116-556: The amaMfengu (in the Xhosa language Mfengu , plural amafengu ) were a group of Xhosa clans whose ancestors were refugees that fled from the Mfecane in the early-mid 19th century to seek land and protection from the Xhosa. These refugees were assimilated into the Xhosa nation and were officially recognized by the then king, Hintsa . The word Fengu comes from the old Xhosa word which
232-672: A United States House of Representatives resolution urging the President not to recognise Transkei, the South African government intensely lobbied lawmakers to oppose the bill. Arbitrary and unrecognized amateur radio call signs were created for the independent states and QSL cards were sent by operators using them, but the International Telecommunication Union never accepted these stations as legitimate. Each TBVC state extended recognition to
348-462: A noun must agree with the noun according to its gender. Agreements usually reflect part of the original class with which the word agrees. The word order is subject–verb–object , like in English. The verb is modified by affixes to mark subject, object, tense, aspect and mood. The various parts of the sentence must agree in both class and number. The Xhosa noun consists of two essential parts,
464-529: A Bantu language (approximately tied with Yeyi ), with one count finding that 10% of basic vocabulary items contained a click. Xhosa is part of the branch of Nguni languages , which also include Zulu , Southern Ndebele and Northern Ndebele , called the Zunda languages. Zunda languages effectively form a dialect continuum of variously mutually intelligible varieties. Xhosa is, to a large extent, mutually intelligible with Zulu and with other Nguni languages to
580-599: A Rharhabe, who replaced Fengu leader Chief Justice Thandathu Jongilizwe Mabandla in 1973, however Sebe subsequently abandoned his anti-Fengu rhetoric. Christianity played a major role in the survival of the endangered Fengu people after the Mfecane wars. After contact with the Gcaleka Xhosa, who were hostile towards them, the Fengu people found comfort in Rev. John Ayliff, the missionary at Butterworth who devoted himself to
696-446: A diminishing extent ), and Xhosa is taught as a subject, both for native and for non-native speakers. Literary works, including prose and poetry, are available in Xhosa, as are newspapers and magazines. The South African Broadcasting Corporation broadcasts in Xhosa on both radio (on Umhlobo Wenene FM) and television, and films, plays and music are also produced in the language. The best-known performer of Xhosa songs outside South Africa
812-646: A focal point for the Gcaleka armies attacks and came under immense military pressure. His military genius in the frontier wars earned him considerable renown and he was widely acknowledged leader in the Cape Colony . His courage was also frequently referred to. He famously once jumped onto a wounded and charging lion, holding it by the tail, overpowered it and killed it. He was invited to London in 1889, where Queen Victoria requested to meet him to thank him for his services. He reputedly told her "We have never feared
928-517: A freehold village known as Fingo in Grahamstown in 1855. The educated Fengu went as far as Port Elizabeth , where they worked at the harbour and established urban communities in Cape Town, where they also continued practising as Christians. Since the day the 'Fingo-Oath' was sworn, 14 May has been celebrated as Fingo Emancipation Day and a ceremony held under the old milkwood tree where the oath
1044-465: A general blueprint for the stages of constitutional development of all homelands (except Transkei) from the establishment of Territorial Authorities up to full independence. By 1984, all ten homelands in South Africa had attained self-government and four of them ( Transkei , Boputhatswana , Venda and Ciskei ) had been declared fully independent between 1976 and 1981. The following table shows
1160-402: A lesser extent. Nguni languages are, in turn, classified under the much larger abstraction of Bantu languages . Xhosa is the most widely distributed African language in South Africa, though the most commonly spoken South African language is Zulu. Xhosa is the second most common Bantu home language in South Africa. As of 2003 approximately 5.3 million Xhosa-speakers, the majority, live in
1276-496: A number of affairs like land tenure, agriculture, education up to the level of primary school teachers' training, health services and social welfare and pensions) on the basis of ethnicity only and no longer based on geographically defined areas. Building upon institutions that had already been in existence since 1925 and 1962, respectively, representative authorities were also instituted for the white and Coloured population groups. No such representative authorities were established for
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#17327721705321392-507: A part of its policy of apartheid . The term, first used in the late 1940s, was coined from Bantu (meaning "people" in some of the Bantu languages ) and -stan (a suffix meaning "land" in the Persian language and some Persian-influenced languages of western , central , southern Asia and Eastern Europe ). It subsequently came to be regarded as a disparaging term by some critics of
1508-501: A principle remained in force, and the apartheid regime went on to rely on the Bantustans as one of the main pillars of its policy in dealing with the black population. Until 1990, attempts continued to urge self-governing homelands to opt for independence (e.g. Lebowa, Gazankulu and KwaZulu) and on occasion the governments of self-governing homelands (e.g. KwaNdebele) themselves expressed interest in obtaining eventual independence. It
1624-483: A region whose primary language is Xhosa: (said to a group of people) Xhosa-speaking people have inhabited coastal regions of southeastern Africa since before the 16th century. They refer to themselves as the amaXhosa and their language as isiXhosa . Ancestors of the Xhosa migrated to the east coast of Africa and came across Khoisan -speaking people; "as a result of this contact, the Xhosa people borrowed some Khoisan words along with their pronunciation, for instance,
