end with the glides (thus /mʲæj/ , /mʲæɰ/ , /mʲæw/ ). When glides are taken into account, it emerges that there are only 4 vowel phonemes. When

1300-518: A country becomes increasingly in debt, and spends large amounts of income servicing this debt this will be reflected in a decreased GNI but not a decreased GDP. Similarly, if a country sells off its resources to entities outside their country this will also be reflected over time in decreased GNI, but not decreased GDP. This would make the use of GDP more attractive for politicians in countries with increasing national debt and decreasing assets. Gross national income (GNI) equals GDP plus income receipts from

1430-521: A country's borders, but by an enterprise owned by somebody outside the country, counts as part of its GDP but not its GNI; on the other hand, production by an enterprise located outside the country, but owned by one of its citizens, counts as part of its GNI but not its GDP. For example, the GNI of the US is the value of output produced by American-owned firms, regardless of where the firms are located. Similarly, if

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1560-587: A country's citizens at home and abroad rather than its "resident institutional units" (see OECD definition above). The switch from GNP to GDP in the United States occurred in 1991. The role that measurements of GDP played in World War II was crucial to the subsequent political acceptance of GDP values as indicators of national development and progress. A crucial role was played here by the U.S. Department of Commerce under Milton Gilbert where ideas from Kuznets were embedded into institutions . The history of

1690-406: A country's production has increased (or decreased, if the growth rate is negative) compared to the previous year, typically expressed as percentage change . The economic growth can be expressed as real GDP growth rate or real GDP per capita growth rate . GDP can be adjusted for population growth, also called Per-capita GDP or GDP per person . This measures the average production of a person in

1820-551: A different process, assuming the same height of whichever vowel is on the opposite side of that glide, forming a long vowel with it across the otherwise silent glide. Epenthetic vowels do not affect the rhythm of the spoken language, and can never be a stressed syllable. Phonetic transcription may indicate epenthetic vowels between two non-glides as non-syllabic, using IPA notation similar to that of semi-vowels . Certain Westernized Marshallese placenames spell out

1950-464: A form of population planning due to frequent famines . He also noted that Marshallese iroij held considerable authority and rights to all property, though he had a more favorable view of the condition of Marshallese commoners than of that of Polynesian commoners. The Marshalls' two island groups, the Ratak and Ralik chains, were each ruled by a paramount chief, or iroijlaplap, who held authority over

2080-449: A front unrounded vowel [æ ɛ e i] , then a vowel allophone associated with the back unrounded vowels (notated in this article as [ɑ ʌ ɤ ɯ] ) may also occur in the vowel nucleus. Because the cumulative visual complexity of notating so many diphthongs in phonetic transcriptions can make them more difficult to read, it is not uncommon to phonetically transcribe Marshallese vowel allophones only as one predominant monophthongal allophone, so that

2210-1220: A large consonant inventory, and each consonant has some type of secondary articulation ( palatalization , velarization , or rounding ). The palatalized consonants are regarded as "light", and the velarized and rounded consonants are regarded as "heavy", with the rounded consonants being both velarized and labialized . (This contrast is similar to that between "slender" and "broad" consonants in Goidelic languages , or between "soft" and "hard" consonants in Slavic languages .) The "light" consonants are considered more relaxed articulations. Although Marshallese has no voicing contrast in consonants, stops may be allophonically partially voiced ( [p → b] , [t → d] , [k → ɡ] ), when they are between vowels and not geminated . (Technically, partially voiced stops would be [p̬~b̥] , [t̬~d̥] , [k̬~ɡ̊] , but this article uses voiced transcriptions [ b ] , [ d ] , [ ɡ ] for simplicity.) Final consonants are often unreleased . Glides /j ɰ w/ vanish in many environments, with surrounding vowels assimilating their backness and roundedness . That

2340-462: A mission church and school at Ebon . By 1875, the missionaries had established churches on five atolls and had baptized more than 200 islanders, and one traveler noted that most women on Ebon wore western clothes and many men wore trousers by the mid-1870s. In 1859, Adolph Capelle and another merchant arrived at Ebon and set up a trading post for the German company Hoffschlaeger & Stapenhorst. When

2470-667: A monopoly in the German Pacific colonies. The British government protested the regulations benefiting the Jaluit Company as a violation of the Anglo-German Declarations' free-trade provision. On March 31, 1906, the German government assumed direct control and reorganized the Marshall Islands and Nauru as part of the protectorate of German New Guinea . The Imperial Japanese Navy invaded Enewetak on September 29, 1914, and Jaluit on September 30 at

2600-509: A new cryptocurrency to be used as legal tender. The majority of the citizens of the Republic of Marshall Islands are of Marshallese descent, though there are small numbers of immigrants from the United States, China, Philippines , and other Pacific islands. The two official languages are Marshallese , which is one of the Oceanic languages , and English . Almost the entire population of

2730-436: A o ō o̧ , or as i before one of either u ū . The approximant is never written before any of ā e i . A stronger raised palatal glide [ i̯ ] , phonemically analyzed as the exotic un-syllabic consonant-vowel-consonant sequence /ji̯j/ rather than plain /j/ , may occur word-initially before any vowel and is written i . For historical reasons, certain words like io̧kwe may be written as yokwe with

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2860-558: A protection treaty in German and Marshallese at the German consulate. While the Marshallese text made no distinction of rank among the five chiefs, the German text recognized Kabua as the King of the Marshall Islands, despite an ongoing dispute between Kabua and Loeak over the paramount chieftainship . A company of German marines hoisted the flag of the German Empire over Jaluit, and performed similar ceremonies at seven other atolls in

2990-480: A reform platform, won the 1999 parliamentary election, taking control of the presidency and cabinet. The islands signed a Compact of Free Association with the United States in 1986. Trusteeship was ended under United Nations Security Council Resolution 683 of December 22, 1990. Until 1999 the islanders received US$ 180 million for continued American use of Kwajalein atoll, US$ 250 million in compensation for nuclear testing , and US$ 600 million in other payments under

