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105-626: The Tarangire Ecosystem hosts the second-largest population of migratory ungulates in East Africa and the largest population of elephants in northern Tanzania. The Tarangire Ecosystem is defined by watershed boundaries of the Lake Manyara Basin and the Engaruka Basin, and the long distance migratory movements of eastern white-bearded wildebeest and plains zebra . It includes the dry season wildlife concentration area near

210-498: A zoonotic disease around 600 BC, a period that coincides with the rise of large human settlements. After a global eradication campaign that began in the mid-20th century, the last confirmed case of rinderpest was diagnosed in 2001. In 2010, the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) announced that field activities in the decades-long, worldwide campaign to eradicate the disease were ending, paving

315-404: A Mr Dobsen had inoculated his cattle and had thus preserved 9 out of 10 of them, although this was retracted in the next issue, as it was apparently a Sir William St. Quintin who had done the inoculating (this was done by placing bits of material previously dipped in morbid discharge into an incision made in the dewlap of the animal). These letters encouraged further application of inoculation in

420-552: A basin of internal drainage that lost water through evaporation and deep percolation. Subsequent rises in the Rift Valley floor changed drainage patterns and the lake was reduced in size and divided into the two shallow, alkali lakes currently seen. Topography is now mainly low ridges of gneiss and pre-Cambrian rocks covered with well-drained, medium textured, stony soils. Large areas of valley bottoms are montmorillonite black cotton soils. Ancient lake sediments produced clay soils in

525-500: A critical commentary on the theory that in 1888, rinderpest was introduced into Abyssinia (modern Ethiopia) by the invading Italian army, which supposedly brought with them infected cattle from India. The procurement chain is not traced beyond an Egyptian businessman from Cairo, but it is possible that the British Army got their draft oxen from India. However, the documentary chain only supported limited negative conclusions. "There

630-508: A diagnosis could only be made on the ground by a vet. Funding vets was not a priority as most of the cattle by then (1892) had died. Meanwhile, a German staff doctor with an interest in animal diseases opined (two long Reports for the German Colonial Service ) that the problem must be an Africa-specific matter not the familiar rinderpest. His confusion may derive from the absence of impact of rinderpest on German wildlife. This

735-409: A fraction of tagged individuals were recovered. More convenient, therefore, are electronic devices such as radio-tracking collars that can be followed by radio, whether handheld, in a vehicle or aircraft, or by satellite. GPS animal tracking enables accurate positions to be broadcast at regular intervals, but the devices are inevitably heavier and more expensive than those without GPS. An alternative

840-474: A greater scale (in both space and time) than its normal daily activities; seasonal to-and-fro movement of a population between two areas; and movement leading to the redistribution of individuals within a population. Migration can be either obligate , meaning individuals must migrate, or facultative, meaning individuals can "choose" to migrate or not. Within a migratory species or even within a single population, often not all individuals migrate. Complete migration

945-462: A particular parcel. Complaint by both Boer and Tswana groups was focused on the government rather than mutual hostility. Fencing, and quarantining coupled with killing of infected cattle, was a policy barely controllable in the expanses of the colony, though it had some success in England. However, fencing resulted in herd-mingling and consequent infection. The Tswana herds were quarantined together;

1050-567: A significant impact: the total number of inoculations in England appears to have been very limited, and after 1780, the English interest in inoculation disappeared almost entirely. Almost all further experimentation was done in the Netherlands, northern Germany and Denmark. Due to a very severe outbreak at the end of the 1760s, some of the best-known names in Dutch medicine became involved in

1155-568: A variety of causes. As such, there is no simple accepted definition of migration. One of the most commonly used definitions, proposed by the zoologist J. S. Kennedy is Migratory behavior is persistent and straightened-out movement effected by the animal's own locomotory exertions or by its active embarkation on a vehicle. It depends on some temporary inhibition of station-keeping responses, but promotes their eventual disinhibition and recurrence. Migration encompasses four related concepts: persistent straight movement; relocation of an individual on

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1260-583: A variety of treatments to lighten the symptoms, all of them without significant effect. Although they were not able to perfect the inoculation procedure, they did make some useful observations. Reinders resumed his experiments in 1774, concentrating on the inoculation of calves from cows that had recovered from rinderpest. He was probably the first to make practical use of maternally derived immunity. The detailed results of his trials were published in 1776 and reprinted in 1777. His inoculation procedure did not differ much from what had been used previously, except for

1365-564: A voluntary mutual assurance scheme that drove down the infection rates by guaranteeing payment for compliance with the government instruction. The Privy Council ordered a detailed investigation of the disaster, which reported in 1868. In 1871, there was held an international Rinderpest convention in Vienna . It was purposed to establish mechanisms for reporting outbreaks to warn neighbouring countries, and so as to establish policies for inspections, quarantines and disinfections as well as monitoring