1740-551: A rejection of the Bantustan system in general: the goal of the apartheid regime during the second half of the 1980s was to "modernize" the organisational framework of apartheid while leaving its fundamental principles, including the homelands, unchanged. The government was forced to accept the permanent presence of blacks in urban areas as well as the practical unfeasibility of the hitherto very strict forms of "influx control" (replacing it by "softer" means of control), not to mention
1856-530: A role in South African politics since their abolition. Some had entered their own parties into the first non-racial election while others joined the ANC. Mangosuthu Buthelezi was chief minister of his KwaZulu homeland from 1976 until 1994. In post-apartheid South Africa he has served as president of the Inkatha Freedom Party and Minister of Home Affairs. Bantubonke Holomisa , who was a general in
1972-399: A society relatively free from racial discrimination. The leaders of the Bantustans, despite their collaboration with the apartheid regime, occasionally criticized the South African government's racial policies and called for the repeal or softening of apartheid laws (most of which were repealed in nominally independent states). Various plans for a federal solution were at times mooted, both by
2088-484: A spirit of friendship and collaboration. In their own areas, black citizens would enjoy full rights." Verwoerd argued that the Bantustans were the "original homes" of the black peoples of South Africa. In 1951, the government of Daniel François Malan introduced the Bantu Authorities Act to establish "homelands" allocated to the country's black ethnic groups. These amounted to 13% of the country's land,
2204-488: A time. On the other hand, only 40% of Bophuthatswana's population worked outside the 'homeland' because the homeland was able to create industrial sites like Zone 15 and Babelegi. The homelands were extremely unpopular among the urban black population, many of whom lived in squalor in slum housing . Their working conditions were often equally poor, as they were denied any significant rights or protections in South Africa proper. The allocation of individuals to specific homelands
2320-445: A vowel, e.g. is andla / iz andla (hand/hands). The placeholder N in the prefixes iN - and iiN - is a nasal consonant which assimilates in place to the following consonant (producing an im- before vowels), but is typically absent in loanwords. Before monosyllabic stems in some words. Verbs use the following prefixes for the subject and object: The following is a list of phrases that can be used when one visits
2436-544: A white man, and we have never lifted our hand against any of your people." He founded the Transkei General Council, and served as a juror and commissioner for the Cape Colony in later life As Fengu history switched from military defense to political struggle, so the great Fengu politician and activist John Tengo Jabavu rose in prominence after Bikitsha's military leadership ended. Jabavu edited
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#17327721705322552-556: Is "ukumfenguza" which in the old Xhosa dialect meant to wander. The Fengu people are of a confederation of clans from the Natal province near the Embo river, these clans include Miya, Ndlangisa, Gatyeni, Bhele, Tolo and Tshezi clans. During the 6th Frontier War , they were promised independence from the oppressive Xhosa government by the Cape Colony and it was proposed that they would be given their own land which would be called Fingoland ,
2668-489: Is a Nguni language, indigenous to Southern Africa and one of the official languages of South Africa and Zimbabwe . Xhosa is spoken as a first language by approximately 8 million people and as a second language in South Africa, particularly in Eastern Cape , Western Cape , Northern Cape and Gauteng , and also in parts of Zimbabwe and Lesotho . It has perhaps the heaviest functional load of click consonants in
2784-659: Is a hymn written in Xhosa by Enoch Sontonga in 1897. The single original stanza was: Additional stanzas were written later by Sontonga and other writers, and the original verse was translated into Sotho and Afrikaans, as well as English. In The Lion King and its reboot , Rafiki the sagely mandrill chants in Xhosa. In the Marvel Cinematic Universe films Captain America: Civil War , Black Panther , Avengers: Infinity War , Avengers: Endgame , and Black Panther: Wakanda Forever ,
2900-440: Is assumed that the restructuring of these territories into the divisions of Butterworth, Idutywa, Centani, Nqamakwe, Tsomo and Willowvale dates from these times. Originally farmers, the Fengu people had quickly built themselves schools, created and edited their own newspapers, and translated international literature into their language. The reason that the Fengu people were able to adapt so effectively to changing circumstances (like
3016-417: Is feature-matching its noun: /iN- + ɬɛ/ → intle"beautiful" (of a class 9 word like inja "dog") When aspirated clicks ( ⟨ch, xh, qh⟩ ) are prenasalised, the silent letter ⟨k⟩ is added ( ⟨nkc, nkx, nkq⟩ ) to prevent confusion with the nasal clicks ⟨nc, nx, nq⟩ , and are actually distinct sounds. The prenasalized versions have a very short voicing at
3132-644: Is long in the penultimate syllable and short in the last syllable. Xhosa is a tonal language with two inherent phonemic tones: low and high. Tones are rarely marked in the written language, but they can be indicated ⟨a⟩ [à] , ⟨á⟩ [á] , ⟨â⟩ [áà] , ⟨ä⟩ [àá] . Long vowels are phonemic but are usually not written except for ⟨â⟩ and ⟨ä⟩ , which are each sequence of two vowels with different tones that are realized as long vowels with contour tones ( ⟨â⟩ high–low = falling, ⟨ä⟩ low–high = rising). Xhosa