3120-529: A relatively dry season from December to April and a wet season from May to November. Many Pacific typhoons begin as tropical storms in the Marshall Islands region and grow stronger as they move west toward the Mariana Islands and the Philippines . Population has outstripped the supply of fresh water, usually from rainfall. The northern atolls get 50 inches (1,300 mm) of rainfall annually;

3250-547: A total of 29 atolls and five individual islands situated in about 180,000 square miles (470,000 km) of the Pacific. The largest atoll with a land area of 6 square miles (16 km) is Kwajalein. It surrounds a 655-square-mile (1,700 km) lagoon. Twenty-four of the atolls and islands are inhabited. The remaining atolls are uninhabited due to poor living conditions, lack of rain, or nuclear contamination. The uninhabited atolls are: The average altitude above sea level for

3380-640: A vote. Since the late 1980s, Marshallese have migrated to the US, with over 4,000 in Arkansas and over 7,000 in Hawaii in the 2010 US Census. Following independence, the Marshall Islands continued to play a prominent role in the testing and launches of missiles and rockets for both military and commercial space purposes. All five of the SpaceX Falcon 1 rocket flights were carried out on Omelek Island within

3510-527: A vowel phoneme appears between consonants with different secondary articulations, the vowel often surfaces as a smooth transition from one vowel allophone to the other. For example, jok 'shy', phonemically /tʲɛkʷ/ , is often realized phonetically as [tʲɛ͡ɔkʷ] . It follows that there are 24 possible short diphthongs in Marshallese: These diphthongs are the typical realizations of short vowels between two non-glide consonants, but in reality

3640-423: A word like /nʲæɰætʲ/ , the vowel transitions from [ æ ] to [ ɑ ] and then back to [ æ ] , as [nʲæ͡ɑɑ͡ætʲ] . In condensed phonetic transcription, the same word can be expressed as [nʲɑɑtʲ] or [nʲɑːtʲ] . Syllables in Marshallese follow CV, CVC, and VC patterns. Marshallese words always underlyingly begin and end with consonants. Initial, final, and long vowels may be explained as

3770-539: A word like [tʲɛ͡ɔkʷ] can be more simply transcribed as [tʲɔkʷ] , in a condensed fashion. Before Bender's (1968) discovery that Marshallese utilized a vertical vowel system, it was conventional to transcribe the language in this manner with a presumed inventory of 12 vowel monophthong phonemes, and it remains in occasional use as a more condensed phonetic transcription. This article uses phonemic or diphthongal phonetic transcriptions for illustrative purposes, but for most examples it uses condensed phonetic transcription with

3900-467: Is US$ 5,040,107.75 (in a million). Predictably, as a developed country, Japan has a higher GNI (by 182,779.46, in millions of USD), which is indicative that the production level in the country is higher than that of national production. On the other hand, the case with Armenia is the opposite, with GDP being lower than GNI by US$ 196.12 (in million). This demonstrates that countries receive investments and foreign aid from abroad. The Total income divided by

4030-445: Is actually pronounced [rˠɯmˠɑːzʲɛlˠ] as if it were Rūm̧ajel‌̧ . In the most polished printed text, the letters L‌̧ l‌̧ M̧ m̧ N‌̧ n‌̧ O̧ o̧ always appear with unaltered cedillas directly beneath, and the letters Ā ā N̄ n̄ Ō ō Ū ū always appear with unaltered macrons directly above. Regardless, the diacritics are often replaced by ad hoc spellings using more common or more easily displayable characters. In particular,

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4160-425: Is also sometimes expressed as: The third way to estimate GDP is to calculate the sum of the final uses of goods and services (all uses except intermediate consumption) measured in purchasers' prices. Market goods that are produced are purchased by someone. In the case where a good is produced and unsold, the standard accounting convention is that the producer has bought the good from themselves. Therefore, measuring

4290-467: Is banned and all by-catch must be released. However, some have questioned the ability of the Marshall Islands to enforce this zone. The Marshall Islands also lays claim to Wake Island based on oral legends. While Wake Island has been administered by the United States since 1899, the Marshallese government refers to it by the name Ānen Kio (new orthography) or Enen-kio (old orthography). The United States does not recognize this claim. The climate has

4420-531: Is based on a service economy , as well as fishing and agriculture; aid from the United States represents a large percentage of the islands' gross domestic product , and although most financial aid from the Compact of Free Association was set to expire in 2023, it was extended for another 20 years that same year. The country uses the United States dollar as its currency. In 2018, it also announced plans for

4550-838: Is calculated this way it is sometimes called gross domestic income (GDI), or GDP (I). GDI should provide the same amount as the expenditure method described later. By definition, GDI is equal to GDP. In practice, however, measurement errors will make the two figures slightly off when reported by national statistical agencies. This method measures GDP by adding incomes that firms pay households for factors of production they hire – wages for labour, interest for capital, rent for land and profits for entrepreneurship. The US "National Income and Product Accounts" divide incomes into five categories: These five income components sum to net domestic income at factor cost. Two adjustments must be made to get GDP: Total income can be subdivided according to various schemes, leading to various formulae for GDP measured by

4680-474: Is called the GDP deflator . Unlike consumer price index , which measures inflation or deflation in the price of household consumer goods, the GDP deflator measures changes in the prices of all domestically produced goods and services in an economy including investment goods and government services, as well as household consumption goods. Real GDP can be used to calculate the GDP growth rate, which indicates how much

4810-473: Is contributed at each stage of production. This approach mirrors the OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development) definition given above. Gross value added = gross value of output – value of intermediate consumption. Value of output = value of the total sales of goods and services plus the value of changes in the inventory. The sum of the gross value added in the various economic activities

4940-404: Is known as "GDP at factor cost". GDP at factor cost plus indirect taxes less subsidies on products = "GDP at producer price". For measuring the output of domestic product, economic activities (i.e. industries) are classified into various sectors. After classifying economic activities, the output of each sector is calculated by any of the following two methods: The value of output of all sectors