1470-405: Is a negative-sense single-stranded RNA virus . The virus is particularly fragile and is quickly inactivated by heat, desiccation , and sunlight. Measles virus evolved from the then-widespread rinderpest virus most probably between the 11th and 12th centuries. The earliest likely origin is during the seventh century; some linguistic evidence exists for this earlier origin. In 2020 research on

1575-429: Is advantageous in birds that, during the winter, remain close to the equator, and also allows the monitoring of the auditory and spatial memory of the bird's brain to remember an optimal site of migration. These birds also have timing mechanisms that provide them with the distance to their destination. Tidal migration is the use of tides by organisms to move periodically from one habitat to another. This type of migration

1680-648: Is also known as the Masai Steppe , or the Tarangire-Manyara Ecosystem . Tarangire has approximately 500 species of birds, and more than 60 species of larger mammal. The area falls within the eastern branch of the East African Rift Valley which has widened and the valley floor fallen over the past few million years. About 250,000 years ago Lake Manyara and Lake Burunge were part of a larger lake called Proto-Manyara,

1785-412: Is estimated to have cost $ 5 billion. Stocks of the rinderpest virus are still maintained by highly specialized laboratories. In 2015, FAO launched a campaign calling for the destruction or sequestering of the remaining stocks of rinderpest virus in laboratories in 24 countries, citing risks of inadvertent or malicious release. On 14 June 2019, the largest stock of the rinderpest virus was destroyed at

1890-548: Is now explained by the fenced and manicured German agricultural landscape of the day being insufficiently "wild" and livestock normally being kept apart. By 1893, government regulatory response was as though the disease had been rinderpest in Germany (and included preventive slaughter). Cattle exports were banned in 1893 (to improve local stocks not on grounds of confining spread, as some cattle were exempt). Nevertheless importation, legal or illegal or rebranded via Zanzibar , reached

1995-439: Is often used in order to find food or mates. Tides can carry organisms horizontally and vertically for as little as a few nanometres to even thousands of kilometres. The most common form of tidal migration is to and from the intertidal zone during daily tidal cycles. These zones are often populated by many different species and are rich in nutrients. Organisms like crabs, nematodes, and small fish move in and out of these areas as

2100-464: Is the Argos Doppler tag, also called a 'Platform Transmitter Terminal' (PTT), which sends regularly to the polar-orbiting Argos satellites; using Doppler shift , the animal's location can be estimated, relatively roughly compared to GPS, but at a lower cost and weight. A technology suitable for small birds which cannot carry the heavier devices is the geolocator which logs the light level as

2205-460: Is the movement of various species from one habitat to another during the year. Resource availability changes depending on seasonal fluctuations, which influence migration patterns. Some species such as Pacific salmon migrate to reproduce; every year, they swim upstream to mate and then return to the ocean. Temperature is a driving factor of migration that is dependent on the time of year. Many species, especially birds, migrate to warmer locations during

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2310-514: Is the rift valley escarpment, the northern boundary is the Kenyan border near Lake Natron, the southern and eastern boundaries are not defined by any strict geographic features. Elevation ranges from about 1000 m in the southwest to 2660 m in the northeast. Tarangire has a bimodal rainfall averaging 650 mm per annum, with short rains from November to February, long rains from March to May, and dry season from June to October. The rains, particularly

2415-588: Is therefore no evidence in contemporary accounts that the rinderpest panzootic was imported from India with infected oxen to provision the Italian landing at Massawa ." It may now be impossible to disentangle the probabilities of where rinderpest initially came from- invading Italians, invading Egyptians or local break-outs in Eritrea . Once in progress, the infection eventually spread to the shores of Lake Victoria and into German Tanzania . Sunseri concentrates on

2520-601: Is unsuitable for livestock; "hence the European view of an empty unspoiled Africa teeming with game". Japan also sustained the presence of rinderpest in the 19th century as illustrated in an anonymous print. The disease was present for centuries in China, Japan and Korea. Japanese black and Korean yellow breed cattle were known to be especially susceptible to it. In 1868, there was a serious outbreak of rinderpest in India, which

2625-441: Is when all individuals migrate, partial migration is when some individuals migrate while others do not, and differential migration is when the difference between migratory and non-migratory individuals is based on discernible characteristics like age or sex. Irregular (non-cyclical) migrations such as irruptions can occur under pressure of famine, overpopulation of a locality, or some more obscure influence. Seasonal migration

2730-480: The Antarctic and back again each year, a distance of at least 19,000 km (12,000 mi), giving it two summers every year. Bird migration is controlled primarily by day length, signalled by hormonal changes in the bird's body. On migration, birds navigate using multiple senses. Many birds use a sun compass, requiring them to compensate for the sun's changing position with time of day. Navigation involves

2835-541: The German East Africa Company ) had been interrupted by coastal rebellion: when formal German rule began and the military went inland in 1891 to pacify areas, they encountered massive cattle deaths ostensibly due to viral spread from wildlife (one assumes at waterholes). Some observers themselves described the outbreak as rinderpest, whereas argument and debate continued because of essentially lack of consistent information and detailed investigation. When

