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115-466: Draining of portions of the marshes began in the 1950s and continued through the 1970s to reclaim land for agriculture and oil exploration. In the late 1980s and 1990s, during the presidency of Saddam Hussein , this work was expanded and accelerated to evict Marsh people from the marshes. Before 2003, the marshes were drained to 10% of their original size. After the American overthrow of Hussein in 2003,

230-655: A ceasefire , after a million people were killed and Iran suffered economic losses of $ 561 billion. At the end of the war, Saddam ordered the Anfal campaign against Kurdish rebels who sided with Iran, recognized by Human Rights Watch as an act of genocide . Later, Saddam accused his ally Kuwait of slant-drilling the Iraqi oil reserves and invaded the country , initiating the Gulf War (1990–1991), which ended in Iraq's defeat by

345-655: A country rife with factionalism led Saddam to pursue both massive repression and the improvement of living standards. Following the end of the First Iraqi–Kurdish War in November 1970, Saddam signed a peace treaty with Mustafa Barzani, which agreement granted autonomy to the Kurds. However the failure of the agreement and Arabization program in oil-rich regions around Kirkuk and Khanaqin in Northern Iraq,

460-610: A flat alluvial plain , as the Euphrates decreases only 12 m (39 ft) in elevation during its last 300 km (190 mi) while the Tigris falls 24 m (79 ft). This delta provides an environment that allows the Tigris and Euphrates to meander , forming distributaries . The Euphrates has often terminated near Nasiriyah into the Hammar Marshes as its flow slows. The Tigris can distribute some of its flow into

575-569: A good instinct for what the " Arab street " demanded, following the decline in Egyptian leadership brought about by the trauma of Israel's six-day victory in the 1967 war, the death of the pan-Arabist hero, Gamal Abdul Nasser, in 1970, and the "traitorous" drive by his successor, Anwar Sadat, to sue for peace with the Jewish state. Saddam's self-aggrandizing propaganda, with himself posing as the defender of Arabism against Zionist or Persian intruders,

690-429: A high of around 75% restored in 2008, the wetlands receded to 58% of their average pre-drained level by spring 2015. Meanwhile, as the water level fell, salinity increased to 15,000 parts per million in some areas, up from 300 to 500 ppm in the 1980s. "When the river water levels were high, the low-saline Tigris washed over the marshes, cleansed them, and pushed the salty residue into the saltier Euphrates, which flows along

805-473: A law degree at Cairo Law School (1962–1963). It is possible that Saddam visited the U.S. embassy in Cairo during his exile, and some evidence suggests that he was "in frequent contact with US officials and intelligence agents." A former high-ranking U.S. official told historians Marion Farouk–Sluglett and Peter Sluglett that Iraqi Ba'athists, including Saddam, "had made contact with the American authorities in

920-638: A minority that made up about a fifth of the population . In 1979, upon taking office, Saddam purged the Ba'ath Party . He ordered the invasion of Iran in 1980 in a purported effort to capture Iran 's Arab-majority Khuzestan province , thwart Iranian attempts to export its 1979 revolution to the Arab world , and end Iranian calls for the overthrow of the Sunni-dominated Ba'athist regime . The Iran–Iraq War ended in stalemate after nearly eight years in

1035-841: A multinational coalition led by the United States . The United Nations subsequently placed sanctions against Iraq . Saddam brutally suppressed the 1991 Iraqi uprisings of the Kurds and Shias , which sought to gain independence or overthrow the government. Saddam adopted an anti-American stance and established the Faith Campaign , pursuing an Islamist agenda in Iraq. In 2003, the United States and its coalition of allies invaded Iraq , accusing Saddam of developing weapons of mass destruction and of having ties with al-Qaeda , accusations that turned out to be false. After

1150-533: A new cemetery for Jews in Baghdad. In 1998, on the day of Jewish festival of Sukkot , a Palestinian entered the Baghdad synagogue and shot four people to death, including two Jews. The preparator was arrested and executed in 1999. A cabinet meeting chaired by him condemned the attack. Saddam also said that: "Anyone who hurt the Jews in Baghdad would pay a heavy price". Saddam was also recognized for safeguarding

1265-554: A pivotal role in the negotiations leading up to the Algiers Agreement, representing Iraq's interests. Saddam Hussein's growing influence within the Iraqi government allowed him to shape Iraq's approach and stance during the negotiation process. Following the agreement, Iraq and Iran restored full diplomatic relations and exchanged ambassadors, representing a significant diplomatic breakthrough. The Algiers Agreement emphasized

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1380-631: A portion lie in Iran . The Iranian side of the marshes, known as Hawr Al-Azim, is fed by the Karkheh River , while the Tigris distributaries Al-Musharrah and Al-Kahla supply the Iraqi side, only with much less water than the Karkheh. During spring flooding, the Tigris may directly flow into the marshes. The marshes are drained by the Al-Kassarah . This river plays a critical role in maintaining

1495-671: A portion of southwestern Iran and northern Kuwait. Originally covering an area of 20,000 km (7,700 sq mi) and divided into three major areas, the Central Marshes lie between the Tigris and Euphrates , while the Hammar Marshes lie south of the Euphrates and the Hawizeh Marshes are bound east of the Tigris. Before the 2003 Invasion of Iraq , about 90% of the marshes had been drained. The marshes lie on

1610-609: A punishment for Shia Arabs in response to the 1991 uprisings in Iraq . The draining of the marshes was largely due to dams , dykes and other diversion structures constructed into Iraq but were exacerbated by upstream dam construction in Syria and Turkey. While the British engineers worked with the Iraqi government, Frank Haigh developed the Haigh Report in 1951. His report recommended a complex of canals , sluices , and dykes on