5070-437: Is motivated by the limited surface distribution of these phonemes as well as other evidence that backness and roundedness are not specified phonemically for Marshallese vowels. In fact, the consonant /ɰ/ never surfaces phonetically but is used to explain the preceding phenomenon. ( /j/ and /w/ may surface phonetically in word-initial and word-final positions and, even then, not consistently. ) Bender (1968) explains that it

5200-408: Is not more specific. The Marshallese-English Dictionary (MED) describes these as heavy dental nasals . Consonants /rʲ/ , /rˠ/ and /rʷ/ are all coronal consonants and full trills . /rˠ/ is similar to Spanish rr with a trill position just behind the alveolar ridge , a postalveolar trill [r̠ˠ] , but /rʲ/ is a palatalized dental trill [r̪ʲ] , articulated further forward behind

5330-413: Is not phonemic as the epenthetic vowel itself is not phonemic, but is still phonetically predictable given the two nearest other vowels and whether one or both of the cluster consonants are glides. Bender (1968) does not specifically explain the vowel heights of epenthetic vowels between two non-glides, but of his various examples containing such vowels, none of the epenthetic vowels has a height lower than

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5460-587: Is that GDP defines its scope according to location, while GNI defines its scope according to ownership. In a global context, world GDP and world GNI are, therefore, equivalent terms. GDP is a product produced within a country's borders; GNI is product produced by enterprises owned by a country's citizens. The two would be the same if all of the productive enterprises in a country were owned by its own citizens and those citizens did not own productive enterprises in any other countries. In practice, however, foreign ownership makes GDP and GNI non-identical. Production within

5590-453: Is then added to get the gross value of output at factor cost. Subtracting each sector's intermediate consumption from gross output value gives the GVA (=GDP) at factor cost. Adding indirect tax minus subsidies to GVA (GDP) at factor cost gives the "GVA (GDP) at producer prices". The second way of estimating GDP is to use "the sum of primary incomes distributed by resident producer units". If GDP

5720-490: Is unrounded. Default outcomes of *l and *n are palatalized; they become velarized or rounded before *a or sometimes *o if there is no high vowel in an adjacent syllable. Then, roundedness is determined by the same rule as above. Marshallese is written in the Latin alphabet . There are two competing orthographies. The "old" orthography was introduced by missionaries. This system is not highly consistent or faithful in representing

5850-826: The Marshallese-English Online Dictionary (but not the print version), or MOD, uses the following characters: As of 2019, there are no dedicated precomposed characters in Unicode for the letters M̧ m̧ N̄ n̄ O̧ o̧ ; they must be displayed as plain Latin letters with combining diacritics , and even many Unicode fonts will not display the combinations properly and neatly. Although L‌̧ l‌̧ N‌̧ n‌̧ exist as precomposed characters in Unicode, these letters also do not display properly as Marshallese letters in most Unicode fonts. Unicode defines

5980-540: The Congress of Micronesia in 1965, a plan for increased self-governance of Pacific islands. In May 1979, the United States gave the Marshall Islands independence by recognizing its constitution and president, Amata Kabua . Full sovereignty or self-government was achieved in a Compact of Free Association with the United States. Marshall Islands has been a member of the Pacific Community (PC) since 1983 and

6110-622: The Federated States of Micronesia , and south of the disputed U.S. territory of Wake Island , to which it also lays claim. The atolls and islands form two groups: the Ratak (sunrise) and the Ralik (sunset) . The two island chains lie approximately parallel to one another, running northwest to southeast, comprising about 750,000 square miles (1,900,000 km) of ocean but only about 70 square miles (180 km) of land mass. Each includes 15 to 18 islands and atolls. The country consists of

6240-780: The Gilbert Islands and Marshall Islands. On June 25, 1788, the British ships had peaceful interactions and traded with islanders at Mili Atoll ; their meeting may have been the first contact between Europeans and Marshallese since the Mendaña expedition of 1568. Subsequent navigational charts and maps named the islands for John Marshall. From the 1820s through the 1850s, the Marshall Islanders became increasingly hostile to western vessels, possibly because of violent punishments that sea captains exacted for theft as well as

6370-617: The Human Development Index or Better Life Index , as better approaches to measuring the effect of the economy on human development and well being . William Petty came up with a concept of GDP, to calculate the tax burden , and argue landlords were unfairly taxed during warfare between the Dutch and the English between 1652 and 1674. Charles Davenant developed the method further in 1695. The modern concept of GDP

6500-665: The Polynesian outlier languages Kapingamarangi and Nukuoro in Pohnpei State , and even less closely related to the non-Oceanic languages Palauan in Palau and Chamorro in the Mariana Islands . The Republic of the Marshall Islands contains 34 atolls that are split into two chains, the eastern Ratak Chain and the western Rālik Chain . These two chains have different dialects, which differ mainly lexically , and are mutually intelligible . The atoll of Ujelang in

6630-613: The abduction of Marshallese people for sale into slavery on Pacific plantations. One of the earliest violent encounters occurred in February 1824, when the inhabitants of Mili Atoll massacred marooned sailors from the American whaler Globe . Similar encounters occurred as late as 1851 and 1852, when three separate Marshallese attacks on ships occurred at Ebon , Jaluit , and Namdrik Atolls . In 1857, American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions sent two families to establish

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6760-585: The front teeth . The MED and Willson (2003) describe the rhotic consonants as " retroflex ", but are not clear how this relates to their dental or alveolar trill positions. (See retroflex trill .) This article uses [ rʲ ] , [ rˠ ] and [ rʷ ] in phonetic transcription. The heavy lateral consonants /lˠ/ and /lʷ/ are dark l like in English feel , articulated [ ɫ ] and [ ɫʷ ] respectively. This article uses [ lˠ ] and [ lʷ ] in phonetic transcription. The velarized consonants (and, by extension,

6890-495: The 1st century CE at the village of Laura on Majuro and on Kwajalein Atoll . The Austronesian settlers introduced Southeast Asian crops , including coconuts , giant swamp taro , and breadfruit , as well as domesticated chickens throughout the Marshall Islands. They possibly seeded the islands by leaving coconuts at seasonal fishing camps before permanently settling years later. The southern islands receive heavier rainfall than