2940-527: The Serengeti experienced radical fire regime shift to intense annual wildfires. During the 1960s, a program called JP 15 attempted to vaccinate all cattle in participating countries and, by 1979, only one of the countries involved, Sudan , reported cases of rinderpest. In the decades since, the wildebeest have returned to the Serengeti and tree cover has returned with them. In 1969, an outbreak of

3045-471: The Serengeti 'great migration' , an annual circular pattern of movement with some 1.7 million wildebeest and hundreds of thousands of other large game animals, including gazelles and zebra . More than 20 such species engage, or used to engage, in mass migrations. Of these migrations, those of the springbok , black wildebeest , blesbok , scimitar-horned oryx , and kulan have ceased. Long-distance migrations occur in some bats – notably

3150-770: The Tarangire River in Tarangire National Park , and the wet-season dispersal and calving grounds to the north in the Northern Plains and to the east in Simanjiro Plains, spanning in total approximately 20,500 km (7,900 sq mi). Migratory animals must have access to both the dry-season water source in the park, and the nutrient-rich forage available only on the calving grounds outside the park to successfully raise their calves and maintain their high abundance. The Tarangire Ecosystem

3255-676: The Boer herds were also quarantined but on their own land. The system was very unpopular. The policy was scorned and pilloried in the press: plenty of reports came out to the effect that the disease was spread by the quarantine guards and by the vets, all of whom were less than careful about disinfecting themselves. It is plausible that the major spreader of disease should be negligent government officials or contractors moving directly from areas known to be diseased to other areas in protective quarantine. In Southern Bechuanaland alone, over 400 men were hired as quarantine guards. Owners from both groups resisted

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3360-502: The British colonial administration/legislation was adopted by the new government. In the 1960s and 1970s the rinderpest that had previously killed many wildlife and livestock species was controlled. The control of rinderpest resulted in the increased numbers of wildebeest in the Serengeti ecosystem. This pushed Maasai into Tarangire area to avoid contact with wildebeest calving areas in the short grass-plains. Such areas are associated with

3465-604: The British colonies in the south. Marquardt concentrates on the detailed progress of the disease in South Africa during the 1896 outbreak. Between 1896 and 1897, 95% of the cattle in South Africa were killed by the disease. The primary spreading agency seems to be the common use of waterholes by wild ungulates and herded cattle. The herded cattle were normally in transit and the long incubation period and delayed symptoms meant that spreading had taken place before illness

3570-591: The Dutch Republic, the only other regions where inoculation was used to any significant level were northern Germany and Denmark . Experiments started in Mecklenburg during the epizootic of the late 1770s. "Insurance companies" were created which provided inoculation in special "institutes". Although these were private initiatives, they were created with full encouragement from the authorities. Though neighboring states followed this practice with interest,

3675-637: The European farmers/settlers. Many game parks were created at the same time, often evicting pastoralists from key dry season grazing areas and watering points. Because of the abundant water and pasture in the Tarangire ecosystem, it had a reputation as one of the best pastoral areas in Tanzania. Many herders who were evicted from the Serengeti National Park in the 1950s relocated to this area. Tanzania became independent in 1961 and most of

3780-597: The FAO announced it was confident the disease has been eradicated. The agency said that "[a]s of mid 2010, FAO is confident that the rinderpest virus has been eliminated from Europe, Asia, Middle East, Arabian Peninsula, and Africa," which were the locations where the virus had been last reported. Eradication was confirmed by the World Organization for Animal Health on 25 May 2011. On 28 June 2011, FAO and its members countries officially recognized global freedom from

3885-517: The German governor requested confirmation as to a course of action, he would have been fully aware of the administrative consequences, had matters been dealt with in Germany (quarantines, slaughter policies, disinfection controls of cattle transport and control of products suspected of contact with contaminated animals). In the event, the post-mortem was reviewed in Berlin and determined to be incomplete:

3990-597: The Maa-speaking pastoral people expanded into the area, replacing other pastoral groups like Nilotes and farming Bantu groups. By 1880 the Maasai reached their greatest extent. Around 1900 they suffered pleuro-pneumonia and smallpox diseases that killed many. At the same time the outbreak of the rinderpest decimated Maasai livestock and wildlife. The colonial period of 1880s to 1950s saw the displacement of Maasai from lands with high potential for agricultural development by

4095-564: The North Atlantic ocean. The capelin, for example, spawn around the southern and western coasts of Iceland; their larvae drift clockwise around Iceland, while the fish swim northwards towards Jan Mayen island to feed and return to Iceland parallel with Greenland's east coast. In the ' sardine run ', billions of Southern African pilchard Sardinops sagax spawn in the cold waters of the Agulhas Bank and move northward along