1725-421: A range limit for a number of bird species. Flamingos , pelicans and herons inhabit the marshes. The marshes were once home to a large number of birds and the stopover for many other migratory birds as they traveled from Siberia to Africa . At risk are 40% to 60% of the world's marbled teal population that live in the marshes, along with 90% of the world's population of Basra reed-warbler . Also at risk are

1840-569: Is a feeling that at least three million Iraqis are watching the eleven million others." —"A European diplomat", quoted in The New York Times , April 3, 1984. Iraqi society fissures along lines of language, religion and ethnicity. The Ba'ath Party, secular by nature, adopted Pan-Arab ideologies which in turn were problematic for significant parts of the population. Following the Iranian Revolution of 1979, Iraq faced

1955-542: Is a terrestrial biome of the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) biogeographical system, consisting of large expanses or complexes of flooded grasslands . These areas support numerous plants and animals adapted to the unique hydrologic regimes and soil conditions . Large congregations of migratory and resident waterbirds may be found in these regions. The relative importance of these habitat types for these birds as well as more vagile taxa typically varies as

2070-430: Is generally accepted that Egypt, in some capacity, was involved in the assassination attempt, and that "[t]he United States was working with Nasser on some level." Sale and Darwish's account has been disputed by historian Bryan R. Gibson who concludes that available U.S. declassified documents show that "while the United States was aware of several plots against Qasim, it had still adhered to [a] nonintervention policy." On

2185-709: Is not believed to have received any training outside of Iraq, as he was a late addition to the assassination team. Richard Sale of United Press International (UPI), citing former United States diplomat and intelligence officials, Adel Darwish , and other experts, reported that the unsuccessful assassination attempt on Qasim was a collaboration between the United States Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) and Egyptian intelligence . Pertinent contemporary records relating to CIA operations in Iraq have remained classified or heavily redacted, thus "allow[ing] for plausible deniability." It

2300-597: The 1941 Iraqi coup d'état and Anglo-Iraqi War , and often mentored and told tales of his exploits to the young Saddam. In 1958, a year after Saddam had joined the Ba'ath party, army officers led by General Abd al-Karim Qasim overthrew Faisal II of Iraq in the 14 July Revolution . The Ba'ath Party was originally represented in Qasim's cabinet; however, Qasim—reluctant to join Nasser's newly formed union between Egypt and Syria —sided with various groups within Iraq (notably

2415-588: The Al-Bu Nasir tribe, which was descended from Ahmed Bin Hussein 'Nasiruddin', a descendant of Husayn ibn Ali . The Al-Bu Nasir tribe had settled in Tikrit after migrating from Yemen . Saddam's name means "the fighter who stands steadfast". His father died before his birth. This made Saddam's mother, Subha, so depressed that she unsuccessfully attempted to abort her pregnancy and commit suicide . His mother

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2530-757: The Chaldean Catholic minority , was selected by Saddam to serve as Iraq’s Deputy Prime Minister from 1979 to 2003 and Foreign Minister from 1983 to 1991. A close advisor to him, Aziz was also appointed as a member of the Revolutionary Command Council and the Regional Command of the Iraqi Branch of the Ba'ath Party . Michel Aflaq , the founder of Ba'athism , was also a Christian . Cardinal Fernando Filoni , who

2645-690: The Iraq Petroleum Company , diversifying the Iraqi economy . He presided over the Second Iraqi–Kurdish War (1974–1975) and the Algiers Agreement which settled territorial disputes along the Iran–Iraq border . Following al-Bakr's resignation in 1979, Saddam formally took power, although he had already been the de facto head of Iraq for several years. Positions of power in the country were mostly filled with Sunni Arabs,

2760-634: The Mandaean minority in Iraq. Mandaeans were given state protection under his government. As a sign of respect, the Mandaean Book of John's first copy translation into Arabic was given to Saddam. After this he vowed to construct temples for the Mandaeans, with quoting, "Iraqis have religious freedom, whether they are Muslims, Christians or Sabaeans ". The Sabian–Mandaean Mandi in Baghdad

2875-757: The Mediterranean coast in Palestine and Israel , and southwards again along the Euphrates and the Tigris towards the Persian Gulf , civilizations were able to develop agricultural and technological programmes. The crucial trigger was the availability of wild edible plant species. Farming arose early in the Fertile Crescent because the area had a large quantity of wild wheat and pulse species that were nutritious and easy to domesticate. In

2990-872: The People's Army , which had responsibility for internal security. As the Ba'ath Party's paramilitary, the People's Army acted as a counterweight against any coup attempts by the regular armed forces. In addition to the People's Army, the Department of General Intelligence was the most notorious arm of the state-security system, feared for its use of torture and assassination. Barzan Ibrahim al-Tikriti , Saddam's younger half-brother , commanded Mukhabarat. Foreign observers believed that from 1982 this department operated both at home and abroad in its mission to seek out and eliminate Saddam's perceived opponents. Flooded grasslands and savannas Flooded grasslands and savannas

3105-493: The Second Iraqi–Kurdish War . In Iraq, especially compared to other middle-eastern countries such as Iran , Turkey , and Syria , Iraqi Kurds were treated well under the regime of Saddam when compared to the situation in neighbouring countries, with the Kurdish language being tolerated under Saddams regime in education, and media, and spoken as a official language. Saddam also had multiple Kurdish ministers and generals, with

3220-519: The Shatt al-Muminah and Majar al-Kabir south of Amarah . The Tigris serves as the marshes' eastern boundary while the Euphrates serves as its southern boundary. Covering an area of 3,000 km (1,200 sq mi), the marshes consist of reed beds and several permanent lakes including Umm al Binni lake . The Al-Zikri and Hawr Umm Al-Binni lakes are two of the notable lakes and are 3 m (9.8 ft) deep. The Hammar Marshes are primarily fed by

3335-499: The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). At the center of this strategy was Iraq's oil. On 1 June 1972, Saddam oversaw the seizure of international oil interests, which, at the time, dominated the country's oil sector. A year later, world oil prices rose dramatically as a result of the 1973 energy crisis , and skyrocketing revenues enabled Saddam to expand his agenda. With