7020-744: The Americas and the Philippines kept to a sea lane at 13°N and provisioned at Guam, avoiding the Marshalls, which Spanish sailors saw as unprofitable islands amid hazardous waters. The British sea captains John Marshall and Thomas Gilbert visited the islands in 1788. Their vessels had been part of the First Fleet taking convicts from England to Botany Bay in New South Wales , and were en route to Guangzhou when they passed through

7150-818: The British and German governments conducted a series of secret negotiations to divide the Western Pacific into spheres of influence . The German sphere included the Marshall Islands. On November 26, 1878, the German warship SMS Ariadne anchored at Jaluit to begin treaty negotiations with the chiefs to grant the German Empire " most favored nation " status in the Ralik Chain. During the second day of negotiations, Captain Bartholomäus von Werner  [ de ] ordered his men to give military demonstrations which he later said were intended to "show

7280-705: The Japanese period, with the South Seas Trading Company ( 南洋貿易会社 , Nan'yō Bōeki Kaisha ) taking over the Jaluit Company's operations and building upon the German colonial infrastructure. Other parts of the South Seas Mandate experienced heavy Japanese settlement, shifting the population to majority Japanese in the Northern Mariana Islands and Palau, but Japanese settlers remained a minority under 1,000 people in

7410-605: The Kwajalein Atoll. The fourth launch of the Falcon 1 was successful, marking the first time in history a privately developed, fully liquid-fueled launch vehicle achieved orbit. SpaceX founder Elon Musk was present in Kwajalein for select launches. The Marshall Islands sit atop ancient submerged volcanoes rising from the ocean floor, about halfway between Hawaii and Australia , north of Nauru and Kiribati , east of

7540-623: The Marshall Islands throughout the Japanese period, because the islands were distant from Japan and had the most limited economic potential in Micronesia. On March 27, 1933, Japan declared its intentions to withdraw from the League of Nations , officially withdrawing in 1935 but continuing to control the territory of the South Seas Mandate. Japanese military planners initially discounted the Marshalls as too distant and indefensible for extensive fortification, but as Japan developed long-range bombers,

7670-399: The Marshallese lived in thatched-roof huts, but their villages did not include the large ornate meeting houses found in other parts of Micronesia. They did not have furniture, except for woven mats, which they used for both floor coverings and clothing. The Marshallese had pierced ears and tattoos . He learned that Marshallese families practiced infanticide after the birth of a third child as

7800-553: The Marshalls, though several pro-American iroij refused to recognize the German protectorate until threatened with German naval force in mid-1886. Nauru was incorporated into the German Protectorate of the Marshall Islands in 1888, following the Anglo-German Declarations of April 1886. The German commercial interests formed the joint-stock Jaluit Company , which was responsible for financing

7930-475: The Marshalls. European maps and charts named the group for British captain John Marshall , who explored the region in 1788. American Protestant missionaries and Western business interests began arriving in the 1850s. German copra traders dominated the economy in the 1870s and 1880s, and the German Empire annexed the Marshalls as a protectorate in 1885. The Empire of Japan occupied the islands in

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8060-680: The Pacific Islands . From 1946 to 1958, it served as the Pacific Proving Grounds for the United States and was the site of 67 nuclear tests on various atolls. Operation Crossroads atomic bomb testing began in 1946 on Bikini Atoll after some of the residents were forcibly evacuated. The world's first hydrogen bomb , codenamed " Mike ", was tested at the Enewetak atoll in the Marshall Islands on November 1 (local date) in 1952, which produced significant fallout in

8190-609: The Ryukyu Islands , the four Japanese-held atolls were cut off from supplies and subject to American bombardment. The garrisons began running out of provisions in late 1944, leading to high casualties from starvation and disease. In 1947, the United States entered into an agreement with the UN Security Council to administer much of Micronesia , including the Marshall Islands, as the Trust Territory of

8320-582: The United States engaged in the copra trade in the Marshall Islands. By 1885, the German firms Hernsheim & Co . and Deutsche Handels- und Plantagen-Gesellschaft Der Südsee Inseln zu Hamburg controlled two-thirds of the trade. Contact between the Marshallese and westerners led to sometimes lethal outbreaks of western diseases, including influenza , measles , syphilis , and typhoid fever . Increased access to alcohol led to social problems in some Marshallese communities, and on several atolls conflicts erupted between rival iroij with access to firearms. In 1875,

8450-517: The abstract nature of these phonemes differently, with Bender treating the front unrounded surface realizations as their relaxed state that becomes altered by proximity of velarized or rounded consonants, while Choi uses central vowel symbols in a neutral fashion to notate the abstract phonemes and completely different front , back and rounded vowel symbols for surface realizations. Bender (1968, 1969), MED (1976) and Willson (2003) recognize four vowel phonemes, but Choi (1992) observes only three of

8580-427: The accounting year. ) So for example if a car manufacturer buys auto parts , assembles the car and sells it, only the final car sold is counted towards the GDP. Meanwhile, if a person buys replacement auto parts to install them on their car, those are counted towards the GDP. According to the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis, which is responsible for calculating the national accounts in the United States, "In general,

8710-512: The added presence (+ATR) or absence (-ATR) of advanced tongue root . Bender (1968) assigns central vowel symbols for the surface realizations that neighbor velarized consonants, but the MED (1976), Choi (1992) and Willson (2003) largely assign back unrounded vowel symbols for these, with the exception that the MED uses [ ə ] rather than cardinal [ ɤ ] for the close-mid back unrounded vowel , and Choi (1992) and Willson (2003) use [

8840-446: The approximants are generally not articulated as glides, and Choi (1992) does not rule out a deeper level of representation. In particular, /V/ short vowels occupy one unit of time, and /VGV/ long vowels (for which /G/ is an approximant phoneme) are three times as long. As a matter of prosody , each /C/ consonant and /V/ vowel phonemic sequence carries one mora in length, with the exception of /C/ in /CV/ sequences where