4200-540: The Northern Plains. 3°50′0″S 36°00′0″E  /  3.83333°S 36.00000°E  / -3.83333; 36.00000 Animal migration Animal migration is the relatively long-distance movement of individual animals , usually on a seasonal basis. It is the most common form of migration in ecology. It is found in all major animal groups, including birds , mammals , fish , reptiles , amphibians, insects , and crustaceans . The cause of migration may be local climate, local availability of food,

4305-587: The Nuer. Rinderpest was eradicated from Japan in 1922, as recorded by the Nippon Institute for Biological Science. Distinguished Japanese scientist and Director of the Nippon Institute for Biological Science, Junji Nakamura (1903–1975), was a major researcher into rinderpest, and the contribution of his work to the worldwide eradication of rinderpest was acknowledged by the Food and Agriculture Organisation of

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4410-815: The Pan-African Rinderpest Campaign was initiated in 1987, using vaccination and surveillance to combat the disease. By the 1990s, nearly all of Africa, with the exception of parts of Sudan and Somalia , was declared free of rinderpest. Worldwide, the Global Rinderpest Eradication Programme was initiated in 1994, supported by the Food and Agriculture Organization , the OIE, and the International Atomic Energy Agency . This program

4515-536: The Proto-Manyara area. Minjingu Hill and Vilima Vitatu were islands in Proto-Manyara Lake and their phosphate deposits there are derived from accumulated waterbird feces. Volcanic ash deposits produce rich soils on the Northern Plains and Simanjiro Plains where migratory wildebeest and zebra find forage with the nutrients necessary for lactation and healthy calf growth. The current western boundary

4620-648: The Tswana group, recorded over 12,000 head of cattle regularly each; the government was reluctant to embark on wholesale destruction. The government tried, and failed, to stop herds crossing rivers and perpetuating stock-mingling. The spread of the disease was relentless in the Bechuanaland Protectorate . The connection between rinderpest and starvation was recognised by the British government as cause for urgent intervention by delivery of food relief. In 1896, 30,000 tons of mealies (corn) were delivered for

4725-635: The United Nations. The FAO posthumously presented a certificate of appreciation in 2011. A more recent rinderpest outbreak in Africa in 1982–1984 resulted in an estimated US$ 2 billion in stock losses. In 1917–18, William Hutchins Boynton (1881–1959), the chief veterinary pathologist with the Philippine Bureau of Agriculture , developed an early vaccine for rinderpest, based on treated animal organ extracts. In 1959, rinderpest vaccine

4830-517: The ability to detect magnetic fields . Most fish species are relatively limited in their movements, remaining in a single geographical area and making short migrations to overwinter, to spawn , or to feed. A few hundred species migrate long distances, in some cases of thousands of kilometres. About 120 species of fish, including several species of salmon , migrate between saltwater and freshwater (they are 'diadromous'). Forage fish such as herring and capelin migrate around substantial parts of

4935-569: The animals may have travelled far from the place of infection and been mixed with many other animals. The disease is believed to have originated in Asia , later spreading through the transport of cattle. Other cattle epizootics are noted in ancient times: a cattle plague is thought to be one of the 10 plagues of Egypt described in the Hebrew Bible. By around 3,000 BC , a cattle plague had reached Egypt , and rinderpest later spread throughout

5040-739: The best rangelands into more marginal areas. In 1970, the Tarangire Game Reserve was upgraded to become Tarangire National Park. By the mid-1980s the movement of commercial interests and farmers into the area had expanded, blocking many traditional migratory routes for wildlife. In 2001, the Tanzanian government turned over the National Ranching Company land at Manyrara Ranch to the Tanzania Land Conservation Trust to help conserve

5145-511: The bird flies, for analysis on recapture. There is scope for further development of systems able to track small animals globally. Radio-tracking tags can be fitted to insects, including dragonflies and bees . Before animal migration was understood, various folklore and erroneous explanations were formulated to account for the disappearance or sudden arrival of birds in an area. In Ancient Greece , Aristotle proposed that robins turned into redstarts when summer arrived. The barnacle goose

5250-537: The cattle trade. In 1879, there was a notable cattle plague outbreak in Congress Poland and parts of Prussia , resulting in the slaughter of animals. Impacted cities included Warsaw , Posen , and Sochaczew . Prussian authorities considered military border guards to help hinder the spread of the disease. Around the turn of the century, a plague struck in Southern Africa. Spinage establishes

5355-458: The coming years. In 2008, scientists involved in rinderpest eradication efforts believed a good chance existed that rinderpest would join smallpox as officially "wiped off the face of the planet". The FAO, which had been co-ordinating the global eradication program for the disease, announced in November 2009 that it expected the disease to be eradicated within 18 months. In October 2010,

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5460-404: The concepts of those who saw infectious diseases as caused by specific agents, and were the first to recognize maternally derived immunity . The first written report of rinderpest inoculation was published in a letter signed "T.S." in the November 1754 issue of The Gentleman's Magazine , a widely read journal which also supported the progress of smallpox inoculation. This letter reported that