3450-663: The sacred ibis and African darter . A subspecies of the hooded crow known as the Mesopotamian crow is found in this part of southern Iraq. Seven species are now extinct from the marshes, including the Indian crested porcupine , the Bunn's short-tailed bandicoot rat and the marsh gray wolf . The draining of the marshes caused a significant decline in bioproductivity; following the Multi-National Force overthrow of

3565-664: The social democrats and the Iraqi Communist Party ) that told him such an action would be dangerous. Instead, Qasim adopted a wataniyah policy of "Iraq First". To strengthen his own position within the government, Qasim also had an alliance with the Iraqi Communist Party, which was opposed to the notion of pan-Arabism. His policies angered several pan-Arab organisations, including the Ba'ath Party, which later began plotting to assassinate Qasim at Al-Rashid Street on 7 October 1959 and take power. Saddam

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3680-456: The 10th and 11th centuries, the marshes were the site of the state of Batihah founded by 'Imran ibn Shahin . The draining of Mesopotamian Marshes began in the 1950s with the Central Marshes and gradually accelerated as it affected the two other main marshes until early in the 21st century with the 2003 invasion of Iraq. The draining of the marshes was intended at first to reclaim land for agriculture along with oil exploration but later served as

3795-528: The 2003 invasion of Iraq, the marshes had lost 90% of their size from the previous decades. The Central and Hammar Marshes were nearly drained and only 35% of the Hawizeh Marshes remained. After the invasion, locals destroyed dikes. The combined efforts of the Iraq government, United Nations, U.S. agencies and record precipitation in Turkey helped begin a restoration of the marshes. As of late 2006, 58% of

3910-709: The 4th millennium BCE, the first literate societies emerged in Southern Mesopotamia , often referred to as the " Cradle of Civilization ", and the first cities and complex state bureaucracies were developed there during the Uruk period . Due to the geographical location and ecological factors of the Fertile Crescent , a crescent-shape fertile area running from the basins of the Nile in Egypt , northwards along

4025-428: The 90's Iraqi-healthcare decreased in its effectiveness with the sanctions restricting basic-medical equipment and supplies from getting into Iraq. Nationalization of oil was implemented, which aimed to achieve economic independence. By the late 1970s, Iraq experienced significant economic growth, with a budget reserve surpassing US$ 35 billion. The value of 1 Iraqi dinar was worth more than 3 dollars, making it one of

4140-506: The Al-Hawizeh marshes as a flow-through system and preventing it from becoming a closed saline basin. The marshes are 80 km (50 mi) from north to south and about 30 km (19 mi) from east to west, covering a total area of 3,000 km (1,200 sq mi). Permanent portions of the marshes include the northern and central portion while the southern part is generally seasonal. Moderately dense vegetation can be found in

4255-410: The Ba'ath Party had a large following in Syria at the time, but in 1955 there were fewer than 300 Ba'ath Party members in Iraq, and it is believed that Saddam's primary reason for joining the party as opposed to the more established Iraqi nationalist parties was his familial connection to Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr and other leading Ba'athists through his uncle. Revolutionary sentiment was characteristic of

4370-595: The Ba'ath Party in response to the Marxist takeover of the Syrian Ba'ath earlier that year, resulting in the Party's formalized split into two separate factions . Saddam then created a Ba'athist security service, which he alone controlled. In July 1968, Saddam participated in a bloodless coup led by Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr that overthrew Abdul Rahman Arif , Salam Arif's brother and successor. While Saddam's role in

4485-402: The Ba'ath Party's civilian wing upon his return. Unlike during the Qasim years, Saddam remained in Iraq following Arif's anti-Ba'athist purge in November 1963, and became involved in planning to assassinate Arif. In marked contrast to Qasim, Saddam knew that he faced no death penalty from Arif's government and knowingly accepted the risk of being arrested rather than fleeing to Syria again. Saddam

4600-473: The Ba'ath party. Relationships with fellow party members were carefully cultivated, and Saddam soon accumulated a powerful circle of support within the party. In 1979, al-Bakr started to make treaties with Syria, also under Ba'athist leadership, that would lead to unification between the two countries. Syrian President Hafiz al-Assad would become deputy leader in a union, and this would drive Saddam to obscurity. Saddam acted to secure his grip on power. He forced

4715-521: The Ba'athists in the rural areas. After nationalizing foreign oil interests, Saddam supervised the modernization of the countryside, mechanizing agriculture on a large scale, and distributing land to peasant farmers. The Ba'athists established farm cooperatives and the government also doubled expenditures for agricultural development in 1974–1975. Saddam's welfare programs were part of a combination of "carrot and stick" tactics to enhance support for Saddam. The state-owned banks were put under his thumb. Lending

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4830-526: The Baghdad Metro project in 1980, though it did not ultimately come to fruition, due to troubles concerning the Iran-Iraq War . Throughout the 24 years of his presidency, Saddam built more than 100 palaces across the country. With a Muslim majority, Iraq consists of a multi-ethnic, multi-religious and multi-sectarian population. During his rule, numerous religious and ethnic groups existed in

4945-538: The Central and Hawizeh marshes as it slows near Amarah . Downstream of Amarah, though, several of its tributaries originating in Iran allow the Tigris's flow to increase, and it maintains a steady course thereafter. The three marshes once provided an intertwined environment, particularly during periods of flooding as the rivers overflowed. The Central Marshes receive water from influxes of the Tigris's distributaries, namely

5060-483: The Euphrates and lie south of it with a western extent to Nasiriyah , eastern border of the Shatt al-Arab and southern extent of Basrah . Normally, the marshes are a 2,800 km (1,100 sq mi) area of permanent marsh and lake but during period of flooding can extend to 4,500 km (1,700 sq mi). In periods of flooding, water from the Central Marsh, fed by the Tigris can overflow and supply