8970-558: The autumn of 1914 at the beginning of World War I . After the war, the Marshalls and other former German Pacific colonies north of the equator became the Japanese South Seas Mandate . The United States occupied the islands during World War II and administered them as part of the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands after the war. Between 1946 and 1958, the United States conducted 67 nuclear tests at Bikini Atoll and Enewetak Atoll . The U.S. government formed

9100-537: The beginning of World War I . An occupation force was stationed on Jaluit on October 3. At the Paris Peace Conference in 1919, Germany's Pacific colonies north of the equator became the Japanese South Seas Mandate under the system of League of Nations mandates . Germany ceded the Marshall Islands to Japan with the signing of the Treaty of Versailles on June 28, 1919. The Japanese navy administered

9230-420: The colony's administration. In addition to controlling two-thirds of the Marshallese copra trade, the company had the authority to collect commercial license fees and an annual poll tax . The company also had the right to be consulted on all new laws and ordinances and nominated all colonial administrative staff. The company's licensing fees and legal advantages pushed out American and British competition, creating

9360-461: The compact. Despite the constitution, the government was largely controlled by Iroij. It was not until 1999, following political corruption allegations, that the aristocratic government was overthrown, with Imata Kabua replaced by the commoner Kessai Note . The Runit Dome was built on Runit Island to deposit U.S.-produced radioactive soil and debris, including lethal amounts of plutonium . There are ongoing concerns about deterioration of

9490-540: The concept of GDP should be distinguished from the history of changes in many ways of estimating it. The value added by firms is relatively easy to calculate from their accounts, but the value added by the public sector , by financial industries, and by intangible asset creation is more complex. These activities are increasingly important in developed economies, and the international conventions governing their estimation and their inclusion or exclusion in GDP regularly change in an attempt to keep up with industrial advances. In

9620-401: The country. GDP per capita is often used as an indicator of living standards. The major advantage of GDP per capita as an indicator of the standard of living is that it is measured frequently, widely, and consistently. It is measured frequently in that most countries provide information on GDP every quarter, allowing trends to be seen quickly. It is measured widely in that some measure of GDP

9750-407: The diphthongs themselves are not phonemic, and short vowels between two consonants with different secondary articulations can be articulated as either a smooth diphthong (such as [ɛ͡ʌ] ) or as a monophthong of one of the two vowel allophones (such as [ɛ ~ ʌ] ), all in free variation. Bender (1968) also observes that when the would-be diphthong starts with a back rounded vowel [ɒ ɔ o u] and ends with

9880-475: The east and Ralik in the west. 97.87% of its territory is water, the largest proportion of water to land of any sovereign state. The country shares maritime boundaries with Wake Island to the north, Kiribati to the southeast, Nauru to the south, and the Federated States of Micronesia to the west. The capital and largest city is Majuro , home to approximately half of the country's population. The Marshall Islands are one of only four atoll based nations in

10010-456: The entire country is 7 feet (2.1 m). In October 2011, the government declared that an area covering nearly 2,000,000 square kilometers (772,000 sq mi) of ocean shall be reserved as a shark sanctuary . This is the world's largest shark sanctuary, extending the worldwide ocean area in which sharks are protected from 2,700,000 to 4,600,000 square kilometers (1,042,000 to 1,776,000 sq mi). In protected waters, all shark fishing

10140-439: The entire world. Austronesian settlers reached the Marshall Islands as early as the 2nd millennium BC and introduced Southeast Asian crops, including coconuts , giant swamp taro , and breadfruit , as well as domesticated chickens, which made the islands permanently habitable. Several Spanish expeditions visited the islands in the mid-16th century, but Spanish galleons usually sailed a Pacific route farther north and avoided

10270-414: The epenthetic vowels: Epenthetic vowels in general can be omitted without affecting meaning, such as in song or in enunciated syllable breaks. This article uses non-syllabic notation in phonetic IPA transcription to indicate epenthetic vowels between non-glides. The short vowel phonemes /æ ɛ e i/ and the approximant phonemes /j ɰ w/ all occupy a roughly equal duration of time. Though they occupy time,

10400-502: The evolving political status of the Marshall Islands, the United States recognized the constitution of the Marshall Islands and the establishment of the Government of the Republic of the Marshall Islands. The constitution incorporates both American and British constitutional concepts. There have been a number of local and national elections since the Republic of the Marshall Islands was founded. The United Democratic Party, running on

10530-789: The expedition of Álvaro de Saavedra Cerón landed on an uninhabited island, possibly in Ailinginae Atoll , where they resupplied and stayed for six days. Natives from a neighboring island briefly met the Spanish. This expedition named the islands 'Los Pintados' or "the Painted Ones" for the natives who wore tattoos. Later Spanish explorers of the Marshalls included Ruy López de Villalobos , Miguel López de Legazpi , Alonso de Arellano , and Álvaro de Mendaña de Neira , though coordinates and geographic descriptions in 16th century Spanish logs are sometimes imprecise, leaving uncertainty about

10660-410: The firm went bankrupt in 1863, Capelle partnered with Portuguese ex-whaler Anton Jose DeBrum to establish a copra trading firm: Capelle & Co. In 1873, the company moved its headquarters to Jaluit , the home of Kabua , a powerful iroij and disputed successor for the paramount chieftainship of the southern Ralik Chain . In the 1870s, various other companies from Germany, Hawaii, New Zealand, and

10790-441: The first (unwritten) glide phoneme is dorsal rather than palatal. The spelling of grammatical affixes , such as ri- ( /rˠi-/ ) and -in ( /-inʲ/ ) is less variable despite the fact that their vowels become diphthongs with second member dependent on the preceding/following consonant: the prefix ri- may be pronounced as any of [rˠɯ͜i, rˠɯ, rˠɯ͜u] depending on the stem. The term Ri-M̧ajel‌̧ (" Marshallese people ")

10920-520: The first American air raids on Japanese territory. The United States invaded the Marshall Islands on January 31, 1944, during the Gilbert and Marshall Islands campaign . The Americans simultaneously invaded Majuro and Kwajalein. By autumn 1944, the Americans controlled all of the Marshall Islands, except for Jaluit, Maloelap, Mili, and Wotje. As the American campaign advanced through Micronesia and into