3248-494: Is rich in uncommon consonants . Besides pulmonic egressive sounds, which are found in all spoken languages, it has a series of ejective stops and one implosive stop. It has 18 click consonants (in comparison, Juǀʼhoan , spoken in Botswana and Namibia , has 48, and Taa , with roughly 4,000 speakers in Botswana , has 83). There is a series of six dental clicks , represented by the letter ⟨c⟩ , similar to
3364-509: Is still productive, as is shown by palatalization before the passive suffix /-w/ and before diminutive suffix /-ana/. This process can skip rightwards to non-local syllables (i.e. uku-sebenz-is-el + wa -> ukusetyenziselwa "be used for"), but does not affect morpheme-initial consonants (i.e. uku-bhal+wa -> ukubhalwa "to be written", instead of illicit *ukujalwa). The palatalization process only applies once, as evidenced by ukuphuphumisa+wa -> ukuphuphunyiswa "to be made to overflow", instead of
3480-475: The Bantu homelands was intended to draw a parallel with the creation of Pakistan and India (" Hindustan "), which had taken place just a few months before at the end of 1947, and was coined by supporters of the policy. However, it quickly became a pejorative term, with the National Party preferring the term "homelands". As Nelson Mandela explained in a 1959 article: The newspapers have christened
3596-497: The Bantu Education Act, 1953 . At present, Xhosa is used as the main language of instruction in many primary schools and some secondary schools, but is largely replaced by English after the early primary grades, even in schools mainly serving Xhosa-speaking communities. The language is also studied as a subject in such schools. The language of instruction at universities in South Africa is English (or Afrikaans, to
Fengu people - Misplaced Pages Continue
3712-631: The Bantu Homelands Citizenship Act of 1970, the government stripped black South Africans of their South African citizenship, depriving them of their few remaining political and civil rights in South Africa, and declared them to be citizens of these homelands. The government of South Africa declared that four of the South African Bantustans were independent— Transkei , Bophuthatswana , Venda , and Ciskei (the so-called "TBVC States"), but this declaration
3828-571: The Bantustans of Transkei and Ciskei , established by the Apartheid government. Ciskei was the scene of political rivalry between the Rharhabe and the Fengu as a result of the apartheid policy of "retribalisation", which resulted in resentment toward the historically better educated, and relatively economically advantaged Fengu, and this rivalry culminated in the election of Lennox Sebe ,
3944-472: The Cape Colony in the frontier wars against their former oppressors. In this capacity, they won several victories against their Xhosa enemies (particularly the Gcaleka Xhosa), and through shrewd and successful management of regional trade, formed a developed and materially successful nation. In addition, many bought farms and started businesses in the small towns that were springing up in that part of
4060-823: The Cape Province for the Xhosa nation. KwaZulu, for the Zulu nation in the Province of Natal , was headed by a member of the Zulu royal family chief Mangosuthu ("Gatsha") Buthelezi in the name of the Zulu king. Lesotho and Eswatini (formerly known as Swaziland) were not Bantustans; they have been independent countries and former British protectorates. These countries are mostly or entirely surrounded by South African territory and are almost totally dependent on South Africa. They have never had any formal political dependence on South Africa and were recognised as sovereign states by
4176-779: The Eastern Cape , followed by the Western Cape (approximately 1 million), Gauteng (671,045), the Free State (246,192), KwaZulu-Natal (219,826), North West (214,461), Mpumalanga (46,553), the Northern Cape (51,228), and Limpopo (14,225). There is a small but significant Xhosa community of about 200,000 in Zimbabwe . Also, a small community of Xhosa speakers (18,000) live in Quthing District , Lesotho . The Xhosa language employs 26 letters from
4292-580: The Himba and San peoples (mainly occupying their former homelands of Kaokoland and Bushmanland). These ethnic second-tier governments were de facto suspended in May 1989, at the start of the transition to independence , and de jure abolished on 21 March 1990 (the day Namibia became independent) in accordance with Schedule 8 of the Constitution of Namibia . The Basters lobbied unsuccessfully to maintain
4408-605: The Inkatha Freedom Party , which was the ruling party of KwaZulu. But since especially the African National Congress made it clear that the principles of "one man - one vote" and a unitary state were non-negotiable, confederal schemes were eventually dropped. Because of this, the Inkatha Freedom Party threatened to boycott the April 1994 general election that ended apartheid and decided only in
4524-505: The Latin alphabet ; some of the letters have different pronunciations from English. Phonemes not represented by one of the 26 letters are written as multiple letters. Tone, stress, and vowel length are parts of the language but are generally not indicated in writing. Xhosa has an inventory of ten vowels: [a] , [ɛ~e] , [i] , [ɔ~o] and [u] written a , e , i , o and u in order, all occurring in both long and short . The /i/ vowel
4640-695: The Maluti a Phofung council where it is the largest opposition party. The Ximoko Party , which ruled Gazankulu, has a presence in local government in Giyani . Similarly, the former KwaNdebele chief minister George Mahlangu and others formed the Sindawonye Progressive Party which is one of the major opposition parties in Thembisile Hani Local Municipality and Dr JS Moroka Local Municipality (encompassing
4756-509: The Natives Resettlement Act, 1954 that reshaped South African society such that whites would be the demographic majority. The creation of the homelands or Bantustans was a central element of this strategy, as the long-term goal was to make the Bantustans independent. As a result, blacks would lose their South African citizenship and voting rights, allowing whites to remain in control of South Africa. The term "Bantustan" for