5565-542: The deadly cattle virus. On this day, the FAO Conference, the highest body of the UN agency, adopted a resolution declaring the eradication of rinderpest. The resolution also called on the world community to follow up by ensuring that samples of rinderpest viruses and vaccines be kept under safe laboratory conditions and that rigorous standards for disease surveillance and reporting be applied. "While we are celebrating one of

5670-588: The desert locust, Schistocerca gregaria , flew westwards across the Atlantic Ocean for 4,500 kilometres (2,800 mi) during October 1988, using air currents in the Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone . In some migratory butterflies , such as the monarch butterfly and the painted lady , no individual completes the whole migration. Instead, the butterflies mate and reproduce on the journey, and successive generations continue

5775-470: The detailed progress of the epizootic in German Tanzania, endeavouring to show that the disease was known to be present but was not officially recognised as being rinderpest. He emphasises in particular the failure by the German government to rely on or accept a post mortem in 1892 professionally medically conducted on an affected animal that had been duly diagnosed as having rinderpest. The diagnosis

5880-490: The disease originated in Afghanistan , travelling westwards and promoting a mass vaccination plan, which by 1972, had eliminated rinderpest in all areas of Asia except for Lebanon and India; both countries were the site of further occurrences of the disease in the 1980s. During the 1980s, however, an outbreak of rinderpest from Sudan spread throughout Africa, killing millions of cattle, as well as wildlife. In response,

5985-506: The disease. These attempts met with varying success, but the procedure was not widely used and was no longer practiced at all in 19th-century Western or Central Europe. Rinderpest was an immense problem, but inoculation was not a valid solution. In many cases, it caused too many losses. Even more importantly, it perpetuated the circulation of the virus in the cattle population. The pioneers of inoculation did contribute significantly to knowledge about infectious diseases. Their experiments confirmed

6090-547: The early 20th century although, until the 1950s, they mostly took place on an individual country basis, using vaccination campaigns. In 1924, the World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) was formed in response to rinderpest. In 1950, the Inter-African Bureau of Epizootic Diseases was formed, with the stated goal of eliminating rinderpest from Africa. With the loss of its wildebeest population,

6195-468: The east coast of South Africa between May and July. Some winged insects such as locusts and certain butterflies and dragonflies with strong flight migrate long distances. Among the dragonflies, species of Libellula and Sympetrum are known for mass migration, while Pantala flavescens , known as the globe skimmer or wandering glider dragonfly, makes the longest ocean crossing of any insect: between India and Africa. Exceptionally, swarms of

6300-462: The fight against diseases. The first inoculation against measles was made three years after their publication. From early 1755 onwards, experiments were taking place in the Netherlands, as well, results of which were also published in The Gentleman's Magazine . As in England, the disease was seen as analogous with smallpox. While these experiments were reasonably successful, they did not have

6405-413: The greatest successes for FAO and its partners, I wish to remind you that this extraordinary achievement would not have been possible without the joint efforts and strong commitments of governments, the main organizations in Africa, Asia and Europe, and without the continuous support of donors and international institutions", FAO Director-General Jacques Diouf commented. The rinderpest eradication effort

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6510-545: The guards and the Boers vigorously resisted the killing of their cattle. It is likely both groups raised the fences, and several Boer groups deliberately spread the disease in order to claim the compensation. By 1896, it was generally recognised the government campaign had completely failed, overwhelmed by a storm of contributory causes to the spread of the disease. The outbreak in the 1890s killed an estimated 80–90% of all cattle in eastern and southern Africa. Sir Arnold Theiler

6615-485: The length of the wet season. For example, the wet season lasted 38 days in 1983/1984 and 200 days in 1987/1988. The oldest known elephant to give birth to twins is found in Tarangire. A recent birth of elephant twins in the Tarangire National Park of Tanzania is a great example of how the birth of these two healthy and thriving twins can beat the odds. Between the sixteenth and nineteenth centuries,

6720-455: The mass migration of the Mexican free-tailed bat between Oregon and southern Mexico. Migration is important in cetaceans , including whales, dolphins and porpoises; some species travel long distances between their feeding and their breeding areas. Humans are mammals, but human migration , as commonly defined, is when individuals often permanently change where they live, which does not fit

6825-525: The measles virus has suggested a modified understanding of the evolution of rinderpest. Work on preserved older samples of measles (1912 and following) have been tested in various ways to determine the likely trajectory of the measles virus' divergence from rinderpest. It is thought based on this study that the earliest date at which the divergence could have occurred is the sixth century BC. Death rates during outbreaks were usually extremely high, approaching 100% in immunologically naïve populations. The disease

6930-568: The mid-century onwards. Responses to these outbreaks differed across the world. A major outbreak affected the whole of the British Isles for three years after 1865. In August 1865 an Order of the British Privy Council required the slaughter of rinderpest-affected cattle. By early May 1867, the overall slaughter total was around 75,000 cattle, which at that time had a value of approximately £10 per head. Initially, £55,000