5175-658: The Gulf War, Iraq was sanctioned by the UN , which caused economic decline. In 1995, then U.S. president Bill Clinton introduced Oil-for-Food Programme , in which Iraq sold oil on the world market in exchange for humanitarian needs. The program was accepted by the Ba'athist government in 1996. By 1995, GDP of Iraq dropped to US$ 9 billion from US$ 44.36 billion in 1990. Iraq had lost around US$ 170 billion of oil revenues. The economy of Iraq began improving in 2000, as its GDP increased to U$ 23.73 billion by 2000. Saddam pursued to beautify

5290-594: The Hawizeh Marsh, quickly progressed in the 1980s during the Iran–Iraq War in order to afford Iraqis a tactical advantage in the marshes. Part of the Hammar Marshes was also drained in 1985 to clear area for oil exploration . After the 1991 Gulf War , Shia Muslims in southern Iraq rebelled against Saddam Hussein, who in turn crushed the rebellion and further accelerated the draining of the Central and Hammar marshes in order to evict Shias that have taken refuge in

5405-401: The Kurds to an extent, with Kurds being allowed to speak Kurdish in schools, on television, and even in newspapers, with textbooks being translated for the Kurdish regions, and Kurds in Iraq being able to elect a Kurdish representative to go to Baghdad. Saddam had already signed a deal in 1970 to grant the Kurds autonomy , but Mustafa Barazani eventually disagreed with the deal, which incited

5520-1043: The Mesopotamian Marshes and the Shadegan Ponds , a wetland on the lower Karun River in neighboring Iran. The marshes are integral to coastal health, filtering out pollutants and waste before they reach the Gulf, though this capacity was significantly degraded after their draining. The marshes also serve as spawning and nursery sites for coastal fish and shrimp species. The seasonal and permanent marshlands are dominated by aquatic plants, including reeds ( Phragmites australis ), cattail rushes ( Typha domingensis ), and papyrus sedge ( Cyperus papyrus ). Riparian forests of poplar (mainly Populus euphratica ), tamarisk ( Tamarix pentandra and Tamarix meyeri ), and willow (mainly Salix acmophylla ) occur on islands and river banks. The marshes are home to 40 species of bird and several species of fish. It demarcates

5635-672: The Middle East in the 1950s and 1960s, with the collapse of the monarchies of Iraq , Egypt , and Libya . Nasser inspired nationalists throughout the Middle East by fighting the British and the French during the Suez Crisis of 1956 , modernizing Egypt, and uniting the Arab world politically. Saddam's father-in-law, Khairallah Talfah , was reported to have served five years in prison for his role in fighting against Great Britain in

5750-403: The Saddam Hussein regime, water flow to the marshes was restored and the ecosystem has begun to recover. Considerable confusion has existed relating to the status of the Eurasian otter and the endemic maxwelli subspecies of the smooth-coated otter in the region, but recent surveys have confirmed that both still survive. Maʻdān live in secluded villages of elaborate reed houses throughout

5865-474: The Shatt al-Arab, which had been under Iranian control. Saddam Hussein aimed to secure Iraq's territorial claims, particularly regarding the Shatt al-Arab waterway, which had been a longstanding source of contention between Iran and Iraq. Both parties recognized each other's sovereignty and territorial integrity, affirming the principle of non-aggression. The Algiers Agreement called for the restoration of full diplomatic relations between Iran and Iraq, including

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5980-586: The ability to pass their citizenship down to their children even if they married a non-Iraqi, which Iraqi women no longer have the ability to do. Women's education no longer was a luxury, with women having the same opportunities as men in higher education. He also introduced social security programs, with the notable parts of the program consisting of disability benefits, with disabled people in Iraq becoming eligible for financial assistance. It also introduced healthcare coverage, ensuring Iraqi citizens had access to healthcare and medication when needed, Although during

6095-633: The age of 10, Saddam fled the family and returned to live in Baghdad with his uncle Khairallah Talfah , who became a fatherly figure to Saddam. Talfah, the father of Saddam's future wife, was a devout Sunni Muslim and a veteran of the 1941 Anglo-Iraqi War between Iraqi nationalists and the United Kingdom , which remained a major colonial power in the region. Talfah was appointed the mayor of Baghdad during Saddam's time in power, until his notorious corruption compelled Saddam to force him out of office. Later in his life, relatives from his native city became some of his closest advisors and supporters. Under

6210-438: The ailing al-Bakr to resign on 16 July 1979, and formally assumed the presidency. Saddam convened an assembly of Ba'ath party leaders on 22 July 1979. During the assembly, which he ordered videotaped, Saddam claimed to have found a fifth column within the Ba'ath Party and directed Muhyi Abdel-Hussein to read out a confession and the names of 68 alleged co-conspirators. These members were labelled "disloyal" and were removed from

6325-462: The availability of water and productivity annually and seasonally shifts among complexes of smaller and larger wetlands throughout a region. This habitat type is found on four of the continents on Earth. Some globally outstanding flooded savannas and grasslands occur in the Everglades , Pantanal , Lake Chad flooded savanna , Zambezian flooded grasslands , and the Sudd . The Everglades, with an area of 7,800 sq mi (20,000 km ), are

6440-425: The cities of Iraq. He launched various projects across the cities, beautifying it. Many monuments were constructed in Baghdad, such as the Al-Shaheed Monument and Monument to the Unknown Soldier , which helped in beautifying the city of Baghdad. Under his regime, Iraq engaged in rapid infrastructural development. Baghdad Airport was inaugurated in 1982, bearing his name "Saddam International Airport". He also proposed

6555-402: The country. Saddam, contrary to popular belief, was not inherently sectarian. While he did place his close relatives in key security and military positions, he also promoted individuals from other communities and minorities to the highest levels of power in Iraq. His primary criterion for these appointments was unwavering loyalty to him and his regime. Muhammad Saeed al-Sahhaf , a Shia Muslim,