Fengu people - Misplaced Pages Continue
4872-608: The Ninth Frontier War , broke out after a bar fight between Fengu and Gcaleka guests, at a Fengu wedding. Many Fengu people were Cape citizens by this time, so the Cape Colony took a partisan view of the war, which brought it into conflict with the Gcaleka forces. The Cape government appointed the Fengu Captain Bikitsha to co-lead the Cape's forces (composed primarily of Fengu, Thembu and Boer commandos) in
4988-607: The Xhosa . After some years of oppression by the Gcaleka Xhosa (who called the Fengu people their "dogs")in the 1820s, they formed an alliance with the Cape government in 1835 and Sir Benjamin d'Urban invited 17,000 to settle on the banks of the Great Fish River in the region that later became known as the Ciskei . Some scholars, including Timothy Stapleton and Alan Webster, argue that the traditional narrative of
5104-551: The bantustans , and the remainder of the land was called the Police Zone . Forthwith, all non-white people employed in the Police Zone became migrant workers , and pass laws were established to police movement in and out of the bantustans. The combined territory of all bantustans was roughly equal in size to the Police Zone. However, all bantustans were predominantly rural and excluded major towns. All harbours, most of
5220-491: The first democratic elections began) in terms of section 1(2) and Schedule 1 of the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1993 ("Interim Constitution"). The drive to achieve this was spearheaded by the African National Congress (ANC) as a central element of its programme of reform. Reincorporation was mostly achieved peacefully, although there was some resistance from the local elites, who stood to lose out on
5336-454: The Bantustan governments and by opposition parties in South Africa as well as circles inside the white ruling National Party. In January 1985, State President P. W. Botha declared that blacks in South Africa proper would no longer be deprived of South African citizenship in favour of Bantustan citizenship and that black citizens within the independent Bantustans could reapply for South African citizenship; F. W. de Klerk stated on behalf of
5452-434: The Bantustans differed from those in South Africa proper. The South African elite often took advantage of these differences, for example by constructing large casinos , such as Sun City in the homeland of Bophuthatswana . Bophuthatswana also possessed deposits of platinum , and other natural resources, which made it the wealthiest of the Bantustans. However, the homelands were only kept afloat by massive subsidies from
5568-465: The Bantustans with the complete end of apartheid in South Africa in 1994. Beginning in 1913, successive white-minority South African governments established "reserves" for the black population in order to racially segregate them from the white population , similar to the creation of Indian reservations in the United States. The Natives Land Act, 1913 , limited blacks to seven percent of
5684-749: The Bantustans. The government made clear that its ultimate aim was the total removal of the black population from South Africa. Connie Mulder , the Minister of Plural Relations and Development, told the House of Assembly on 7 February 1978: If our policy is taken to its logical conclusion as far as the black people are concerned, there will be not one black man with South African citizenship ... Every black man in South Africa will eventually be accommodated in some independent new state in this honourable way and there will no longer be an obligation on this Parliament to accommodate these people politically. But this goal
5800-467: The Cape frontier. The Fengu people did not take part in the great cattle-killing in 1857, which devastated the Xhosa people . While the Xhosa slaughtered their own cattle and burnt their crops, many of the Fengu people instead bought the Xhosa cattle at very low prices, only to resell them at a profit during the subsequent famine. They also were recorded as producing large excesses of grain at this time for their starving neighbours. The famine induced by
5916-459: The Fengu became the first Bantu in South Africa to use ploughs, demonstrated to them by the missionaries, and also the first to plant wheat. A small group moved to Tsitsikamma and carried their Christian customs with them. The Fengu, who were most Wesleyans, soon moved to Grahamstown where they fought on the side of the British in the eighth frontier war of 1850 to 1853 and were rewarded with land in
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#17327721705326032-484: The Fengu people as refugees of the Mfecane is in fact a lie constructed by colonial missionaries and administrators. They question the existence of the Fengu people as a distinct group prior to colonial contact, instead positing that the term was coined by the British government in the Cape Colony to describe a collection of Xhosa defectors, migrant laborers, and labor captives. They subsequently became notable allies of
6148-599: The Fengu people have intermarried with other ethnic groups particularly with the Xhosa and Zulu. Many are now often considered – especially by outsiders – to be ethnically Xhosa and others Zulu , because of their common language and some similar customs. A considerable number have a mixed racial background, especially in and around the Cape provinces. Xhosa language Xhosa ( / ˈ k ɔː s ə / KAW -sə , / ˈ k oʊ s ə / KOH -sə ; Xhosa pronunciation: [kǁʰóːsa] ), formerly spelled Xosa and also known by its local name isiXhosa ,
6264-413: The Fengu were no longer in a position to provide the only leadership in the Cape's Black community. Over the next few decades, divisions persisted between Jabavu's movement Imbumba ("The Union") and Rubusana's South African Native National Congress . However the rivalry was finally laid to rest and there was union under the newly named African National Congress . One of the early aims of this movement
