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135-582: The Mfecane , also known by the Sesotho names Difaqane or Lifaqane (all meaning "crushing," "scattering," "forced dispersal," or "forced migration"), was a historical period of heightened military conflict and migration associated with state formation and expansion in Southern Africa . The exact range of dates that comprise the Mfecane varies between sources. At its broadest, the period lasted from
270-617: A complex pattern of land ownership by granting many concessions to Europeans. During the concessions some of the King's senior chiefs like Chief Ntengu Mbokane got permission to relocate to farms towards the Lubombo region, in the modern-day city of Nsoko. Others like Mshiza Maseko relocated to farms towards the Komati River in the place called eLuvalweni. The concessions included grants and leases for agriculture and grazing. In 1890, following
405-568: A finding that undermines Cobbing's thesis that Shaka's early military activities were a response to slave raids . Moreover, Eldredge argues that the Griqua and other groups (rather than European missionaries as asserted by Cobbing) were primarily responsible for the slave raids coming from the Cape. Eldredge also asserts that Cobbing downplays the importance of the ivory trade in Delagoa Bay, and
540-480: A foreign conflict. The king is the commander-in-chief of the defence force and the substantive Minister of the Ministry of Defence. There are approximately 3,000 personnel in the defence force, with the army being the largest component. There is a small air force, which is mainly used for transporting the king as well as cargo and personnel, surveying land with search and rescue functions, and mobilising in case of
675-655: A gate designated for the candidate of choice while officials counted them. Later on, a constitutional review commission was appointed by King Mswati III in July 1996, comprising chiefs, political activists, and unionists to consider public submissions and draft proposals for a new constitution. Drafts were released for comment in May 1999 and November 2000. These were strongly criticised by civil society organisations in Swaziland and human rights organisations elsewhere. A 15-member team
810-592: A language or dialect very closely related to modern Sesotho, the Zambian Sotho–Tswana language Lozi is also sometimes cited as a modern dialect of Sesotho named Serotse or Sekololo . The oral history of the Basotho and Northern Sotho peoples (as contained in their liboko ) states that 'Mathulare, a daughter of the chief of the Bafokeng nation (an old and respected people), was married to chief Tabane of
945-587: A loan from neighbouring South Africa. However, they did not agree with the conditions of the loan, which included political reforms. During this period, there was increased pressure on the Swazi government to carry out more reforms. Public protests by civic organisations and trade unions became more common. Starting in 2012, improvements in SACU receipts eased the fiscal pressure on the Swazi government. A new parliament,
1080-400: A national emergency. Eswatini is divided into four regions: Hhohho , Lubombo , Manzini , and Shiselweni . In each of the four regions, there are several tinkhundla (singular inkhundla ). The regions are managed by a regional administrator, who is aided by elected members in each inkhundla. The local government is divided into differently structured rural and urban councils depending on
1215-519: A period of social breakdown and recombination. Further bolstered in number by escaped slaves, bandits, and people of all ethnicities from the Cape Colony , some of these peoples would eventually become the Korana . Their power increased as trade with and raids upon colonists provided guns and horses, and by the 1780s they began raiding northwards against Tswana polities. From the 1780s to the turn of
1350-598: A rare form of vowel-height (alternatively, advanced tongue root ) harmony. In total, the language contains some 39 consonantal and 9 vowel phonemes . It also has a large number of complex sound transformations which often change the phones of words due to the influence of other (sometimes invisible) sounds. Sesotho makes a three-way distinction between lightly ejective , aspirated and voiced stops in several places of articulation . The standard Sesotho clicks tend to be substituted with dental clicks in regular speech. The most striking properties of Sesotho grammar, and
1485-611: A result of years of anger towards the lack of meaningful reforms that would nudge Eswatini in the direction of democracy, as well as the government's reported banning of the submission of petitions. Numerous buildings said to be connected to King Mswati III were torched by protesters, and police reportedly assaulted and arrested political opponents. The New York Times called the turmoil in the landlocked nation "the most explosive civil unrest in its 53 years of independence". At least 20 people were killed by state security forces and dozens more injured and detained. The government shut down
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#17327654673611620-501: A set of idioms but used with the grammar and inflexion rules of another language (usually Sesotho or Zulu ). It is a part of the youth culture in most Southern Gauteng townships and is the primary language used in Kwaito music . The sound system of Sesotho is unusual in many respects. It has ejective consonants , click consonants , a uvular trill , a relatively large number of affricate consonants , no prenasalised consonants , and
1755-600: A third was taken. In the event, in 1910 he completed his work and set aside 1,639,687 acres, some 38% of Swaziland's area, for the Swazi. The queen regent then encouraged the Swazi to go to work in the Transvaal to earn money to buy more land from the Europeans. Much of the early administration of the territory (for example, postal services) was carried out from South Africa until 1906, when the Transvaal Colony
1890-958: Is 9th lowest ranked worldwide and 2nd lowest ranked electoral democracy in Africa . Eswatini is a member of the United Nations , the Commonwealth of Nations , the African Union , the Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa , and the Southern African Development Community . As of 2024, it is the only country in Africa that has maintained ties with Taiwan and not the People's Republic of China . The judicial system in Eswatini
2025-526: Is a dual system. The 2005 constitution established a court system based on the Western model consisting of four regional Magistrates Courts, a High Court, and a Court of Appeal (the Supreme Court), which are independent of crown control. In addition, traditional courts (Swazi Courts or Customary Courts) deal with minor offenses and violations of traditional Swazi law and custom. Judges are appointed by
2160-569: Is also the name given to the entire Sotho-Tswana group, in which case Sesotho proper is called "Southern Sotho". Within the Sotho-Tswana group, Southern Sotho is also related to Lozi ( Silozi ), with which it forms the Sesotho-Lozi group within Sotho-Tswana. The Northern Sotho group is geographical, and includes a number of dialects also closely related to Sotho-Lozi. Tswana is also known as "Western Sesotho". The Sotho-Tswana group
2295-662: Is an absolute monarchy , the last of its kind in Africa, and has been ruled by King Mswati III since 1986. Elections are held every five years to determine the House of Assembly and the Senate majority, but political parties are prohibited from running. Its constitution was adopted in 2005. Umhlanga , the reed dance held in August/September, and incwala , the kingship dance held in December/January, are