11050-430: The highest of either of their nearest neighboring vowels, and the epenthetic vowel actually becomes /ɛ̯/ if the two nearest vowels are both /æ/ . Naan (2014) does not take the heights of epenthetic vowels between non-glides into consideration, phonetically transcribing all of them as a schwa [ ə ] . But when one of the consonants in a cluster is a glide, the height of the epenthetic vowel between them follows

11180-553: The income approach. A common one is: The sum of COE , GOS and GMI is called total factor income; it is the income of all of the factors of production in society. It measures the value of GDP at factor (basic) prices. The difference between basic prices and final prices (those used in the expenditure calculation) is the total taxes and subsidies that the government has levied or paid on that production. So adding taxes less subsidies on production and imports converts GDP(I) at factor cost to GDP(I) at final prices. Total factor income

11310-486: The individual island iroij. On August 21, 1526, Spanish explorer Alonso de Salazar was the first European to sight the Marshall Islands. While commanding the Santa Maria de la Victoria , he sighted an atoll with a green lagoon, which may have been Taongi . The crew could not land, because of strong currents and water too deep for the ship's anchor, so the ship sailed for Guam two days later. On January 2, 1528,

11440-443: The information required (especially information on expenditure and production by governments). The raw GDP figure as given by the equations above is called the nominal, historical, or current GDP. When one compares GDP figures from one year to another, it is desirable to compensate for changes in the value of money—for the effects of inflation or deflation. To make it more meaningful for year-to-year comparisons, it may be multiplied by

11570-684: The international market. Total GDP can also be broken down into the contribution of each industry or sector of the economy. GDP is often used as a metric for international comparisons as well as a broad measure of economic progress . It is often considered to be the world's most powerful statistical indicator of national development and progress. However, critics of the growth imperative often argue that GDP measures were never intended to measure progress, and leave out key other externalities , such as resource extraction , environmental impact and unpaid domestic work . Alternative economic indicators such as doughnut economics use other measures, such as

11700-656: The islanders, who have not seen anything like it before, the power of the Europeans." On November 29, Werner signed a treaty with Kabua and several other Ralik Chain iroij which secured a German fuelling station at Jaluit and free use of the atoll's harbor. On August 29, 1885, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck authorized the annexation of the Marshall Islands as a protectorate following repeated petitions by German business interests. The German gunboat Nautilus docked at Jaluit on October 13 to take control. On October 15, iroij Kabua, Loeak, Nelu, Lagajime, and Launa signed

11830-649: The islands became useful as a forward base to attack Australia, British colonies, and the United States. In 1939 and 1940, the navy built military airfields on Kwajalein , Maloelap , and Wotje Atolls as well as seaplane facilities at Jaluit. After the outbreak of the Pacific War , the United States Pacific Fleet carried out the Marshalls–Gilberts raids , which struck Jaluit, Kwajalein, Maloelap, and Wotje on February 1, 1942. They were

11960-457: The islands from late 1914 through 1921. The civilian South Seas Government ( 南洋廳 , Nan'yō-chō ) set up its headquarters in Palau in April 1922 and administered the Marshalls until World War II. Japanese surveys determined that the Marshalls' value was primarily strategic, because they could enable future southward expansion . The Marshalls also continued to be a major producer of copra during

12090-849: The islands practices some religion: three-quarters of the country follows either the United Church of Christ – Congregational in the Marshall Islands (UCCCMI) or the Assemblies of God . Linguistic and anthropological studies have suggested that the first Austronesian settlers of the Marshall Islands arrived from the Solomon Islands . Radiocarbon dating suggests that Bikini Atoll may have been inhabited as early as 1200 BCE, though samples may not have been collected from secure stratigraphic contexts and older driftwood samples may have affected results. Archaeological digs on other atolls have found evidence of human habitation dating around

12220-467: The letters as having a cedilla , but fonts usually display them with a comma below because of rendering expectations of the Latvian alphabet . For many fonts, a workaround is to encode these letters as the base letter L l N n followed by a zero-width non-joiner and then a combining cedilla, producing L‌̧ l‌̧ N‌̧ n‌̧ . Gross domestic product The ratio of GDP to the total population of

12350-443: The most relevant short vowel allophones roughly corresponding to Marshallese orthography as informed by the MED. Some syllables appear to contain long vowels: naaj 'future'. They are thought to contain an underlying glide ( /j/ , /ɰ/ or /w/ ), which is not present phonetically. For instance, the underlying form of naaj is /nʲæɰætʲ/ . Although the medial glide is not realized phonetically, it affects vowel quality; in

12480-452: The motion of the boat. Sailors also invented stick charts to map the swell patterns, but unlike western navigational charts, the Marshallese stick charts were tools for teaching students and for consultation before embarking on a voyage; navigators did not take charts with them when they set sail. When Russian explorer Otto von Kotzebue visited the Marshalls in 1817, the islanders still showed few signs of western influence. He observed that

12610-432: The north, so communities in the wet south subsisted on prevalent taro and breadfruit, while northerners were more likely to subsist on pandanus and coconuts. Southern atolls probably supported larger, more dense populations. The Marshallese sailed between islands on walaps made from breadfruit-tree wood and coconut-fiber rope. They navigated by using the stars for orientation and initial course setting, but also developed

12740-405: The only complete published Marshallese dictionary. Here is the current alphabet , as promoted by the Republic of the Marshall Islands . It consists of 24 letters. Marshallese spelling is based on pronunciation rather than a phonemic analysis. Therefore, backness is marked in vowels despite being allophonic (it does not change the meaning), and many instances of the glides /j ɰ w/ proposed on

12870-614: The other Micronesian languages, including Gilbertese , Nauruan , Pohnpeian , Mokilese , Chuukese , Refaluwash , and Kosraean . Marshallese shows 50% lexical similarity with Gilbertese , Mokilese , and Pohnpeian . Within the Micronesian archipelago, Marshallese—along with the rest of the Micronesian language group—is not as closely related to the more ambiguously classified Oceanic language Yapese in Yap State , or to