6380-636: The Fengus three 'reserves' on which they could settle with the proviso that each man would work for three months a year. After 36 months of labour, each one would be given an individual title". More Fengu leaders moved to Southern Rhodesia as Wesleyan Methodists, Salvationists, Anglicans, Presbyterians and Lutherans. In 2000, the Mbembesi Fengu/Xhosa community celebrated their centenary in Zimbabwe. The Fengu in Zimbabwe, who are Xhosa speakers, are
6496-634: The Idutywa Reserve, Fingoland and Galekaland (Gcalekaland). Fingoland lay the borderlands in the far south of the Transkei, just north of the Kei River . Following their annexation by the British however, they were restructured into the divisions of Butterworth, Tsomo and Ngqamakwe for Fingoland; Centani and Willowvale for Galekaland; and Idutywa for the Idutywa Reserve. Today virtually all
6612-600: The Motsweda Ba hurutshe-Boo-Manyane tribe of the Tswana and head of Bophuthatswana is president of the United Christian Democratic Party , effectively a continuation of the ruling party of the homeland. Oupa Gqozo , the last ruler of Ciskei , entered his African Democratic Movement in the 1994 elections but was unsuccessful. The Dikwankwetla Party , which ruled Qwaqwa , remains a force in
6728-569: The National Party during the 1987 general election that "every effort to turn the tide [of black workers] streaming into the urban areas failed. It does not help to bluff ourselves about this. The economy demands the permanent presence of the majority of blacks in urban areas... They cannot stay in South Africa year after year without political representation." In March 1990, de Klerk, who succeeded Botha as State President in 1989, announced that his government would not grant independence to any more Bantustans. However, These remarks were not meant as
6844-699: The Nationalists' plan as one for "Bantustans". The hybrid word is, in many ways, extremely misleading. It relates to the partitioning of India , after the reluctant departure of the British, and as a condition thereof, into two separate States, Hindustan and Pakistan. There is no real parallel with the Nationalists' proposals, for (a) India and Pakistan constitute two completely separate and politically independent States, (b) Muslims enjoy equal rights in India ; Hindus enjoy equal rights in Pakistan , (c) Partition
6960-488: The South African government; for instance, by 1985 in Transkei , 85% of the homeland's income came from direct transfer payments from Pretoria . The Bantustans' governments were invariably corrupt and little wealth trickled down to the local populations, who were forced to seek employment as "guest workers" in South Africa proper. Millions of people had to work in often appalling conditions, away from their homes for months at
7076-566: The TBVC states) were intended to be fully sovereign. These areas received little attention from the colonial and later South African governments however, and were still very undeveloped. This greatly decreased these states' ability to govern and made them very reliant on the South African government. Throughout the existence of the independent Bantustans, South Africa remained the only country to recognise their independence. The South African government lobbied for their recognition. In 1976, leading up to
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#17327721705327192-484: The Whites. The term "Bantustan" is therefore a complete misnomer, and merely tends to help the Nationalists perpetrate a fraud. "While apartheid was an ideology born of the will to survive or, put differently, the fear of extinction, Afrikaner leaders differed on how best to implement it. While some were satisfied with segregationist policies placing them at the top of a social and economic hierarchy, others truly believed in
7308-601: The apartheid state apparatus and radical pro-apartheid groups like the Afrikaner Weerstandsbeweging . With the demise of the apartheid regime in South Africa in 1994, all Bantustans (both nominally independent and self-governing) were dismantled and their territories reincorporated into the Republic of South Africa with effect from 27 April 1994 (the day on which the Interim Constitution, which formally ended apartheid, came into force and
7424-440: The apartheid-era government's homelands . The Pretoria government established ten Bantustans in South Africa, and ten in neighbouring South West Africa (then under South African administration), for the purpose of concentrating the members of designated ethnic groups, thus making each of those territories ethnically homogeneous as the basis for creating autonomous nation states for South Africa's different black ethnic groups . Under
7540-423: The cattle-killing effectively brought much of the armed resistance in the eastern Cape to an end. Over a decade of relative peace and economic development, which peaked in the mid-1870s, was brought to an end by a series of devastating droughts across the Transkei, which began to place severe strain on intertribal relations. Their severity increased up until 1877, when the last major war that the Fengu people fought,
7656-534: The click sounds of the Khoisan languages". The Bantu ancestor of Xhosa did not have clicks, which attests to a strong historical contact with a Khoisan language that did. An estimated 15% of Xhosa vocabulary is of Khoisan origin. John Bennie was a Scottish Presbyterian missionary and early Xhosa linguist. Bennie, along with John Ross (another missionary), set up a printing press in the Tyhume Valley and
7772-496: The colonial threat. The Fengu had no paramount-chief as other tribes did, but the Cape Commander, Veldman Bikitsha, was a Fengu and held authority over the Fengu's military capacity. Many Fengu have also subsequently intermarried with other ethnic groups, particularly with the Xhosa and Zulu, while some still live in Zimbabwe. The region that was later known as the Transkei was originally divided into territories known as