2430-660: Is bordered in the north, west and south by South Africa and by Mozambique in the east. Along the eastern border with Mozambique are the Lebombo Mountains , a mountain ridge at an altitude of around 600 metres (2,000 ft). The mountains are broken by the canyons of three rivers, the Ngwavuma , the Great Usutu and the Mbuluzi . The western border, with an average altitude of 1,200 metres (3,900 ft), lies on
2565-452: Is diverse, with agriculture, forestry and mining accounting for about 13% of GDP, manufacturing (textiles and sugar-related processing) representing 37% of GDP and services – with government services in the lead – constituting 50% of GDP. Title Deed Lands (TDLs), where the bulk of high value crops are grown (sugar, forestry, and citrus), are characterised by high levels of investment and irrigation, and high productivity. About 75% of
2700-627: Is divided into four climatic regions: the Highveld, Middleveld, Lowveld, and Lubombo plateau. Generally speaking, rain falls mostly during the summer months (December to March), often in the form of thunderstorms. Winter is the dry season . Annual rainfall is highest on the Highveld in the west, between 1,000 and 2,000 mm (39.4 and 78.7 in). The further east, the less rain, with the Lowveld recording 500 to 900 mm (19.7 to 35.4 in) per annum. Variations in temperature are also related to
2835-512: Is in turn closely related to the other Southern Bantu languages, including the Venda , Tsonga , Tonga , Lozi which is native to Zambia and the other surrounding Southern African countries and Nguni languages , and possibly also the Makua (zone P) languages of Tanzania and Mozambique . Sotho is the root word. Various prefixes may be added for specific derivations, such as Sesotho for
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#17327654673612970-476: Is no discernible dialect variation in this language. However, one point that seems to often confuse authors who attempt to study the dialectology of Sesotho is the term Basotho , which can variously mean " Sotho–Tswana speakers ", "Southern Sotho and Northern Sotho speakers ", "Sesotho speakers", and "residents of Lesotho." The Nguni language Phuthi has been heavily influenced by Sesotho; its speakers have mixed Nguni and Sotho–Tswana ancestry. It seems that it
3105-463: Is one of the smallest countries in Africa ; despite this, its climate and topography are diverse, ranging from a cool and mountainous highveld to a hot and dry lowveld . The population is composed primarily of ethnic Swazis . The prevalent language is Swazi ( siSwati in native form). The Swazis established their kingdom in the mid-18th century under the leadership of Ngwane III . The country and
3240-423: Is significant in that it saw the formation of new states, institutions, and ethnic identities in southeastern Africa. The Mfecane's historiography itself is also historically significant, with different versions having been employed to serve a range of political purposes since its inception as a historical concept. The concept first emerged in the 1830s and blamed the disruption on the actions of King Shaka , who
3375-535: Is situated in the Middleveld. The Lowveld, at around 250 metres (820 ft), is less populated than other areas and presents a typical African bush country of thorn trees and grasslands. Eswatini contains three ecosystems: Maputaland coastal forest mosaic , Zambezian and mopane woodlands , and Drakensberg montane grasslands . The country had a 2018 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 4.21/10, ranking it 142nd globally out of 172 countries. Eswatini
3510-559: Is sometimes treated erroneously as a dialect of Sesotho called "Sephuthi." However, Phuthi is mutually unintelligible with standard Sesotho and thus cannot in any sense be termed a dialect of it. The occasional tendency to label all minor languages spoken in Lesotho as "dialects" of Sesotho is considered patronising, in addition to being linguistically inaccurate and in part serving a national myth that all citizens of Lesotho have Sesotho as their mother tongue. Additionally, being derived from
3645-434: Is the king or ngwenyama (lit. lion ), currently King Mswati III, who ascended to the throne in 1986 after the death of his father King Sobhuza II in 1982 and a period of regency. According to the country's constitution, the ngwenyama is a symbol of unity and the eternity of the Swazi nation. By tradition, the king reigns along with his mother (or a ritual substitute), the ndlovukati (lit. she- e lephant ). The former
3780-542: The Beaver Wars of the seventeenth century in northeastern North America , due to the alleged similarity of the narratives of indigenous "self-vanishing" that were propagated by apologists for European colonialism about the Mfecane and the Beaver Wars. Sotho language Sotho ( / s ɛ ˈ s uː t uː / ) Sesotho , also known as Southern Sotho or Sesotho sa Borwa is a Southern Bantu language of
3915-519: The Kingdom of Eswatini and also known by its former official name Swaziland ( / ˈ s w ɑː z i l æ n d / SWAH -zee-land ) and formerly the Kingdom of Swaziland , is a landlocked country in Southern Africa . It is bordered by Mozambique to its northeast and South Africa to its north, west, south, and southeast. At no more than 200 km (120 mi) north to south and 130 km (81 mi) east to west, Eswatini
4050-527: The Libandla (parliament) with help from an advisory council. The king is allowed by the constitution to appoint some members to parliament to represent special interests. These special interests are citizens who might have been electoral candidates who were not elected, or might not have stood as candidates. This is done to balance views in parliament. Special interests could be people of a particular gender or race, people with disabilities, significant members of
4185-662: The Lozi people . The next force was the Mzilikazi and the Matebele who moved across Tswana territory in 1837. Both of these invading forces continued to travel north across Tswana territory without establishing any sort of state. In addition to these major kingdoms, a number of smaller groups also moved north into Tswana territory, where they met with defeat and ultimately vanished from history. Among those involved in these invasions were European adventurers such as Nathaniel Isaacs (who
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4320-734: The Magaliesberg mountains, where he subjugated the Bahurutshe , Bakwena , and Bakgatla and regularly raided the Bangwaketse and southern Batswana peoples. A multi-ethnic force under the Kora leader Jan Bloem sought to profit from the Ndebele's wealth with a mid-1828 raid, which proved only a partial success as his Kora and Griqua parties were destroyed before they could escape. By 1830, the Ndebele had extended their political influence over
4455-841: The Mzimkhulu River . This in turn contributed to the rise of the Mpondo Kingdom. The 1810s saw the continued expansion of the Ndwandwe and Mthethwa Paramountcies, as well as the Portuguese Delagoa Bay slave trade. The Ndwandwe Paramountcy would come to blows with the Mthethwa in the late 1810s, ultimately defeating and slaying their leader Dingiswayo kaJobe . The Mthethwa promptly collapsed as its client polities reasserted independence. The Ndwandwe king Zwide kaLanga went on to war with one of these breakaways,
4590-589: The Ndwandwe Paramountcy and Mthethwa Paramountcy respectfully. On the borders of their spheres of influence, the amaHlubi of the upper Mzinyathi , the abakwaDlamini north of the Phongolo, and the abakwaQwabe of the lower Thukela. The latter's rise displaced elements of the abakwaCele and amaThuli further south. The amaThuli managed to secure a sizable chiefdom between the lower Mngeni and Mkhomazi Rivers, which displaced local groups across