6670-645: The countryside and roughly two-thirds were peasants. This number would decrease quickly during the 1970s as global oil prices helped revenues to rise from less than a half billion dollars to tens of billions of dollars and the country invested into industrial expansion. He nationalised independent banks, eventually leaving the banking system insolvent due to inflation and bad loans. The oil revenue benefited Saddam politically. According to The Economist , "Much as Adolf Hitler won early praise for galvanizing German industry, ending mass unemployment and building autobahns, Saddam earned admiration abroad for his deeds. He had

6785-441: The coup was not hugely significant (except in the official account), Saddam planned and carried out the subsequent purge of the non-Ba'athist faction led by Prime Minister Abd ar-Razzaq an-Naif , whose support had been essential to the coup's success. According to a semi-official biography, Saddam personally led Naif at gunpoint to the plane that escorted him out of Iraq. Arif was given refuge in London and then Istanbul . Al-Bakr

6900-409: The coup. Ba'athist leaders were appointed to the cabinet and Abdul Salam Arif became president. Arif dismissed and arrested the Ba'athist leaders later that year in the November 1963 Iraqi coup d'état . Being exiled in Egypt at the time, Saddam played no role in the 1963 coup or the brutal anti-communist purge that followed; although he returned to Iraq after the coup, becoming a key organizer within

7015-440: The diverse elements of Iraqi society and mobilizing mass support, he closely followed the administration of state welfare and development programs. Within just a few years, Iraq was providing unprecedented social services among Middle Eastern countries. Saddam established and controlled the "National Campaign for the Eradication of Illiteracy" and the campaign for "Compulsory Free Education in Iraq", and largely under his auspices,

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7130-409: The era in Iraq and throughout the Middle East. In Iraq, progressives and socialists assailed traditional political elites (colonial-era bureaucrats and landowners, wealthy merchants and tribal chiefs, and monarchists). Moreover, the pan-Arab nationalism of Gamal Abdel Nasser in Egypt profoundly influenced young Ba'athists like Saddam. The rise of Nasser foreshadowed a wave of revolutions throughout

7245-418: The exchange of ambassadors. The agreement emphasized the importance of economic cooperation between the two countries, particularly in areas such as trade, transport, and joint development projects. The signing of the Algiers Agreement occurred during a period of relative stability in Iraq, with Saddam Hussein gradually consolidating power within the ruling Ba'ath Party. As Vice President, Saddam Hussein played

7360-415: The government established universal free schooling up to the highest education levels; hundreds of thousands learned to read in the years following the initiation of the program. The government also supported families of soldiers, granted free hospitalization to everyone, and gave subsidies to farmers. Iraq created one of the most modernized public health systems in the Middle East, earning Saddam an award from

7475-405: The government issued a decree inviting Jews back to Iraq, who were expelled. The Israeli government panned the decree by calling it political propaganda. Only a few Jewish families returned to Iraq. Thus the decree failed in attracting large swaths of Jews. In 1972, Saddam signed a 15-year Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation with the Soviet Union . According to historian Charles R. H. Tripp ,

7590-460: The government. As the ailing, elderly al-Bakr became unable to execute his duties, Saddam took on an increasingly prominent role as the face of the government both internally and externally. He soon became the architect of Iraq's foreign policy and represented the nation in all diplomatic situations. He was the de facto leader of Iraq some years before he formally came to power in 1979. He slowly began to consolidate his power over Iraq's government and

7705-544: The grounds that the party should not have initiated the attempt on Qasim's life. At the same time, Aflaq secured seats in the Iraqi Ba'ath leadership for his supporters, one of them being Saddam. The assassins, including Saddam, all eventually escaped to Cairo , Egypt "where they enjoyed Nasser's protection for the remainder of Qasim's tenure in power." Saddam initially escaped to Syria and then to Egypt itself in February 1960, and he continued to live there until 1963, graduating from high school in 1961 and unsuccessfully pursuing

7820-415: The guidance of his uncle, he attended a nationalistic high school in Baghdad. After secondary school, Saddam studied at an Iraqi law school for three years, dropping out in 1957 at the age of 20 to join the revolutionary pan-Arab Ba'ath Party , of which his uncle was a supporter. During this time, Saddam apparently supported himself as a secondary school teacher. Ba'athist ideology originated in Syria and

7935-417: The help of increasing oil revenues, Saddam diversified the largely oil-based Iraqi economy . Saddam implemented a national infrastructure campaign that made great progress in building roads, promoting mining, and developing other industries. The campaign helped Iraq's energy industries. Electricity was brought to nearly every city in Iraq, and many outlying areas. Before the 1970s, most of Iraq's people lived in

8050-730: The highest ranking one being Taha Yassin Ramadan , an Iraqi Kurd —was appointed by Saddam, largely due to his loyalty, as one of Iraq's three Vice Presidents. He was also made Deputy Secretary of the Regional Command of the Iraqi Branch of the Ba'ath Party and commander of the People's Army. Saddam himself personally enjoyed Kurdish culture, often wearing traditional Kurdish clothing in state visits to northern Iraq. Under Saddam's regime , substantial reforms in education and literacy took place, with Saddam Hussein introducing mandatory reading groups for adults, with punishments for not attending consisting of heavy fines, and even jail time. UNESCO awarded Iraq for having "Most effective literacy campaign in

8165-418: The hit team at a hospital; the calculating shrewdness that helped him save himself minutes before the police broke in leaving his wounded comrades behind; and finally the long trek of a wounded man from house to house, city to town, across the desert to refuge in Syria . Michel Aflaq , the leader of the Ba'athist movement, organized the expulsion of leading Iraqi Ba'athist members, such as Fuad al-Rikabi , on