7888-568: The coming of capitalism and urbanisation) was because they lacked a fixed tribal social-structure and hierarchy (having presumably lost it in their earlier flight from the Zulu). This state of social change and flexibility allowed them to quickly adjust to the European expansion, learn and adapt new techniques, and take advantage of the upheavals that followed. Other tribes were often suspicious of outside ideas and consequently resisted any change to meet
8004-473: The concept of 'separate but equal'. For the latter, the ideological justification for the classification, segregation, and denial of political rights was the plan to set aside special land reserves for black South Africans, later called 'bantustans' or 'homelands'. Each ethnic group would have its own state with its own political system and economy, and each would rely on its own labour force. These independent states would then coexist alongside white South Africa in
8120-424: The development of different "joint" institutions charged with mutual consultation, deliberation and a number of executive functions in relation to "general affairs" common to all population groups, insofar as these institutions would pose no threat to apartheid and the preservation of overall white rule. This "confederation" would include the so-called "common area"—meaning the bulk of South African territory outside of
8236-480: The era of Jabavu's leadership, as greater unity was encouraged. Nonetheless, some divisions remained. Jabavu's main political rival, Walter Rubusana , was Xhosa. Rubusana's rise in the 1890s was through the new Gcaleka-dominated South African Native National Congress and their newspaper Izwi Labantu ("The Voice of the People") which was financed by Cecil Rhodes . The rise of Xhosa institutions meant that Jabavu and
8352-434: The first newspapers to be written in the Xhosa and from 1876 he edited Isigidimi samaXhosa ("The Xhosa Messenger"). From 1884 he edited Imvo Zabantsundu ("Black Opinion"). He wrote on the threat of Afrikaner nationalism , equal rights for South Africa's black population, and in support of women's rights . The rivalry between the Fengu and the Gcaleka Xhosa, which had previously broken out into war, declined during
8468-668: The first printed works in Xhosa came out in 1823 from the Lovedale Press in the Alice region of the Eastern Cape. But, as with any language, Xhosa had a rich history of oral traditions from which the society taught, informed, and entertained one another. The first Bible translation was in 1859, produced in part by Henry Hare Dugmore . The role of indigenous languages in South Africa is complex and ambiguous. Their use in education has been governed by legislation, beginning with
8584-436: The following vowel. Fricatives become affricated and, if voiceless, they become ejectives as well: mf is pronounced [ɱp̪fʼ] , ndl is pronounced [ndɮ] , n+hl becomes ntl [ntɬʼ] , n+z becomes ndz [ndz] , n + q becomes [n͡ŋǃʼ] etc. The orthographic b in mb is the voiced plosive [mb] . Prenasalisation occurs in several contexts, including on roots with the class 9 prefix /iN-/, for example on an adjective which
8700-632: The homeland of Transkei from 1987, has served as the president of the United Democratic Movement since 1997. General Constand Viljoen , an Afrikaner who served as chief of the South African Defence Force , sent 1,500 of his militiamen to protect Lucas Mangope and to contest the termination of Bophuthatswana as a homeland in 1994. He founded the Freedom Front in 1994. Lucas Mangope, former chief of
8816-483: The homelands was expanded in 1959 with the passage of the Bantu Self-Government Act , which set out a plan called " Separate Development ". This enabled the homelands to establish themselves in the long term as self-governing territories and ultimately as nominally fully "independent" states. This process was to be achieved in a series of four major steps for each homeland: This general framework
8932-450: The homelands—under continued white-minority rule and limited power-sharing arrangements with the segregated Coloured and Indian / Asian population groups, the independent and self-governing homelands as well as possible additional black entities in urban areas. From 1990 to 1994, these "confederational" ideas were in principle still entertained by large parts of the National Party (and in various forms also by certain parties and groups of
9048-467: The illicit alternative, *ukuphutshunyiswa. In keeping with many other Bantu languages , Xhosa is an agglutinative language, with an array of prefixes and suffixes that are attached to root words . As in other Bantu languages, nouns in Xhosa are classified into morphological classes , or genders (15 in Xhosa), with different prefixes for both singular and plural. Various parts of speech that qualify
9164-487: The impossibility of a total removal of all blacks to the homelands even in the long run. It was hoping to "pacify" the black urban population by developing various plans to confer upon them limited rights at the local level (but not the upper levels of government). Furthermore, the urban (and rural) residential areas remained segregated based on race in accordance with the Group Areas Act . "Separate development" as
9280-489: The independence of their homelands: a majority was sceptical, remained cautious and avoided a definite decision, some outright rejected it due to their rejection of "separate development" and a professed commitment to "opposing apartheid from within the system", whilst others believed that nominal independence could serve to consolidate their power bases (to an even higher degree than the status they enjoyed as rulers of self-governing homelands) and presented an opportunity to build
9396-514: The international community from the time they were granted their independence by the UK in the 1960s. In the 1960s, South Africa , which was administering South West Africa under a League of Nations mandate , came under increased international pressure regarding its minority white rule over the majority black population. The solution envisaged by South Africa—the Odendaal Plan —was to separate