7035-483: The migration. Some mammals undertake exceptional migrations; reindeer have one of the longest terrestrial migrations on the planet, reaching as much as 4,868 kilometres (3,025 mi) per year in North America. However, over the course of a year, grey wolves move the most. One grey wolf covered a total cumulative annual distance of 7,247 kilometres (4,503 mi). Mass migration occurs in mammals such as

7140-523: The official diagnostic silence. The impact on African-owned herds was drastic. The disease was locally described as "sadoka" and it also affected local wildlife. Sunseri's thesis basically explains the German government's failure to recognise the true nature of the disease as permitting ineffective policies. The local German government was short of cash, without a vet until the late 1890s and surrounded by innumerable serious cattle diseases apart from rinderpest. The 1885 protectorate status of Tanzania (ruled by

7245-404: The onset of these clinical signs. The delayed appearance of these signs of illness account for the steady spread of the disease once a historical outbreak began: an animal infected by rinderpest undergoes an incubation period of 3–15 days. Signs of the disease only manifest at the end of that time. Cattle and wild ungulates will normally die 8–12 days after signs of the disease emerge, by which time

7350-509: The open sea. Juvenile green sea turtles make use of Earth's magnetic field to navigate. Some crustaceans migrate, such as the largely-terrestrial Christmas Island red crab , which moves en masse each year by the millions. Like other crabs, they breathe using gills, which must remain wet, so they avoid direct sunlight, digging burrows to shelter from the sun. They mate on land near their burrows. The females incubate their eggs in their abdominal brood pouches for two weeks. Then they return to

7455-436: The patterns described here. An exception is some traditional migratory patterns such as transhumance , in which herders and their animals move seasonally between mountains and valleys, and the seasonal movements of nomads . Among the reptiles, adult sea turtles migrate long distances to breed, as do some amphibians. Hatchling sea turtles, too, emerge from underground nests, crawl down to the water, and swim offshore to reach

7560-544: The periods of 1709–1720, 1742–1760, and 1768–1786. In the 18th century a deadly outbreak between 1769 and 1785 resulted in universal governmental action, but with somewhat divergent responses. The Dutch and the German principalities demanded quarantines and strict burial practices; England and large parts of Italy (the Papal States) saw slaughter of infected animals; in the Austrian Netherlands (Flanders)

7665-568: The pope, Giovanni Maria Lancisi , recommended the destruction of all infected and exposed animals. This policy was not very popular and was used only sparingly in the first part of the century. Later, it was used successfully in several countries, although it was sometimes seen as too costly or drastic, and depended on a strong central authority to be effective (which was notably lacking in the Dutch Republic ). Because of these downsides, numerous attempts were made to inoculate animals against

7770-511: The practice never caught on outside Mecklenburg; many were still opposed to inoculation. While some experimentation occurred in other countries (most extensively in Denmark), in the majority of European countries, the struggle against the disease was based on stamping it out. Sometimes, this could be done with minimal sacrifices; at other times, it required slaughter at a massive scale. There were major outbreaks of cattle plague documented from

7875-662: The relief of the Bechuanaland Protectorate. Meanwhile, the Crocodile River in the Transvaal was reported as choked with cattle and other animal corpses, but remained in use. During the dry season, the government made no attempt to control use of the watering holes, fearing the consequences if they did. The Boers essentially did no better, mainly because they continued to migrate their cattle between parcels of land rather than remaining stationery within

7980-503: The remainder of Africa , following European colonization. In the 4th century, Roman writer Severus Sanctus Endelechius described rinderpest in his book, On the Deaths of Cattle . Cattle plagues recurred throughout history, often accompanying wars and military campaigns. They hit Europe especially hard in the 18th century, with three long panzootics , which although varying in intensity and duration from region to region, took place in

8085-469: The response was inspection and precautionary slaughter coupled with compensation to the owners. There was no code of practice and no standard response. But for a hundred years thereafter in German-speaking countries there was intense focus on the problem of Rinderpest. In the early 18th century, the disease was seen as similar to smallpox , due to its analogous symptoms. The personal physician of

8190-514: The risk of rinderpest. In his classic study of the Nuer of southern Sudan, E. E. Evans-Pritchard suggested rinderpest might have affected the Nuer's social organization before and during the 1930s. Since the Nuer were pastoralists , much of their livelihood was based on cattle husbandry, and bride-prices were paid in cattle; prices may have changed as a result of cattle depletion. Rinderpest might also have increased dependence on horticulture among

8295-536: The river of their birth when they have reached a few inches in size. Some traditional forms of human migration fit this pattern. Migrations can be studied using traditional identification tags such as bird rings , or tracked directly with electronic tracking devices. Before animal migration was understood, folklore explanations were formulated for the appearance and disappearance of some species, such as that barnacle geese grew from goose barnacles . Migration can take very different forms in different species, and has