4725-610: The Nguni during the great Bantu migrations . These peoples originated from the Great Lakes region of eastern and central Africa. Evidence of agriculture and iron use dates from about the 4th century. People speaking languages ancestral to the current Sotho and Nguni languages began settling no later than the 11th century. The Swazi settlers, then known as the Ngwane (or bakaNgwane ) before entering Eswatini, had been settled on
4860-573: The Pedi Kingdom and certainly dominating the region between the Olifants and Phongolo Rivers. Msane, Zwangendaba, and the followers of Nxaba, for their part, were displaced farther north. The Gaza Kingdom expanded to the northeast, heavily raiding small Tsonga polities. Slave trading expanded at Delagoa Bay, and the Portuguese worked to expand their regional sphere of influence. In 1826,
4995-624: The Second Boer War , Swaziland became one of the British " High Commission Territories ", the others being Basutoland (now Lesotho ) and Bechuanaland (now Botswana ), although a protectorate was not established because terms had not been agreed with the Swazi Queen Regent Labotsibeni Mdluli . The Swaziland Administration Proclamation of 1904 established a commission with the task of examining all
5130-644: The Sotho–Tswana ("S.30") group, spoken in Lesotho , and South Africa where it is an official language . Like all Bantu languages , Sesotho is an agglutinative language that uses numerous affixes and derivational and inflexional rules to build complete words . Sotho is a Southern Bantu language belonging to the Niger–Congo language family within the Sotho-Tswana branch of Zone S (S.30) . "Sotho"
5265-552: The Vaal and Orange River. There, they absorbed some of their San and Korana neighbors as clients . The Griqua, like other ethnic groups, were not politically unified and differed in their livelihood strategies, which ranged from raiding to agriculture to controlling trade between Batswana and the Cape Colony. By the turn of the century amaXhosa groups also began arriving in the middle Orange River region, fleeing instability along
5400-469: The Vaal Triangle – where multilingualism and polylectalism are very high. Sesotho is one of the twelve official languages of South Africa , one of the two official languages of Lesotho and one of the sixteen official languages of Zimbabwe . Sesotho is one of the many languages from which tsotsitaals are derived. Tsotsitaal is not a proper language, as it is primarily a unique vocabulary and
5535-860: The Venda Kingdom to the north, the Maroteng, amaNdzundza , and Balodebu to the northeast, the Bangwaketse to the far west, and Matiwane's nation in the Caledon Valley. Sebetwane and Moletsane's nations, for their part, were outright put to flight. Between 1827 and 1828 Matiwane's amaNgwane launched a failed attack on Moshoeshoe and, after suffering a major raid (likely perpetrated by the Ndebele), relocated to abaThembu territory in 1828, where they were destroyed by British, Boer, amaGcaleka , amaMpondo , and abaThembu forces. Though Matiwane
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5670-480: The amaZulu of Shaka kaSenzangakhona . Their raids and counterraids proved costly and indecisive, contributing to the breakup of the Ndandwe Paramountcy. Groups broke away under Soshangane and Zwangendaba who settled their followers in the Delagoa Bay region, while Msane did the same in what is now eastern Eswatini . King Zwide, now in a position of weakness, evacuated to his territories north of
5805-604: The lilangeni , is pegged to the South African rand . Eswatini's major overseas trading partners are the United States and the European Union . The majority of the country's employment is provided by its agricultural and manufacturing sectors. Eswatini is a member of the Southern African Development Community , the African Union , the Commonwealth of Nations , and the United Nations . The government
5940-672: The (Southern) Bakgatla (a branch of the Bahurutse , who are one of the most ancient of the Sotho–Tswana tribes), and bore the founders of five tribes: Bapedi (by Mopedi), Makgolokwe (by Kgetsi), Baphuthing (by Mophuthing, and later the Mzizi of Dlamini , connected with the present-day Ndebele ), Batlokwa (by Kgwadi), and Basia (by Mosia). These were the first peoples to be called "Basotho", before many of their descendants and other peoples came together to form Moshoeshoe I 's nation in
6075-505: The 1780s. There was significant population growth in the region which lead to more competition for resources. There was an increasing amount of trade with the Cape colony and the Portuguese; this had the consequence of separate chiefdoms becoming more eager to conquer land for themselves in order to control trade routes. Dutch settlers from the Cape Colony encroaching upon the Khoikhoi and San into regions where Tswana people live resulted in
6210-648: The 1820s to the 1830s was driven in large part by slave and cattle raiding by Griqua , Basters , and other Khoekhoe -European groups armed and mounted by European settlers, who benefitted from trading their plunder. The increasing economic pull of the international slave trade also incentivized greater warfare and disruption between polities close to international ports such as Delagoa Bay . The Mfecane began in eastern Southern Africa with increasing competition and political consolidation as chiefdoms vied for control over trade routes and grazing land. Delagoa Bay and its international port saw increasing regional conflict in
6345-419: The 1820s, Shoshangane's Gaza Kingdom and Shaka's Zulu kingdom had established themselves alongside the remains of the Ndwandwe Paramountcy as the major players in the Northeast of Southern Africa. After relocating once again to the Nkomati River region, Zwide successfully raided and recruited his way back to power. By the time of his death in 1825 the Ndwandwe had muscled into the interior, possibly sundering
6480-495: The 1967 elections, Swaziland was a protected state until independence was regained in 1968. Following the elections of 1972, the constitution of Swaziland was suspended by King Sobhuza II who thereafter ruled the country by decree until his death in 1982. At that point, Sobhuza II had been king of Swaziland for almost 83 years, making him the longest-reigning monarch in history . A regency followed his death, with Queen Regent Dzeliwe Shongwe as head of state until 1984 when she
6615-977: The Eswatini National Trust Commission, the Eswatini Environment Authority , and the Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives. In addition, Big Game Parks, a private entity, is tasked with the management of the Game Act, which controls wildlife and CITES. There are 6 formal and more than 10 informal protected areas in the country. The formally gazetted areas include: Malolotja Nature Reserve , Mantenga Nature Reserve, Mlawula Nature Reserve , Mlilwane Wildlife Sanctuary , and Mkhaya Game Reserve , and Hlane Royal National Park . In addition to these, there are many private and community nature reserves, as well as some with mixed governance structures. These include: Dombeya Game Reserve, Mbuluzi Game Reserve , Shewula Nature Reserve, Phophonyane Falls Nature Reserve , Royal Jozini , IYSIS (Inyoni Yami), Ngwempisi Wilderness, Sibebe and others. There are other entities that practice secondary or tertiary conservation, as well as two conservancies:
6750-422: The House of Assembly were held in 1978, and they were conducted under the tinkhundla as electoral constituencies determined by the King, and established an Electoral Committee appointed by the King to supervise elections. Until the 1993 election, the ballot was not secret, voters were not registered, and they did not elect representatives directly. Instead, voters elected an electoral college by passing through