9512-554: The land in the country. In 1936 the government planned to raise this to 13.6 percent of the land, but it was slow to purchase land and this plan was not fully implemented. When the National Party came to power in 1948, Minister for Native Affairs (and later Prime Minister of South Africa ) Hendrik Frensch Verwoerd built on this, introducing a series of "grand apartheid" measures such as the Group Areas Acts and
9628-429: The language spoken in the fictional African nation of Wakanda is Xhosa. This came about because South African actor John Kani , a native of the Eastern Cape province who plays Wakandan King T'Chaka, speaks Xhosa and suggested that the directors of the fictional Civil War incorporate a dialogue in the language. For Black Panther , director Ryan Coogler "wanted to make it a priority to use Xhosa as much as possible" in
9744-546: The last minute to participate in them after concessions had been made to them and as well as to the still-ruling National Party and several white opposition groups. In the period leading up to the elections in 1994, several leaders in the independent and self-governing homelands (e.g. in Boputhatswana ), who did not wish to relinquish their power, vehemently opposed the dismantling of the Bantustans and, in doing so, received support from white far-right parties, sections of
9860-579: The number of black citizens of South Africa. The process of creating the legal framework for this plan was completed by the Black Homelands Citizenship Act of 1970, which formally designated all black South Africans as citizens of the homelands, even if they lived in "white South Africa", and cancelled their South African citizenship, and the Bantu Homelands Constitution Act of 1971, which provided
9976-511: The onset which then releases in an ejective, like the prenasalized affricates, while the phonemically nasal clicks have a very long voicing through the consonant. When plain voiceless clicks ( ⟨c, x, q⟩ ) are prenasalized, they become slack voiced nasal ( ⟨ngc, ngx, ngq⟩ ). /ǀ̃/ , /ǁ̃/ , /ǃ̃/ /ǀ̃/ , /ǁ̃/ , /ǃ̃/ Palatalisation is a change that affects labial consonants whenever they are immediately followed by /j/ . While palatalisation occurred historically, it
10092-484: The opportunities for wealth and political power provided by the homelands. The dismantling of the homelands of Bophuthatswana and Ciskei was particularly difficult. In Ciskei, South African security forces had to intervene in March 1994 to defuse a political crisis. From 1994, most parts of the country were constitutionally redivided into new provinces . Nevertheless, many leaders of former Bantustans or Homelands have had
10208-441: The oral occlusion is then very short in stops, and it usually does not occur at all in clicks. Therefore, the absolute duration of voicing is the same as in tenuis stops. (They may also be voiced between vowels in some speaking styles.) The more notable characteristic is their depressor effect on the tone of the syllable. When consonants are prenasalised , their pronunciation and spelling may change. The murmur no longer shifts to
10324-507: The other independent Bantustans while South Africa showed its commitment to the notion of TBVC sovereignty by building embassies in the TBVC capitals. The Bantustans were generally poor, with few local employment opportunities. However, some opportunities did exist for advancement for blacks and some advances in education and infrastructure were made. The four Bantustans which attained nominal independence (Transkei, Bophuthatswana, Venda, and Ciskei) repealed all apartheid legislation. Laws in
10440-536: The peoples involved were Khoisan , not Bantu, and the Rehoboth Basters are a complex case. Of these ten South West African homelands, only three were granted self-government (comparable to the Bantustans in South Africa) between 1973 and 1976. In July 1980, the system was changed to one of separate governments ("representative authorities") as second-tier administrative units (responsible for
10556-472: The prefix and the stem. Using the prefixes, nouns can be grouped into noun classes, which are numbered consecutively, to ease comparison with other Bantu languages. Which they call 'amahlelo' The following table gives an overview of Xhosa noun classes, arranged according to singular-plural pairs. Before monosyllabic stems, e.g. ili so (eye), ulu hlu (list). is - and iz - replace isi - and izi - respectively before stems beginning with
10672-560: The pronunciation in IPA on the left and the orthography on the right: In addition to the ejective affricate [tʃʼ] , the spelling ⟨tsh⟩ may also be used for either of the aspirated affricates [tsʰ] and [tʃʰ] . The breathy voiced glottal fricative [ɦ] is sometimes spelled ⟨h⟩ . The ejectives tend to be ejective only in careful pronunciation or in salient positions and, even then, only for some speakers. Otherwise, they tend to be tenuis (plain) stops. Similarly,
10788-522: The railway network and the tarred road infrastructure, all larger airports, the profitable diamond areas and the national parks were situated in the Police Zone. Beginning in 1968, following the 1964 recommendations of the commission headed by Fox Odendaal , ten homelands similar to those in South Africa were established in South West Africa (present-day Namibia ). The term "Bantustan" is somewhat inappropriate in this context, since some of
10904-425: The remainder being reserved for the white population. The homelands were run by cooperative tribal leaders, while uncooperative chiefs were forcibly deposed. Over time, a ruling black elite emerged with a personal and financial interest in the preservation of the homelands. While this aided the homelands' political stability to an extent, their position was still entirely dependent on South African support. The role of