13000-404: The phonemes as having a stable quality, but theorizes that there may be a historical process of reduction from four to three, and otherwise ignores the fourth phoneme. For phonemic transcription of vowels, this article recognizes four phonemes and uses the front unrounded vowel /æ ɛ e i/ notation of the MED, following the approach of Bender (1969) in treating the front vowel surface realizations as

13130-419: The phonemic level are unwritten, because they do not surface as consonants phonetically. In particular, the glide /ɰ/ , which never surfaces as a consonant phonetically, is always unwritten. The letter w is generally used only in three situations: w is never written out word-finally or before another consonant. The palatal glide phoneme /j/ may also be written out but only as e before one of

13260-718: The phonemic level, and there are no distinct /pʷ mʷ/ phonemes. The pronunciation guide used by Naan (2014) still recognizes [p m] as allophone symbols separate from [pʲ pˠ mʲ mˠ] in these same conditions while recognizing that there are only palatalized and velarized phonemes. This article uses [pʲ pˠ mʲ mˠ] in phonetic transcriptions. The consonant /tʲ/ may be phonetically realized as [ tʲ ] , [t͡sʲ] , [ sʲ ] , [t͡ɕ] , [ ɕ ] , [ c ] , or [ ç ] (or any of their voiced variants [ dʲ ] , [d͡zʲ] , [ zʲ ] , [d͡ʑ] , [ ʑ ] , [ ɟ ] , or [ ʝ ] ), in free variation . Word-internally it usually assumes

13390-543: The population is the Per capita income . The international standard for measuring GDP is contained in the book System of National Accounts (2008), which was prepared by representatives of the International Monetary Fund , European Union , Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development , United Nations and World Bank . The publication is normally referred to as SNA2008 to distinguish it from

13520-430: The previous edition published in 1993 (SNA93) or 1968 (called SNA68) SNA2008 provides a set of rules and procedures for the measurement of national accounts. The standards are designed to be flexible, to allow for differences in local statistical needs and conditions. Within each country GDP is normally measured by a national government statistical agency, as private sector organizations normally do not have access to

13650-594: The principal language. There are also roughly 27,000 Marshallese citizens residing in the United States , nearly all of whom speak Marshallese, as well as residents in other countries such as Nauru and Kiribati . There are two major dialects, the western Rālik and the eastern Ratak . Marshallese, a Micronesian language , is a member of the Eastern Oceanic subgroup of the Austronesian languages . The closest linguistic relatives of Marshallese are

13780-512: The products must be bought by somebody, therefore the value of the total product must be equal to people's total expenditures in buying things. The income approach works on the principle that the incomes of the productive factors ("producers", colloquially) must be equal to the value of their product, and determines GDP by finding the sum of all producers' incomes. Also known as the Value Added Approach, it calculates how much value

13910-445: The ratio between the value of money in the year the GDP was measured and the value of money in a base year. For example, suppose a country's GDP in 1990 was $ 100 million and its GDP in 2000 was $ 300 million . Suppose also that inflation had halved the value of its currency over that period. To meaningfully compare its GDP in 2000 to its GDP in 1990, we could multiply the GDP in 2000 by one-half, to make it relative to 1990 as

14040-415: The region is the GDP per capita and can approximate a concept of a standard of living . Nominal GDP does not reflect differences in the cost of living and the inflation rates of the countries; therefore, using a basis of GDP per capita at purchasing power parity (PPP) may be more useful when comparing living standards between nations, while nominal GDP is more useful comparing national economies on

14170-531: The region. Over the years just one of over 60 islands was cleaned by the U.S. government, and the inhabitants are still waiting for the 2 billion dollars in compensation assessed by the Nuclear Claims Tribunal. Many of the islanders and their descendants still live in exile, as the islands remain contaminated with high levels of radiation. A significant radar installation was constructed on Kwajalein atoll. On May 1, 1979, in recognition of

14300-414: The representative phonemes. On the phonetic level, Bender (1968), MED (1976), Choi (1992), Willson (2003) and Naan (2014) notate some Marshallese vowel surface realizations differently from one another, and they disagree on how to characterize the vowel heights of the underlying phonemes, with Willson (2003) taking the most divergent approach in treating the four heights as actually two heights each with

14430-525: The rest of the world minus income payments to the rest of the world. In 1991, the United States switched from using GNP to using GDP as its primary measure of production. The relationship between United States GDP and GNP is shown in table 1.7.5 of the National Income and Product Accounts . Another example that amplifies the difference between GDP and GNI is the comparison of developed and developing country indicators. The GDP of Japan for 2020

14560-598: The results of underlying glides not present on the phonetic level. Initial vowels are sometimes realized with an onglide [ j ] or [ w ] but not consistently: Only homorganic consonant sequences are allowed in Marshallese, including geminate varieties of each consonant, except for glides. Non-homorganic clusters are separated by vowel epenthesis even across word boundaries. Some homorganic clusters are also disallowed: The following assimilations are created, with empty combinations representing epenthesis. The vowel height of an epenthetic vowel

14690-480: The rounded allophones of /ɛ/ and /e/ as [ o ] , and indicating the front allophone of /æ/ as a close-mid central unrounded vowel [ ɘ ] , a realization more raised even than the front allophone of the normally higher /ɛ/ . For phonetic notation of vowel surface realizations, this article largely uses the MED's notation, but uses only cardinal symbols for back unrounded vowels. Superficially, 12 Marshallese vowel allophones appear in minimal pairs ,

14820-463: The rounded consonants) may be velarized or pharyngealized like the emphatic consonants in Arabic or Mizrahi Hebrew . Marshallese has a vertical vowel system of just four vowel phonemes , each with several allophones depending on the surrounding consonants. On the phonemic level, while Bender (1969) and Choi (1992) agree that the vowel phonemes are distinguished by height , they describe

14950-408: The same result. They are the production (or output or value added) approach, the income approach, and the speculated expenditure approach. It is representative of the total output and income within an economy. The most direct of the three is the production approach, which sums up the outputs of every class of enterprise to arrive at the total. The expenditure approach works on the principle that all of