8280-413: The importance of economic cooperation between Iraq and Iran, particularly in areas like trade and joint development projects. This agreement, while ultimately unable to prevent future hostilities, remained a notable diplomatic achievement for Iraq during Saddam Hussein's early political career. In 1976, Saddam rose to the position of general in the Iraqi armed forces, and rapidly became the strongman of

8395-571: The late 1950s and early 1960s." Army officers with ties to the Ba'ath Party overthrew Qasim in the Ramadan Revolution coup of February 1963; long suspected to be supported by the CIA, however, pertinent contemporary documents relating to the CIA's operations in Iraq have remained classified by the U.S. government, although the Ba'athists are documented to have maintained supportive relationships with U.S. officials before, during, and after

8510-484: The lower Euphrates region, collected water from the terminus of the Gharraf River and diverted it under the Euphrates, away from the Central Marshes and below the Hammar Marshes towards Basrah. The Glory River was also constructed to divert water from the Tigris's southern-flowing distributaries east and parallel along the Tigris until they reached the Euphrates near its confluence with the Tigris at Qurna . By

8625-686: The lower portions of both the Tigris and Euphrates. These water control structures could be used to drain marshes therefore creating profitable farmland. In 1953, construction began on the Third River or Main Outfall Drain and later the Saddam River which would drain water from the Central Marsh under the Euphrates and through a canal eventually into the Persian Gulf. Work on the Third River and other draining projects, particularly for

8740-420: The marshes become increasingly saline and polluted, many Marsh Arabs are once again being forced to relocate. For those who remain, their traditional lifestyle is threatened. The marshes supplied 60 percent of Iraq’s fish; that number has dwindled to the single digits. This, combined with the lack of potable water for raising water buffalo, is driving some Marsh Arabs to marsh perimeters, where they farm grain. In

8855-652: The marshes have partially recovered but drought along with upstream dam construction and operation in Turkey , Syria and Iran have hindered the process. Since 2016 the Mesopotamian marshes have been listed as an UNESCO Heritage Site . As their name suggests, the Mesopotamian Marshes are located in the larger region which used to be called Mesopotamia. Modern day Mesopotamia is now occupied by Iraq, parts of eastern Syria, south-eastern Turkey, southwest Iran, and northern Kuwait. The marshes lie mostly within southern Iraq and

8970-404: The marshes with water. Hammar Lake is the largest water body within the marsh and has an area of 120 km (75 mi) by 250 km (160 mi), with depths ranging between 1.8 m (5.9 ft)-3 m (9.8 ft). In the summer, large portion of the marshes' and lake's shore are exposed, revealing islands that are used for agriculture. The Hawizeh Marshes lie east of the Tigris and

9085-414: The marshes, often only reached by boat. Fish, rice cultivation, water buffalo and other resources are also used in their daily lives. In the 1950s, there were an estimated 500,000 Marsh Arabs. This population shrank to about 20,000 following the draining and Saddam's violent reprisals, and between 80,000 and 120,000 fled to neighboring Iran. Following the 2003 Iraq invasion, Marsh Arabs have begun to return to

9200-488: The marshes. Many hacked down the dikes and dams that Saddam had built. The Iraqi government has provided support via channels like the Iraq Cultural Health Fund, which funds Marsh Arabs in their efforts to protect traditional cultural practices. Nevertheless, Marsh Arabs remain one of Iraq’s most underserved populations, struggling to obtain healthcare, clean drinking water, and adequate nutrition. As

9315-711: The marshes. With the exception of the Nasiriyah Drainage Pump Station , the 565 km (351 mi) Third River was completed in 1992 and two other canals were constructed south and nearly parallel to it. One, the Mother of Battles canal, was constructed to divert the flow of the Euphrates south below the Hammar Marsh. Second, the 240 km Loyalty to Leader Canal also known as the Basrah Sweetwater Canal, which originates in

9430-427: The most notable economic expansions in the region. Saddam Hussein's regime aimed to diversify the Iraqi economy beyond oil. The government invested in various industries, including petrochemicals, fertilizer production, and textile manufacturing, to reduce dependence on oil revenues and promote economic self-sufficiency. By the 1970s, women employment rate also increased. Following the invasion of Kuwait which initiated

9545-433: The new government by aiding attempts to strengthen and unify the Ba'ath party and taking a leading role in addressing the country's major domestic problems and expanding the party's following. Saddam actively fostered the modernization of the Iraqi economy and created a strong security apparatus to prevent coups within the power structure and insurrections apart from it. Ever concerned with broadening his base of support among

9660-437: The original marshes had been reinundated. The Nasiriyah Drainage Pump Station was completed in 2009, affording the Third River to be used for agricultural drainage. Recent drought and continued upstream dam construction and operation in Turkey, Syria, and Iran have reduced the marshes to around 30% of their original size by 2009. Turkey has built at least 34 dams on the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, threatening marsh recovery. From

9775-454: The other hand, historian Kenneth Osgood writes that "the circumstantial evidence is such that the possibility of US–UAR collaboration with Ba'ath Party activists cannot be ruled out," concluding that "[w]hatever the validity of [Sale's] charges, at the very least currently declassified documents reveal that US officials were actively considering various plots against Qasim and that the CIA was building up assets for covert operations in Iraq." At

9890-482: The permanent areas along with large 6 m (20 ft)-deep lakes in the northern portions. As the Hawizeh Marshes fared the best during the draining, they can facilitate the reproduction of flora, fauna and other species in Central and Hammar marshes. The marshes constitute a flooded grasslands and savannas ecoregion , also known as the Tigris-Euphrates alluvial salt marsh . The ecoregion includes both

10005-469: The policies and political ideas he championed are collectively known as Saddamism . Saddam was born in the village of Al-Awja , near Tikrit in northern Iraq , to a Sunni Arab family. He joined the Ba'ath Party in 1957, and later in 1966 the Iraqi and Baghdad-based Ba'ath parties. He played a key role in the 17 July Revolution and was appointed vice president of Iraq by Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr . During his time as vice president, Saddam nationalized