6885-403: The Maroteng clan, also came into conflict with the amaNdzundza Ndebele, Masemola, Magakala, Bamphahlele, and Balobedu polities. Meanwhile, the region of the modern north and central Free State was increasingly coming under the control of the Bataung . In the late 1790s, expansion by the Cape Colony to the lower Orange River region displaced the mixed-race Griqua peoples to the confluence of
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#17327654673617020-468: The Matebele left a trail of destruction in their wake. From 1837 to 1838, the arrival of Boer settlers and the subsequent battles of Vegtkop and Mosega, drove the Matebele north of the Limpopo. They settled in the area now known as Matabeleland , in present-day southern Zimbabwe . Mzilikazi set up his new capital in Bulawayo . The AmaNdebele drove the MaShona of the region northward and forced them to pay tribute. This caused resentment that has continued to
7155-497: The Mfecane fled to the lands of the Xhosa people. Some of them such as the amaNgwane were driven back by force and defeated. Those who were accepted were obliged to be tributary to the Xhosas and lived under their protection. They were assimilated into the Xhosa cultural way of life, becoming part of the Xhosa people. After years of oppression by the Xhosas, they later formed an alliance with the Cape Colony . Southern Tswana populations had experienced an increase in conflict as early as
7290-435: The Mhlosinga Conservancy and the Lubombo Conservancy . Others include: the Natural History Society of Eswatini and the Eswatini Game Ranchers Association. From 2014 to 2021, Eswatini participated in the "Strengthening the National Protected Areas System" (SNPAS) project. This project attempted to strengthen conservation outcomes and the national footprint of biodiversity conservation across the country. In an effort to broaden
7425-423: The Ndwandewe allowed Sekwati to rebuild the sundered Pedi Kingdom around a fortified hilltop base near the Steelpoort River . From this stronghold, he soon gathered a large following by offering protection to groups of refugees. In 1827, Shoshangane relocated the Gaza Kingdom from the lower Nkomati to the lower Limpopo River area. Gaza defeated a Zulu army in 1828 and developed economic and political ties with
7560-400: The Ndwandwe army, fled north with Soshangane after his defeat in 1819. Zwangendaba's followers were henceforth called Ngoni . Continuing north of the Zambezi River , they formed a state in the region between lakes Malawi and Tanganyika . Maseko , who led another part of the Ngoni people, founded another state to the east of Zwangendaba's kingdom. To the east, refugee clans and tribes from
7695-405: The Northern Transvaal. In 1833, Soshangane invaded various Portuguese settlements, and was initially successful. But a combination of internal disputes and war against the Swazi caused the downfall of the Gaza kingdom. The Ngwane people lived in present-day Eswatini (Swaziland), where they had settled in the southwest. They warred periodically with the Ndwandwe. Zwangendaba , a commander of
7830-524: The Phongolo to rebuild. Shaka took advantage of the power vacuum to expand the Zulu state to the Mkhuze River . The 1810s also saw the expansion of British colonial rule in southeastern southern Africa, with Xhosa polities displaced northwards by the Fourth and Fifth Xhosa Wars . Meanwhile, between the Mzimkhulu and Mzimvubu Rivers, some polities fleeing the upheavals further north joined Faku kaNgqungqushe 's Mpondo Kingdom, while most others instead vied for dominance just outside of its reach. By
7965-425: The Portuguese governor. In an attempt to solidify their control over inland trade, the Portuguese launched a failed attack on the Gaza Kingdom in 1834, leaving Gaza dominant over Delagoa Bay and the territories to its north. By the late 1830s, the Kingdom's sphere of influence reached as far as the Zambezi River . In 1836, the Swazi Kingdom weathered a joint attack by Zulu forces and British adventurers. Sometime in
8100-417: The Portuguese. In May of 1828, Shaka launched a successful cattle raid against the Bomvana and the Mpondo Kingdom, following up with another raid north of Delagoa Bay before the first expeditionary force had returned home. Sensing political weakness, his brothers Dingane and Mhlangana assassinated him in September. Dingane subsequently purged Mhlangana and other political rivals and established himself as
8235-471: The Sotho language and Basotho for the Sotho people . Use of Sesotho rather than Sotho for the language in English has seen increasing use since the 1980s, especially in South African English and in Lesotho. Except for faint lexical variation within Lesotho, and for marked lexical variation between the Lesotho/ Free State variety and that of the large urban townships to the north (such as Soweto ) due to heavy borrowing from neighbouring languages, there
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#17327654673618370-402: The Swazi take their names from Mswati II , the 19th-century king under whose rule the country was expanded and unified; its boundaries were drawn up in 1881 in the midst of the Scramble for Africa . After the Second Boer War , the kingdom, under the name of Swaziland, was a British high commission territory from 1903 until it regained its full independence on 6 September 1968. In April 2018,
8505-417: The Swazis as Emafikamuva . The autonomy of the Swazi nation was influenced by British and Dutch rule of southern Africa in the 19th and early 20th centuries. In 1881, the British government signed a convention recognising Swazi independence, despite the Scramble for Africa that was taking place at the time. This independence was also recognised in the London Convention of 1884 . King Mbandzeni created
8640-507: The Swazis" in the Swazi language and was partially intended to prevent confusion with the similarly named Switzerland . Eswatini workers began anti-government protests against low salaries in September 2018. They went on a three-day strike organised by the Trade Union Congress of Eswatini that resulted in widespread disruption. In June 2021, pro-democracy protests broke out across the country, sparking riots, looting, and street skirmishes with police and soldiers. This civil unrest began as
8775-420: The United Kingdom in London in 1922 regarding the issue of the land. In the period between 1923 and 1963, Sobhuza II established the Swazi Commercial Amadoda which was to grant licences to small businesses on the Swazi reserves and also established the Swazi National School to counter the dominance of the missions in education. His stature grew with time, and the Swazi royal leadership was successful in resisting
8910-432: The Zulu Kingdom. 1828 saw a further advance of colonial power as a combined British-Boer force marched far beyond the colonial borders and destroyed Matiwane 's amaNgwane at Mbholompo. Benefitting from the fall of the Ndwandwe and Shaka, Sobhuza's Swazi Kingdom expanded from the core of modern Eswatini to the Sabie River by the early 1830s. In an 1833 trade dispute, Zulu forces briefly captured Delagoa Bay and executed
9045-412: The Zulu king, but also the Boers , and the Griqua and Tswana . Defeats in several clashes convinced Mzilikazi to move north towards Swaziland. Going north and then inland westward along the watershed between the Vaal and the Limpopo rivers, Mzilikazi and his followers, the AmaNdebele, (called Matebele in English) established a Ndebele state northwest of the city of Pretoria . During this period,