8400-424: The sea to release their eggs at high tide in the moon's last quarter. The larvae spend a few weeks at sea and then return to land. Scientists gather observations of animal migration by tracking their movements. Animals were traditionally tracked with identification tags such as bird rings for later recovery. However, no information was obtained about the actual route followed between release and recovery, and only

8505-473: The season of the year or for mating. To be counted as a true migration, and not just a local dispersal or irruption, the movement of the animals should be an annual or seasonal occurrence, or a major habitat change as part of their life. An annual event could include Northern Hemisphere birds migrating south for the winter, or wildebeest migrating annually for seasonal grazing. A major habitat change could include young Atlantic salmon or sea lamprey leaving

8610-400: The short rains, are very unreliable and often fail. Rainfall varies inter-annually, the standard deviation of the annual rainfall is equal to 37% of the mean annual rainfall. The inter-annual variation of monthly rainfall varies even more markedly, the standard deviation of monthly rainfall is 72% of the mean. This high variability in rainfall is also reflected in a high inter-annual variation of

8715-724: The spread of Malignant Catarrhal Fever that affects cattle. Between 1962 and 1963 the worst drought in 50 years hit most parts of the country including Tarangire area and killed many wildlife and livestock. In 1967 agriculture was promoted as the backbone of the national economy. Large-scale farms like the Lolkisale bean farms were established in Tarangire to produce crops for export as well as for national reserves during droughts and food shortage. Human population increased in Tarangire area due both to natural increase and immigration of agriculturists from nearby regions of Kilimanjaro and Arusha. This displaced Maasai pastoralists and wildlife from

8820-577: The struggle against the disease. Several independent trials were begun, most notably by Pieter Camper in Groningen and Friesland . The results of his experiment in Friesland were encouraging, but they proved to be the exception; testing by others in the provinces of Utrecht and Friesland obtained disastrous results. As a result, the Frisian authorities concluded in 1769 that the cause of rinderpest

8925-473: The tidal movements. Tidal migration is often facilitated by ocean currents . While most migratory movements occur on an annual cycle, some daily movements are also described as migration. Many aquatic animals make a diel vertical migration , travelling a few hundred metres up and down the water column, while some jellyfish make daily horizontal migrations of a few hundred metres. Different kinds of animals migrate in different ways. Approximately 1,800 of

9030-403: The tides rise and fall, typically about every twelve hours. The cycle movements are associated with foraging of marine and bird species. Typically, during low tide, smaller or younger species will emerge to forage because they can survive in the shallower water and have less chance of being preyed upon. During high tide, larger species can be found due to the deeper water and nutrient upwelling from

9135-429: The use of three separate inoculations at an early age. This produced far better results, and the publication of his work renewed interest in inoculation. For the period of 1777 to 1781, 89% of inoculated animals survived, compared to a 29% survival rate after natural infection. In the Netherlands, too, interest in rinderpest inoculation declined in the 1780s because the disease itself decreased in intensity. Apart from

9240-521: The way for a formal declaration in June 2011 of the global eradication of rinderpest. This makes it only the second disease in history to be fully wiped out, following smallpox . Rinderpest virus (RPV), a member of the genus Morbillivirus , is closely related to the measles and canine distemper viruses. Like other members of the Paramyxoviridae family, it produces enveloped virions, and

9345-476: The wildlife migration corridor between Tarangire National Park and the calving grounds to the north on the Gelai Plains. Conservation easements are being used as conservation tools on the calving grounds east of Tarangire National Park on the Simanjiro Plains. Land-use planning informed by wildlife survey data is being tried to help conserve pastoral rangelands, wildlife migration routes, and calving grounds in

9450-399: The winter to escape poor environmental conditions. Circadian migration is where birds utilise circadian rhythm (CR) to regulate migration in both fall and spring. In circadian migration, clocks of both circadian (daily) and circannual (annual) patterns are used to determine the birds' orientation in both time and space as they migrate from one destination to the next. This type of migration

9555-543: The world's 10,000 bird species migrate long distances each year in response to the seasons. Many of these migrations are north-south, with species feeding and breeding in high northern latitudes in the summer and moving some hundreds of kilometres south for the winter. Some species extend this strategy to migrate annually between the Northern and Southern Hemispheres. The Arctic tern has the longest migration journey of any bird: it flies from its Arctic breeding grounds to

9660-534: Was God's displeasure with the sinful behavior of the Frisian people  and proclaimed 15 November a day of fasting and prayer. Interest in inoculation declined sharply across the country. In this climate of discouragement and scepticism, Geert Reinders , a farmer in the province of Groningen and a self-taught man, decided to continue the experiments. He collaborated with Wijnold Munniks , who had supervised earlier trials. They tried different inoculation procedures and