10120-456: The potentially hostile population. Membership in the Ba'ath Party remained open to all Iraqi citizens regardless of background, and repressive measures were taken against its opponents. The major instruments for accomplishing this control were the paramilitary and police organizations. Beginning in 1974, Taha Yassin Ramadan (himself a Kurdish Ba'athist), a close associate of Saddam, commanded

10235-444: The prospect of régime change from two Shi'ite factions ( Dawa and SCIRI ) which aspired to model Iraq on its neighbour Iran as a Shia theocracy. A separate threat to Iraq came from parts of the ethnic Kurdish population of northern Iraq which opposed being part of an Iraqi state and favored independence (an ongoing ideology which had preceded Ba'ath Party rule). To alleviate the threat of revolution, Saddam afforded certain benefits to

10350-656: The quick coalition victory in the war, the Ba'ath Party was banned and Saddam went into hiding. After his capture on 13 December 2003, his trial took place under the Iraqi Interim Government . On 5 November 2006, Saddam was convicted by the Iraqi High Tribunal of crimes against humanity related to the 1982 Dujail massacre and sentenced to death by hanging . He was executed on 30 December 2006. A highly polarizing and controversial figure, Saddam dominated Iraqi politics for 35 years and

10465-533: The room one by one and taken into custody. After the list was read, Saddam congratulated those still seated in the room for their past and future loyalty. The 68 people arrested at the meeting were subsequently tried together and found guilty of treason ; 22 were sentenced to execution. Other high-ranking members of the party formed the firing squad. By 1 August 1979, hundreds of high-ranking Ba'ath party members had been executed. Although his position on Kurdish politics has been debated, Saddam has allowed autonomy for

10580-414: The story ad nauseam—tells of his familiarity with guns from the age of ten; his fearlessness and loyalty to the party during the 1959 operation; his bravery in saving his comrades by commandeering a car at gunpoint; the bullet that was gouged out of his flesh under his direction in hiding; the iron discipline that led him to draw a gun on weaker comrades who would have dropped off a seriously wounded member of

10695-482: The three primary marshes to fragment into ten smaller marshes. Massive amounts of untreated sewage and other pollutants are dumped into the Tigris and Euphrates, moving downstream into the marshes and further degrading the water quality. 31°00′N 47°00′E  /  31.000°N 47.000°E  / 31.000; 47.000 Saddam Hussein Saddam Hussein (28 April 1937 – 30 December 2006)

10810-451: The time of the attack, the Ba'ath Party had fewer than 1,000 members; however, the failed assassination attempt led to widespread exposure for Saddam and the Ba'ath within Iraq, where both had previously languished in obscurity, and later became a crucial part of Saddam's public image during his tenure as president of Iraq . Kanan Makiya recounts: The man and the myth merge in this episode. His biography—and Iraqi television, which stages

10925-640: The treaty upset "the US-sponsored security system established as part of the Cold War in the Middle East. It appeared that any enemy of the Baghdad regime was a potential ally of the United States." In response, the US covertly financed Kurdish rebels led by Mustafa Barzani during the Second Iraqi–Kurdish War ; the Kurds were defeated in 1975, leading to the forcible relocation of hundreds of thousands of Kurdish civilians. Saddam focused on fostering loyalty to

11040-474: The western edge. But now the Tigris is so low that the Euphrates provides most of the water in the marshes." The government prioritizes providing water to cities along the Tigris and Shatt al-Arab, resulting in reduced flow to the marshes. Temperatures in the region have risen over 0.5 degrees Celsius per decade, causing drought in Iraq and in neighbors whose waters flow into the Tigris and Euphrates. Combined with upriver dams, this reduction in water has caused

11155-498: The world's largest rain-fed flooded grassland on a limestone substrate, and feature some 11,000 species of seed-bearing plants, 25 varieties of orchids, 300 bird species, and 150 fish species. The Pantanal, with an area of 187,818 km (72,517 sq mi), is the largest flooded grassland on Earth, supporting over 260 species of fish, 700 birds, 90 mammals, 160 reptiles, 45 amphibians, 1,000 butterflies, and 1,600 species of plants. The flooded savannas and grasslands are generally

11270-816: The world.", with estimates being that in 1979 alone, over 2 million Iraqi adults were studying in more than 28,735 literacy schools, with over 75,000 teachers. Saddam Hussein's regime also mandated education for primary to high school, with Saddam's regime also mandating free tuition for university students. Saddam also took steps to promote women's rights within Iraq. By the late 1970s, women in Iraq held significant roles in society, representing 46% of all teachers, 29% of all doctors, 46% of all dentist and 70% of all pharmacists. These advancements signaled progress in women's participation in various professional fields. Women also saw drastic increase in rights in other-aspects of life, with women being given equal-rights in marriage, divorce, inheritance, and custody. Women in Iraq also had

11385-668: Was Saddam's minister of foreign affairs from 1991 to 2001 and later information minister , until 2003 Taha Yassin Ramadan, Saddam's deputy was from the Shabak community —a small, quasi-Shiite sect. During the Iran–Iraq War, Saddam sought to gain support from Shia community. As 80% of the Iraqi Armed Forces were Shia Muslim personnel, who chose Iraq over Iran. Before 2003, more than 1.2 million Christians lived in Iraq . Tariq Aziz , an ethnic Iraqi Assyrian and member of

11500-477: Was Vatican's ambassador to Iraq, stated that under his regime, Christians were free to practice their faith in the majority-Muslim country. In 2003, Pope John Paul II visited Saddam in March 2003 and addressed the message for peace. During his rule, Iraq retained a substantial Jewish community , around 1,000. The Jews in Iraq were treated by Saddam. It is said that he had a soft spot for Jews because his mother