9180-445: The Zulu-centric explanation for the Mfecane is not reliable. By the early 2000s, a new historical consensus had emerged, recognizing the Mfecane to be not simply a series of events resulting from the founding of the Zulu Kingdom but rather a multitude of factors caused before and after Shaka Zulu came into power. The debate and controversy within Southern African historiography over the Mfecane has been compared to similar debates about
9315-436: The ability of average people to meet their needs. Though far less susceptible to famine, leaders faced threats to their power as (taxable) agricultural production dropped and ivory became scarcer due to overhunting. Faced with the challenges of fighting famine and maintaining wealth flows, leaders were incentivized to turn to raiding and conquest. Conquest protected conquering peoples against famine by providing immediate access to
9450-461: The altitude of the different regions. The Highveld temperature is temperate and seldom uncomfortably hot, while the Lowveld may record temperatures around 40 °C (104 °F) in summer. The average temperatures at Mbabane, according to the season: The government of Eswatini has expressed concern that climate change is exacerbating existing social challenges such as poverty, a high HIV prevalence, and food insecurity and will drastically restrict
9585-549: The area of the country to twice its current size. The Emakhandzambili clans were initially incorporated into the kingdom with wide autonomy, often including grants of special ritual and political status. The extent of their autonomy, however, was drastically curtailed by Mswati, who attacked and subdued some of them in the 1850s. With his power, Mswati greatly reduced the influence of the Emakhandzambili while incorporating more people into his kingdom either through conquest or by giving them refuge. These later arrivals became known to
9720-707: The banks of the Pongola River . Before that, they were settled in the area of the Tembe River near present-day Maputo , Mozambique. Continuing conflict with the Ndwandwe people pushed them further north, with Ngwane III establishing his capital at Shiselweni at the foot of the Mhlosheni hills. Under Sobhuza I , the Ngwane people established their capital at Zombodze in the heartland of present-day Eswatini. In this process, they conquered and incorporated
9855-414: The brutality of the Mfecane to justify European colonialism. Cobbing's hypothesis generated an immense volume of polemics among historians; the discussions were termed the "Cobbing Controversy". While historians had already embarked upon new approaches to the study of the Mfecane in the 1970s and 1980s, Cobbing's paper was the first major source that overtly defied the hegemonic "Zulu-centric" explanation at
9990-565: The business community, civic society, scholars, and chiefs. The Swazi bicameral Parliament, or Libandla, consists of the Senate (30 seats; 10 members appointed by the House of Assembly and 20 appointed by the monarch; to serve five-year terms) and the House of Assembly (65 seats; 10 members appointed by the monarch and 55 elected by popular vote ; to serve five-year terms). The elections are held every five years after dissolution of parliament by
10125-465: The century, the southern Tswana chiefdoms underwent fragmentations and consolidations as raids and counter-raids proliferated. The powerful Bahurutshe Chiefdom of the upper Marico River region had their control of the lucrative trade with the Cape Colony eroded by the Bangwaketse to the northwest, the Batlhaping to the southwest, and the emerging Pedi Kingdom to the east. The latter, helmed by
10260-570: The concessions and defining their boundaries. This work was finished by 1907, and the Swaziland Concessions Partition Proclamation provided for a concessions partition commissioner to be appointed to set aside areas for the sole use and occupation of the Swazis. The commissioner had the power to expropriate up to one third of each concession without compensation, but payment would need to be made if more than
10395-485: The conquered peoples' livestock and grain stores and, in the long term, by securing arable land and the people (particularly women) to farm it at greater intensities than before. Here another self-reinforcing cycle set in as famine and warfare promoted insecurity and militarism, which promoted political centralization and more warfare as strong leaders expanded their authority by offering a desperately-needed escape from famine to loyal followers. A second stage of turmoil from
10530-471: The constituency headman are also elected from each chiefdom. The secondary and final elections takes place at the various constituencies called tinkhundla . Candidates who win primary elections in the chiefdoms are considered nominees for the secondary elections at inkhundla or constituency level. The nominees with majority votes become the winners and they become members of parliament or constituency headman. According to 2023 V-Dem Democracy indices Eswatini
10665-454: The country's ability to develop, as per Vision 2022. Economically, climate change has already adversely impacted Eswatini. For instance, the 2015–16 drought decreased sugar and soft drink concentrate production export (Eswatini's largest economic export). Many of Eswatini's major exports are raw agricultural products and are therefore vulnerable to a changing climate. Eswatini has a spectrum of formal and informal conservation areas that protect
10800-448: The country's population and the median age is 22 years. Artifacts have been found indicating human activity dating back to the early Stone Age , around 200,000 years ago. Prehistoric rock art paintings dating from as far back as c. 27,000 years ago to as recently as the 19th century can be found around the country. The earliest known inhabitants of the region were Khoisan hunter-gatherers . They were largely replaced by
10935-474: The critically endangered South-central black rhinoceros and seven other endangered or vulnerable species. Eswatini is rich in bird life, including white-backed vultures , white-headed , lappet-faced and Cape vultures , raptors such as martial eagles , bateleurs , and long-crested eagles , and the southernmost nesting site of the marabou stork . Eswatini is an absolute monarchy with constitutional provision and Swazi law and customs. The head of state
11070-553: The current day in modern Zimbabwe. At the Battle of Mhlatuze River in 1818, the Ndwandwe were defeated by a Zulu force under the direct command of Shaka. Soshangane , one of Zwide's generals, fled to Mozambique with the remainder of the Ndwandwe. There, they established the Gaza kingdom . They oppressed the Tsonga people living there, some of whom fled over the Lebombo Mountains into
11205-530: The death of Mbandzeni, a Swaziland Convention created a Chief Court to determine disputes about controversial land and mineral rights and other concessions. Swaziland was given a triumviral administration in 1890, representing the British, the Dutch republics, and the Swazi people. In 1894, a convention placed Swaziland under the South African Republic as a protectorate . This continued under
11340-413: The early 19th century. The situation is even further complicated by various historical factors, such as members of parent clans joining their descendants or various clans calling themselves by the same names (because they honour the same legendary ancestor or have the same totem). An often repeated story is that when the modern Basotho nation was established by King Moshoeshoe I , his own "dialect" Sekwena