9765-454: Was an infectious viral disease of cattle , domestic buffalo , and many other species of even-toed ungulates , including gaurs , buffaloes , large antelope , deer , giraffes , wildebeests , and warthogs . The disease was characterized by fever , oral erosions, diarrhea , lymphoid necrosis , and high mortality. Death rates during outbreaks were usually extremely high, approaching 100% in immunologically naïve populations. Rinderpest

9870-538: Was constrained by this. From 1895, increasing numbers of white settlers (now administered from the Cape) evicted the Tswana and tension between these groups was inevitable. The 1896 drought resulted in fewer watering places being available, and a greater density of usage including both groups of cattle-owners and the wild animals. By May 1896, the vast Clober farm had become a focus of infection with immediate slaughter policies in place. Three river drinking places, mainly used by

9975-517: Was explained in European Medieval bestiaries and manuscripts as either growing like fruit on trees, or developing from goose barnacles on pieces of driftwood. Another example is the swallow , which was once thought, even by naturalists such as Gilbert White , to hibernate either underwater, buried in muddy riverbanks, or in hollow trees. Rinderpest Rinderpest virus Rinderpest (also cattle plague or steppe murrain )

10080-414: Was granted (after a period of delay) to compensate farmers where they complied with the slaughter directive but had no other source of compensation. In certain areas, such as Aberdeenshire and Norfolk , farmers had banded together to provide mutual assurance by creating a resource pool against the risk of rinderpest. Because the initial slaughter regime was not backed by compensation, it was the presence of

10185-701: Was instrumental in developing a vaccine that curbed the epizootic. The consequences for the Africans were especially severe. Though cattle numbers revived subsequently, the consequent human toll was mass starvation in the absence of herding, hunting and farming. It is estimated that the human losses were as high as one-third of the population of Ethiopia and two-thirds of the Maasai people of Tanzania. This famine caused significant depopulation in sub-Saharan Africa, allowing thornbush to colonise. This formed ideal habitat for tsetse fly , which carries sleeping sickness , and

10290-560: Was investigated by Colonel James Hallen of the Indian Cattle Plague Commission leading to the publication of his survey in 1871. The Imperial Bacteriological Laboratory from 1893 was at Mukteshwar in India. It hosted much research work and many samples. Its founding director was British pathologist Alfred Lingard . In India, some farmers were reported as not hostile to tigers because of the consideration that their attacks on diseased or weaker animals reduced

10395-413: Was mainly spread by direct contact and by drinking contaminated water, although it could also be transmitted by air. Initial symptoms include fever, loss of appetite, and nasal and eye discharges. Subsequently, irregular erosions appear in the mouth, the lining of the nose, and the genital tract. Acute diarrhea, preceded by constipation, is also a common feature. Most animals die six to twelve days after

10500-492: Was mainly transmitted by direct contact and by drinking contaminated water, although it could also be transmitted by air. Rinderpest is believed to have originated in Asia , and to have spread by transport of cattle. The term Rinderpest ( German: [ˈʁɪndɐˌpɛst] ) is a German word meaning "cattle plague". The rinderpest virus (RPV) is closely related to the measles and canine distemper viruses. The measles virus may have emerged from rinderpest as

10605-748: Was prepared at government laboratories in Abuko in The Gambia from the spleen of infected cattle. Walter Plowright worked on a vaccine for the RBOK strain of the rinderpest virus for multiple years, from 1956 to 1962. Plowright was awarded the World Food Prize in 1999 for developing a vaccine against a strain of rinderpest. In 1999, the FAO predicted that with vaccination, rinderpest would be eradicated by 2010. Widespread eradication efforts began in

10710-421: Was procured at the personal behest of the governor and remitted to Berlin . It appears that awareness of a cattle plague in general did not amount to the German government accepting that the plague was rinderpest, for which measures of a strict kind were prescribed in Germany itself. The governor, Julius von Soden , personally lost his own herd, and this may have led him to secure the post-mortem so as to challenge

10815-591: Was realised. His initial case study is Southern Bechuanaland settled as it then was by two distinct cattle-focused groups: the Tswana people and the Boers . It was flat, hot and dry and was considered good cattle-raising country. Water was regularly available by drilling 20-30 feet below the surface, though many farms had water only by drilling 50-100 feet down. From 1882 onwards, designated Tswana reserves were created adjoining white farms in many instances. African pastoralism

10920-553: Was reported in Kenya in 2001. Since then, while no cases have been confirmed, the disease is believed to have been present in parts of Somalia past that date. The final vaccinations were administered in 2006, and the last surveillance operations took place in 2009, failing to find any evidence of the disease. The Mariner method continued to be used in those two locations (the Horn and Pakistan) to track down possible lingering refugia in

11025-485: Was successful in reducing rinderpest outbreaks to few and far between by the late 1990s. The program is estimated to have saved affected farmers approximately 58 million net euros. The end was in sight by 2000 when only the Horn of Africa and Pakistan appeared to have a continued presence. Mariner et al. , 2000 introduced participatory disease surveillance to rinderpest efforts. The last confirmed case of rinderpest

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