11615-492: Was a strong behind-the-scenes party politician. Al-Bakr was the older and more prestigious of the two, but by 1969 Saddam had become the moving force behind the party. In the late 1960s and early 1970s, as vice chairman of the Revolutionary Command Council, formally al-Bakr's second-in-command, Saddam built a reputation as a progressive, effective politician. At this time, Saddam moved up the ranks in

11730-404: Was an Iraqi politician and revolutionary who served as the fifth president of Iraq from 1979 to 2003. He also served as prime minister of Iraq from 1979 to 1991 and later from 1994 to 2003. He was a leading member of the revolutionary Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party and later its Iraqi regional branch . Ideologically, he espoused Ba'athism , a mix of Arab nationalism and Arab socialism , while

11845-593: Was arrested in October 1964 and served approximately two years in prison before escaping in 1966. In 1966, Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr appointed him Deputy Secretary of the Regional Command. Saddam, who would prove to be a skilled organizer, revitalized the party. He was elected to the Regional Command, as the story goes, with help from Michel Aflaq—the founder of Ba'athist thought. In September 1966, Saddam initiated an extraordinary challenge to Syrian domination of

11960-658: Was based on cronyism. A peace treaty, which aimed to address the Shatt al-Arab dispute, was signed in 1975. Under the accord, Iraq was granted sovereignty over the eastern bank of the waterway, while Iran retained control over the western bank. The agreement also allowed for joint navigation and other provisions. The 1975 Algiers Agreement, also known as the Algiers Accord, was a significant diplomatic agreement signed between Iran and Iraq on 6 March 1975, to settle border disputes and improve bilateral relations. The agreement

12075-410: Was based on the principles of territorial integrity, respect for sovereignty, non-interference in internal affairs, and the peaceful resolution of disputes. The agreement established a new border line along the Shatt al-Arab, dividing the waterway equally between Iran and Iraq up to the midpoint. Iran made significant concessions in the agreement, including relinquishing its claims on the eastern bank of

12190-455: Was built on land donated by the Ministry of Finance. Mandaeans were some of the best goldsmiths and jewelers in Iraq, with Saddam's personal jeweler being of Mandaean background. However, after his downfall, Mandaeans faced severe persecution, and constant kidnappings. They often expressed that they were better under Saddam's rule, and praise him for the protection they received. "There

12305-563: Was heavy-handed, but consistent as a drumbeat. It helped, of course, that his mukhabarat (secret police) put dozens of Arab news editors, writers and artists on the payroll." After the Ba'athists took power in 1968, Saddam focused on attaining stability in a nation riddled with profound tensions. Long before him, Iraq had been split along social, ethnic, religious, and economic fault lines: Sunni versus Shi'ite , Arab versus Kurd , tribal chief versus urban merchant, nomad versus peasant and Jews versus anti-Semites. The desire for stable rule in

12420-422: Was mediated by the then-President of Algeria, Houari Boumediene . Prior to the Algiers Agreement, Iran and Iraq had been engaged in a long-standing territorial dispute over the Shatt al-Arab waterway, which serves as the border between the two countries. Algeria played a crucial role in mediating the negotiations between Iran and Iraq, with President Boumediene acting as the chief mediator. The Algiers Agreement

12535-413: Was named president and Saddam was named his deputy, and deputy chairman of the Ba'athist Revolutionary Command Council . According to biographers, Saddam never forgot the tensions within the first Ba'athist government, which formed the basis for his measures to promote Ba'ath party unity as well as his resolve to maintain power and programs to ensure social stability. Although Saddam was al-Bakr's deputy, he

12650-502: Was one of the triggers for the Second Iraqi–Kurdish War. On the other hands Feyil Kurds were also systamically persecuted . During the early years of the Ba'ath rule, Jews were oppressed under the government. Saddam was given the charge of publicly hanging 13 men , including many Jews. They were accused by the government of spying for Israel. Later government abolished its repressive policies on Jews. In November 1975,

12765-465: Was recruited to the assassination conspiracy by its ring-leader, Abdul Karim al-Shaikhly, after one of the would-be assassins left. During the ambush, Saddam (who was only supposed to provide cover) began shooting prematurely, which disorganised the whole operation. Qasim's chauffeur was killed and Qasim was hit in the arm and shoulder. The assassins thought they had killed Qasim and quickly retreated to their headquarters, but Qasim survived. Saddam himself

12880-471: Was responsible for the murder or disappearance of 250,000 to 290,000 Iraqis . Saddam's government has been described by several analysts as authoritarian and totalitarian , and by some as fascist , although the applicability of those labels has been contested. Saddam Hussein was born in al-Awja , a small village near Tikrit , to Hussein Abd Al-Majid and Subha Tulfah Al-Mussallat. They were both from

12995-577: Was saved by Jewish neighbors. Saddam reportedly helped the estimated 150 remaining Iraqi Jews, allowing many to leave the country. There was a Jewish representative in the government. Shaul Sasson, the Technical Head of state-owned enterprises under the Ministry of Industry , was a Jew. A Jewish chemist from Basra was also sent by him on a trade mission to China in 1988. Saddam helped in restoration of Meir Taweig Synagogue and construction

13110-457: Was saved by a Jewish family. Subha "would have nothing to do with him", and Saddam would eventually be taken in by an uncle. His mother remarried, and Saddam gained three half-brothers through this marriage. His stepfather, Ibrahim al-Hassan, treated Saddam harshly after his return, and (according to a psychological profile created by the CIA ) beat him regularly, sometimes to wake him up. At around

13225-506: Was the subject of a cult of personality . Many Arabs regard Saddam as a resolute leader who challenged Western imperialism , opposed the Israeli occupation of Palestine , and resisted foreign intervention in the region. Conversely, many Iraqis, particularly Shias and Kurds, perceive him negatively as a dictator responsible for severe authoritarianism , repression, and numerous injustices. Human Rights Watch estimated that Saddam's regime

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