11475-465: The eastern Cape Colony frontier. There they absorbed Korana, San, and others and engaged in extensive raiding along the Orange and lower Vaal rivers. This proved particularly damaging to the trade activities of their Batlhaping victims. By the 1810s, Boer expansion brought increasing destabilization to the middle Orange River region, not least in that it increased the flow of firearms. The Caledon Valley
11610-477: The edge of an escarpment . Eswatini is separated into four geographical regions. These run from north to south and are determined by elevation. Mbabane , the capital, is on the Highveld . The Middleveld, lying at an average 700 metres (2,300 ft) above sea level, is the most densely populated region of Eswatini with a lower rainfall than the mountains. Manzini , the principal commercial and industrial city,
11745-738: The effects of international trade, environmental instability, and European colonization. State formation and expansion had already been intensifying in Southeastern African as of at least the late 1700s, but these processes were greatly accelerated after the international ivory trade opened. The trade allowed leaders to amass unprecedented amounts of wealth, which they could then use to cultivate greater political power. Wealth and power became mutually reinforcing, as wealth enabled leaders to develop state instruments of control and expropriation, which they used to extract further wealth through taxation and military action. The consequence of this cycle
11880-770: The expansion of the Ndwandwe Paramountcy under Sikhunyana began to threaten the Zulu Kingdom's borders. In response, Shaka marched his army (and allied British traders) to the Izindololwane Hills and put Sikhunyana to flight. Their victory was so total that the Ndwandwe state collapsed shortly thereafter, with some constituent polities fleeing south or joining the Zulu, the Gaza Kingdom, or Mzilikazi 's Matabele/Ndebele Kingdom. The collapse of
12015-416: The extent to which African groups and leaders sought to establish more centralised and complex state formations to control ivory routes and the wealth associated with the trade. She suggests these pressures created internal movements, as well as reactions against European activity, that drove the state formations and concomitant violence and displacement. She still agreed with Cobbing's overall sentiment in that
12150-418: The failure of the transfer by temporarily suspending the autonomy of KaNgwane.) The 1990s saw a rise in student and labour protests calling on the king to introduce reforms. Thus, progress towards constitutional reforms began, culminating with the introduction of the current Swazi constitution in 2005. This happened despite objections by political activists. The current constitution does not clearly deal with
12285-481: The first Legislative Council was constituted on 9 September 1964. By 1964, the area of the country reserved for occupation by the Swazi had increased to 56%. Changes to the original constitution proposed by the Legislative Council were accepted by Britain and a new constitution providing for a House of Assembly and Senate was drawn up. Elections under this constitution were held in 1967. Following
12420-545: The formation of the Korana who started to launch raids on other communities by the 1780s. The fact that many of them had access to firearms and horses likely exacerbated the devastation caused by their raiders. Xhosa who were escaping the already violent region of the Eastern Cape often launched their own raids as well. All of these events led to making the region progressively more unstable. Missionary interference, internal politics, and raids by Dutch settlers also impacted
12555-440: The inkhundla all matters of interest and concern to their various chiefdoms, and take back to the chiefdoms the decisions of the inkhundla. The chairman of the bucopho is elected at the inkhundla and is called indvuna ye nkhundla . There are three tiers of government in the urban areas and these are city councils, town councils and town boards. This variation considers the size of the town or city. Equally, there are three tiers in
12690-430: The internet (with the compliance of mobile providers MTN and Eswatini Mobile) making it difficult to access reliable news from the country. The king was also said to have fled the country, though government officials disputed those claims, also calling for an end to the protests. A small landlocked kingdom with an area of 17,364 km (6,704 sq mi), Eswatini is located at approximately 26°30'S, 31°30'E and
12825-492: The king and are usually expatriates from South Africa. The Supreme Court, which replaced the previous Court of Appeal, consists of the chief justice and at least four other Supreme Court judges. The High Court consists of the chief justice and at least four High Court judges. The chief justices have been: The military of Eswatini ( Umbutfo Eswatini Defence Force ) is used primarily during domestic protests, with some border and customs duties. The military has never been involved in
12960-524: The king. The last elections were held on 29 September 2023. The balloting is done in a non-partisan manner. All election procedures are overseen by the Elections and Boundaries Commission. At Swaziland's independence on 6 September 1968, Swaziland adopted a Westminster-style constitution. On 12 April 1973, King Sobhuza II annulled it by decree, assuming supreme powers in all executive, judicial, and legislative matters. The first non-party elections for
13095-660: The kingdom of Lesotho . The Tswana were pillaged by two large invading forces set on the move by the Mfecane. Sebitwane gathered the Kololo ethnic groups near modern Lesotho and wandered north across what is now Botswana , plundering and killing many of the Tswana people in the way. They also took large numbers of captives north with them, finally settling north of the Zambezi River in Barotseland , where they conquered
13230-478: The late 1830s the Swazi launched a raid against the Pedi Kingdom, which repelled them. The Mfecane began in the interior regions of Central Southern Africa in the late 18th century with the displacement of Khoekhoe and San peoples by slave and cattle raiders from the expanding Dutch Cape Colony . Arriving in the middle and lower Orange River regions, they competed with local Batwsana peoples, beginning
13365-437: The late eighteenth century to the mid-nineteenth century, but scholars often focus on an intensive period from the 1810s to the 1840s. Traditional estimates for the death toll range from 1 million to 2 million; however, these numbers are controversial, and some recent scholars revise the mortality figure significantly downward and attribute the root causes to complex political, economic, and environmental developments. The Mfecane
13500-598: The leadership of Moshoeshoe . Separately, facing violence and starvation, Sebetwane 's BaFokeng , Tsooane's MaPhuting, and Nkarahanye's BaHlakoana fled their homes. The three joined forces in 1823 to take the BaThlaping town of Dithakong , whose access to water kept it rich in grain and cattle despite the overall drought. The BaThlaping repelled the invasion on 24 June with the aid of a mounted force of Griqua, inflicting heavy casualties and killing Tsooane and Nkarahanye. In 1825, Mpangazita's followers dispersed after he
13635-412: The level of development in the area. Although there are different political structures to the local authorities, effectively the urban councils are municipalities and the rural councils are the tinkhundla. There are twelve municipalities and 55 tinkhundla. Each inkhundla has a development committee ( bucopho ) elected from the various constituency chiefdoms in its area for a five-year term. Bucopho bring to