15080-485: The sounds of Marshallese, but until recently, it had no competing orthography. It is currently widely used, including in newspapers and signs. The "new" orthography is gaining popularity especially in schools and among young adults and children. The "new" orthography represents the sounds of the Marshallese language more faithfully and is the system used in the Marshallese–English dictionary by Abo et al., currently

15210-401: The source data for the expenditures components are considered more reliable than those for the income components [see income method, above]." Encyclopedia Britannica records an alternate way of measuring exports minus imports: notating it as the single variable NX. GDP can be contrasted with gross national product (GNP) or, as it is now known, gross national income (GNI). The difference

15340-656: The southern atolls about twice that. The threat of drought is commonplace throughout the island chains. Marshallese language Marshallese (Marshallese: Kajin M̧ajel‌̧ or Kajin Majōl [kɑzʲinʲ(i)mˠɑːzʲɛlˠ] ), also known as Ebon , is a Micronesian language spoken in the Marshall Islands . The language of the Marshallese people , it is spoken by nearly all of the country's population of 59,000, making it

15470-411: The specific islands they sighted and visited. On July 6, 1565, the Spanish ship San Jeronimo nearly wrecked at Ujelang Atoll after the ship's pilot Lope Martín led a mutiny. While the mutineers were resupplying at Ujelang, several crew members took back control of the ship and marooned Martín and twenty-six other mutineers in the Marshalls. By the late 16th century, Spanish galleons sailing between

15600-547: The stem kkure 'play' becomes ikkure in Rālik Marshallese and kukure in Ratak Marshallese. Marshallese is the official language of the Marshall Islands and enjoys vigorous use. As of 1979, the language was spoken by 43,900 people in the Marshall Islands. in 2020 the number was closer to 59,000. Additional groups of speakers in other countries including Nauru and the United States increase

15730-639: The tongue a little farther back [k̠ ɡ̠ ŋ̠ k̠ʷ ɡ̠ʷ ŋ̠ʷ] , making them somewhere between velar and uvular in articulation. All dorsal phonemes are "heavy" (velarized or rounded), and none are "light" (palatalized). As stated before, the palatal consonant articulations [ c ] , [ ɟ ] , [ ç ] and [ ʝ ] are treated as allophones of the palatalized coronal obstruent /tʲ/ , even though palatal consonants are physically dorsal. For simplicity, this article uses unmarked [k ɡ ŋ kʷ ɡʷ ŋʷ] in phonetic transcription. Bender (1969) describes /nˠ/ and /nʷ/ as being 'dark' r -colored, but

15860-536: The total expenditure used to buy things is a way of measuring production. This is known as the expenditure method of calculating GDP. GDP (Y) is the sum of consumption (C) , investment (I) , government expenditures (G) and net exports (X − M) . Here is a description of each GDP component: C , I , and G are expenditures on final goods and services; expenditures on intermediate goods and services do not count. (Intermediate goods and services are those used by businesses to produce other goods and services within

15990-469: The total number of Marshallese speakers, with approximately 27,000 Marshallese-Americans living in the United States Along with Pohnpeian and Chuukese , Marshallese stands out among Micronesian languages in having tens of thousands of speakers; most Micronesian languages have far fewer. A dictionary and at least two Bible translations have been published in Marshallese. Marshallese has

16120-437: The vowel carries one mora for both phonemes. All morae are thus measured in /CV/ or shut /C/ sequences: That makes Marshallese a mora-rhythmed language in a fashion similar to Finnish , Gilbertese , Hawaiian , and Japanese . Marshallese consonants show splits conditioned by the surrounding Proto-Micronesian vowels. Proto-Micronesian *k *ŋ *r become rounded next to *o or next to *u except in bisyllables whose other vowel

16250-423: The vowel quality closer to the phonetic nucleus of the long syllable: If the syllable is phonetically open, the vowel written is usually the second vowel in the diphthong: the word bwe [pˠɛ] is usually not written any other way, but exceptions exist such as aelōn̄ ( /ɰajɘlʲɘŋ/ [ɑelʲɤŋ] "land; country; island; atoll" ), which is preferred over * āelōn̄ because the a spelling emphasizes that

16380-401: The waste site and a potential radioactive spill . In February 2018, the Marshall Islands became the first country in the world to recognize its cryptocurrency as its own legal tender for digital currency . In January 2020, David Kabua , son of founding president Amata Kabua , was elected as the new President of the Marshall Islands . His predecessor Hilda Heine lost the position after

16510-417: The west was reported to have "slightly less homogeneous speech", but it has been uninhabited since 1980. The Ratak and Rālik dialects differ phonetically in how they deal with stems that begin with double consonants. Ratak Marshallese inserts a vowel to separate the consonants, while Ralik adds a vowel before the consonants (and pronounced an unwritten consonant phoneme /j/ before the vowel). For example,

16640-473: The words of one academic economist, "The actual number for GDP is, therefore, the product of a vast patchwork of statistics and a complicated set of processes carried out on the raw data to fit them to the conceptual framework." China officially adopted GDP in 1993 as its indicator of economic performance. Previously, China had relied on a Marxist-inspired national accounting system. GDP can be determined in three ways, all of which should, theoretically, give

16770-493: Was first developed by Simon Kuznets for a 1934 U.S. Congress report, where he warned against its use as a measure of welfare (see below under limitations and criticisms ). After the Bretton Woods Conference in 1944, GDP became the main tool for measuring a country's economy. At that time gross national product (GNP) was the preferred estimate, which differed from GDP in that it measured production by

16900-460: Was once believed there were six bilabial consonants because of observed surface realizations, /p pʲ pʷ m mʲ mʷ/ , but he determined that two of these, /p m/ , were actually allophones of /pʲ mʲ/ respectively before front vowels and allophones of /pˠ mˠ/ respectively before back vowels. Before front vowels, the velarized labial consonants /pˠ mˠ/ actually tend to have rounded (labiovelarized) articulations [pʷ mʷ] , but they remain unrounded on

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