13770-521: The long established clans of the country known to the Swazi as Emakhandzambili (those found ahead). Eswatini derives its name from a later king named Mswati II . KaNgwane , named for Ngwane III, is an alternative name for Eswatini, the surname of whose royal house remains Nkhosi Dlamini . Nkhosi curiously means "king" in Ethiopian Semitic languages. Mswati II was the greatest of the fighting kings of Eswatini, and he greatly extended
13905-585: The mid-to-late 1700s. The local Tembe and Mabhudu-Tembe competed for control, absorbing or expelling some of their neighboring polities. The abakwaDlamini , who would later form the Swazi Kingdom , were one such group put to flight by the conflict. The mid-to-late 1700s also saw the rise of the Nxumalo and Nyambose chiefdoms between the Phongolo and Thukela rivers, which would eventually become
14040-703: The most important properties which reveal it as a Bantu language, are its noun gender and concord systems. The grammatical gender system does not encode sex gender, and indeed, Bantu languages in general are not grammatically marked for gender. Another well-known property of the Bantu languages is their agglutinative morphology. Additionally, they tend to lack any grammatical case systems, indicating noun roles almost exclusively through word order. Swazi Kingdom Eswatini ( / ˌ ɛ s w ɑː ˈ t iː n i / ESS -wah- TEE -nee ; Swazi : eSwatini [ɛswáˈtʼiːni] ), formally
14175-401: The nation's most important events. The Swazi population faces major health issues: HIV/AIDS and (to a lesser extent) tuberculosis is widespread. Twenty-eight percent of the adult population is HIV-positive. As of 2018, Eswatini has the 12th-lowest life expectancy in the world , at 58 years. The population of Eswatini is young. As of 2018, people aged 14 years or younger constitute 35% of
14310-450: The nation's rich biological diversity. These areas comprise about 5% of the country's land area. Eswatini has over 820 species of vertebrates and over 2400 species of plants, with many endemic species. This diversity suggests Eswatini is globally important for biodiversity conservation. Land degradation and conversion to other land uses are the major threats to biodiversity, including plantation agriculture (legal and illegal), bush-clearing,
14445-634: The new Zulu king. These chaotic events prompted the secession of a segment of the subject abakwaQwabe nation, though they were dispersed in late 1829 by a Mpondo attack south of the Mzimkhulu. By the late 1820s the power struggles between the Mzimkhulu and Mzimvubu Rivers had produced two victors: the Mpondo Kingdom and the Bhaca Chiefdom. Several weaker polities again relocated, with some moving north, others moving south, and yet others to
14580-514: The official name was changed from Kingdom of Swaziland to Kingdom of Eswatini, mirroring the name commonly used in Swazi. Eswatini is a developing country that is classified as having a lower-middle income economy. As a member of the Southern African Customs Union and the Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa , its main local trading partner is South Africa; to ensure economic stability, Eswatini's currency,
14715-699: The other hand, Doke & Mofokeng claims that the tendency of many Sesotho speakers to say for example ke ronngwe [kʼɪʀʊŋ̩ŋʷe] instead of ke romilwe [kʼɪʀuˌmilʷe] when forming the perfect of the passive of verbs ending in -ma [mɑ] (as well as forming their perfects with -mme [m̩me] instead of -mile [mile] ) is "a relic of the extinct Tlokwa dialect". According to the South African National Census of 2011 , there were almost four million first language Sesotho speakers recorded in South Africa – approximately eight per cent of
14850-530: The population. Most Sesotho speakers in South Africa reside in Free State and Gauteng . Sesotho is also the main language spoken by the people of Lesotho , where, according to 1993 data, it was spoken by about 1,493,000 people, or 85% of the population. The census fails to record other South Africans for whom Sesotho is a second or third language. Such speakers are found in all major residential areas of Metropolitan Municipalities – such as Johannesburg , and
14985-550: The position of Member of Parliament, Constituency Headman ( Indvuna ), and the Constituency Executive Committee ( Bucopho ). The minimum number of nominees is four and the maximum is ten. Primary elections also take place at the chiefdom level. It is by secret ballot . During the primary elections, the voters are given an opportunity to elect the member of the executive committee (bucopho) for that particular chiefdom. Aspiring members of parliament and
15120-577: The region. By the start of the 19th century, the most powerful Tswana chiefdom, the Bahurutse, were increasingly being challenged by the Bangwaketse. Moshoeshoe I gathered the mountain clans together in an alliance against the Zulus. Fortifying the easily defended hills and expanding his reach with cavalry raids, he fought against his enemies with some success, despite not adopting the Zulu tactics, as many clans had done. The territory of Moshoeshoe I became
15255-459: The roots of the conflicts lay in the labour needs of Portuguese slave traders operating out of Delagoa Bay, Mozambique and European settlers in the Cape Colony . The resulting pressures led to forced displacement , famine, and war in the interior, allowing waves of Afrikaner settlers to colonize large swaths of the region. Cobbing's views were echoed by historian Dan Wylie, who argued that colonial-era white writers such as Isaacs had exaggerated
15390-643: The rule of Ngwane V until the outbreak of the Second Boer War in October 1899. King Ngwane V died in December 1899, during incwala , after the outbreak of the Second Boer War. His successor, Sobhuza II , was four months old. Swaziland was indirectly involved in the war with various skirmishes between the British and the Boers occurring in the country until 1902. In 1903, after the British victory in
15525-529: The rural areas which are the regional administration at the regional level, tinkhundla and chiefdoms. Decisions are made by full council based on recommendations made by the various sub-committees. The town clerk is the chief advisor in each local council or town board. There are twelve declared urban areas, comprising two city councils, three town councils and seven town boards. The main cities and towns in Eswatini are Manzini , Mbabane , Nhlangano and Siteki which are also regional capitals. Eswatini's economy
15660-482: The sea. The deal was negotiated by the governments of South Africa and Swaziland, but was met by popular opposition in the territory meant to be transferred. The territory had been claimed by Sobhuza II as part of the Swazi monarchs' traditional realm, and the South African government hoped to use the area as a buffer zone against guerrilla infiltration from Mozambique . (The South African government responded to
15795-474: The second since the promulgation of the constitution, was elected in 2013. The king then reappointed Sibusiso Dlamini as prime minister for the third time. On 19 April 2018, Mswati III announced that the Kingdom of Swaziland had been renamed as the Kingdom of Eswatini, reflecting the extant Swazi name for the state eSwatini , to mark the 50th anniversary of Swazi independence. The name Eswatini means "land of
15930-705: The spectrum of areas eligible for conservation support (which practice bona-fide conservation management), the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) established a new category for informal, or non-gazetted, conservation areas in 2018. These are now called OECMs, or Other Effective Conservation Measures. The SNPAS Project adopted this OECM terminology and began certifying informal conservation areas in Eswatini in 2021. There are known to be 507 bird species in Eswatini, including 11 globally threatened species and four introduced species, and 107 mammal species native to Eswatini, including
16065-695: The spread of alien and invasive plants, and unsustainable resource harvesting; major land fragmentation is evident. Eswatini is a signatory to the Convention on Biological Diversity , the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species ( CITES ), and the United National Framework Convention on Climate Change. There are three main government ministries responsible for national biodiversity management:
16200-407: The status of political parties. The first election under the constitution took place in 2008. Members of Parliament (MPs) were elected from 55 constituencies (also known as tinkhundla ). These MPs served five-year terms which ended in 2013. In 2011, Swaziland suffered an economic crisis which was caused by reduced Southern African Customs Union (SACU) receipts. This caused the government to request
16335-409: The time. This was followed by fierce discourse in the early 1990s prompted by Cobbing's hypothesis. Many agree that Cobbing's analysis offered several key breakthroughs and insights into the nature of early Zulu society. The historian Elizabeth Eldredge challenged Cobbing's thesis on the grounds that there is scant evidence of the resumption of the Portuguese slave trade out of Delagoa Bay before 1823,
16470-555: The weakening power of the British administration and the possibility of the incorporation of Swaziland into the Union of South Africa . The constitution for independent Swaziland was promulgated by Britain in November 1963 under the terms of which a Legislative Council and an Executive Council were established. This development was opposed by the king's Swazi National Council ( Liqoqo ). Despite such opposition, elections took place, and
16605-516: The western Tswana polities. Mzilikazi suffered another major raid from the Griqua leader Berend Berends in 1831, but again managed to decimate the loot-laden attackers. In 1832 it was the Zulu Kingdom's turn to raid the Ndebele, but for the most part they were successfully repelled. Mzilikazi relocated after the Zulu attack, settling in the Bahurutshe's upper Marico territory. The Bahurutshe response
16740-405: Was alleged to have waged near-genocidal wars that depopulated the land and sparked a chain reaction of violence as fleeing groups sought to conquer new lands. Since the latter half of the 20th century, this interpretation has fallen out of favor among scholars due to a lack of historical evidence. The Mfecane resulted from the complex interplay of pre-existing trends of political centralization with
16875-442: Was an increasing political and wealth disparity within and between polities, particularly in concern to productive land and food stores. Political centralization became problematic in the early 1800s when deep drought (aggravated by the atmospheric effects of volcanic eruptions in 1809 and 1815) struck Southeastern Africa. Whereas previous droughts hadn't caused serious famine, the unequal distribution of land and food stores lessened
17010-429: Was announced in December 2001 to draft a new constitution; several members of this team were reported to be close to the royal family. Nominations take place at the chiefdoms. On the day of nomination, the name of the nominee is raised by a show of hand, and the nominee either accepts or rejects the nomination. If accepted, the nominee must have the support of at least ten members of that chiefdom. The nominations are for
17145-520: Was cast off, Moshoeshoe's forces successfully raided the abaThembu in 1829, greatly enriching his kingdom and allowing it to recruit large numbers of followers from returning refugees. To the south of Moshoeshoe's territory, small San polities eked out independent livelihoods, while others joined Morosi 's Phuthi polity to raid abaThembu, Cape Colonists, and others. Notably, San groups developed new styles of rock art during this period of change. Also between 1827 and 1828, Mzilikazi's Ndebele relocated to
17280-465: Was chosen over two other popular variations Setlokwa and Setaung and that these two still exist as "dialects" of modern Sesotho. The inclusion of Setlokwa in this scenario is confusing, as the modern language named "Setlokwa" is a Northern Sesotho language spoken by descendants of the same Batlokwa whose attack on the young chief Moshoeshoe's settlement during Lifaqane (led by the famous widow Mmanthatisi ) caused them to migrate to present-day Lesotho. On
17415-514: Was divided, with some submitting to Ndebele rule and others relocating to Bathlaping and Griqua territory. In 1834 Jan Bloem launched a second raid against the Ndebele, which ended similarly to his first attack. Mzilikazi responded by maintaining the southern reaches of his domain as an unpopulated buffer zone. Around 1821, the Zulu general Mzilikazi of the Khumalo clan defied Shaka, and set up his own kingdom. He quickly made many enemies: not only
17550-537: Was granted self-government. A British high commissioner had some of the functions of a governor, but the Swazis were self-governing on their reserves, and the territory was not deemed to be a British possession. Sobhuza's official coronation as king was in December 1921 after the regency of Labotsibeni, after which he led an unsuccessful deputation to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council of
17685-543: Was killed in a war against Matiwane 's amaNgwane . The amaNgwane proceeded to control much of the Caledon River environs, raiding and displacing Sotho and Tswana neighbors. The mid-1820s saw Sebetwane dominate the upper Molopo region and Moletsane's Bataung people heavily raid the Vaal River. The eastern interior, however, was coming under the domination of Mzilikazi's Ndebele Kingdom. His forces raided
17820-457: Was later accused of slave trading). In 1988, Rhodes University professor Julian Cobbing advanced a different hypothesis on the rise of the Zulu state; he contended the accounts of the Mfecane were a self-serving, constructed product of apartheid -era politicians and historians. According to Cobbing, apartheid-era historians had mischaracterised the Mfecane as a period of internally induced Black-on-Black destruction. Instead, Cobbing argued that
17955-719: Was now sustaining raids by Boer, Griqua, and Korana parties. By the early 1820s the instability spread north of the Orange River. In 1822 AmaHlubi under the command of Mpangazita crossed the Drakensberg mountains and attacked Queen MmaNthatisi's Batlôkwa people . Put to flight, MmaNthatisi's followers survived off of pillage before resettling west of the Caledon River in 1824. The Sotho polities of this area sometimes held conflictual relations with these Batlôkwa newcomers, and they began coalescing in 1824 under
18090-485: Was removed by the Liqoqo and replaced by Queen Mother Ntfombi Tfwala . Mswati III , the son of Ntfombi, was crowned in 1986 as king and ngwenyama of Swaziland. An attempt to transfer neighbouring parts of South Africa , more precisely parts of the Zulu homeland of KwaZulu and parts of the Swazi homeland of KaNgwane , to Swaziland in 1982 was never realized. This would have given land-locked Swaziland access to
18225-403: Was viewed as the administrative head of state and the latter as a spiritual and national head of state, with real power counterbalancing that of the king, but during the long reign of Sobhuza II, the role of the ndlovukati became more symbolic. The king appoints the prime minister from the legislature and also appoints a majority of senators and a minority of legislators to the lower chamber of
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