11020-399: The script, and provided dialect coaches for the film's actors. Bantustan A Bantustan (also known as a Bantu homeland, a black homeland, a black state or simply known as a homeland; Afrikaans : Bantoestan ) was a territory that the National Party administration of South Africa set aside for black inhabitants of South Africa and South West Africa (now Namibia ), as
11136-401: The sound represented in English by "tut-tut" or "tsk-tsk"; a series of six alveolar lateral clicks , represented by the letter ⟨x⟩ , similar to the sound used to call horses; and a series of alveolar clicks , represented by the letter ⟨q⟩ , that sounds somewhat like a cork pulled from a bottle. The following table lists the consonant phonemes of the language, with
11252-512: The southwestern portion of Eastern Xhosaland , in the Eastern Cape of South Africa. The name amaMfengu does not translate as "wanderers" as many believe and the Mfengu people – like the Bhaca , Bhele , Hlubi and Dlamini peoples – was formed from the tribes that were broken up and dispersed by Shaka and his Zulu armies in the Mfecane wars. Most of them fled westwards and settled amongst
11368-553: The subject of the first ever PHD thesis written in Xhosa by Dr Hleze Kunju titled IsiXhosa ulwimi lwabantu abangesosininzi eZimbabwe: Ukuphila nokulondolozwa kwaso (Xhosa as a Minority Language in Zimbabwe: Survival and Maintenance) For much of the 19th and early 20th century, the Fengu were led by Captain Veldtman Bikitsha. Initially a constable who was of great service to the Cape in the 8th Frontier War, he
11484-416: The tenuis (plain) clicks are often glottalised, with a long voice onset time , but that is uncommon. The murmured clicks, plosives and affricates are only partially voiced, with the following vowel murmured for some speakers. That is, da may be pronounced [dʱa̤] (or, equivalently, [d̥a̤] ). They are better described as slack voiced than as breathy voiced. They are truly voiced only after nasals, but
11600-401: The territory of the former homeland). The homelands are listed below with the ethnic group for which each homeland was designated. Four were nominally independent (the so-called TBVC states of the Transkei , Bophuthatswana , Venda and the Ciskei ). The other six had limited self-government: The first Bantustan was the Transkei, under the leadership of Chief Kaiser Daliwonga Matanzima in
11716-417: The time-frame of the institutional and legal development of the ten South African Bantustans in light of the above-mentioned four major steps: In parallel with the creation of the homelands, South Africa's black population was subjected to a massive programme of forced relocation. It has been estimated that 3.5 million people were forced from their homes from the 1960s through the 1980s, many being resettled in
11832-506: The tribe for the next 30 years. In 1835, Ayliff led 17 000 and 22 000 head of cattle to Peddie On 14 May 1835, the Fengu people gathered under an old milkwood tree in the Peddie district, in the presence of Rev. John Ayliff, and swore an oath to obey the Queen, to accept Christianity, and to educate their children. This agreement became known as the 'Fingo-Oath'. Soon after accepting Christianity,
11948-487: The war. They inflicted a string of crushing defeats on the enemy and dispersed their armies in the space of only three weeks. The ingratitude of Cape Colony governor Sir Henry Bartle Frere , who promptly humiliated the Cape's Fengu allies by forcibly disarming them, caused the Fengu to begin to identify more with the Xhosa, partly also as a reaction to increasing persecution from the Colonial authorities. The Fengu lived in
12064-548: The white and the non-white population, grant self-government to the isolated black territories, and thus make whites the majority population in the vast remainder of the country. Moreover, it was envisaged that, by separating each ethnic group and confining people by law to their restricted areas, discrimination by race would automatically disappear. The inspiration for the Odendaal Plan came, in part, from South African anthropologists. The demarcated territories were called
12180-429: The white liberal opposition), but their overtly race-based foundations gradually became less pronounced in the course of the negotiations to end apartheid, and the focus shifted to securing "minority rights" (having in mind primarily the white population in particular) after an expected handover of power to the black majority. Federalist plans also met with support from some homeland governments and parties, most importantly
12296-420: Was Miriam Makeba , whose Click Song #1 (Xhosa Qongqothwane ) and "Click Song #2" ( Baxabene Ooxam ) are known for their large number of click sounds. In 1996 , the literacy rate for first-language Xhosa speakers was estimated at 50%. Nkosi Sikelel' iAfrika is part of the national anthem of South Africa , national anthem of Tanzania and Zambia , and the former anthem of Zimbabwe and Namibia . It
12412-441: Was also contemplated in circles of the ruling National Party to create additional nominally independent entities in the urban areas in the form of "independent" black "city-states". The long-term vision during this time was the creation of some form of a multi-racial "confederation of South African states" with a common citizenship, but separated into racially defined areas. Plans were made (of which only very few were realised) for
12528-543: Was finally to lay to rest "the aberrations of the Xhosa-Fingo feud." British Kaffraria had been annexed to the Cape Colony in 1866. Barring the brief revolt in 1877 and 1878, when the Gcaleka turned upon their Fengu neighbours, the British annexation of land east of the Kei River proceeded fitfully, but generally unimpeded. In September 1879 this was followed by Idutywa Reserve and Fenguland, and Gcalekaland in 1885. It
12644-487: Was later promoted and served as a de facto military leader of the Cape's Fengu commandos. Prime Minister John Molteno , who held a very high opinion of Bikitsha, appointed him as a leader of the Cape forces (together with Chief Magistrate Charles Griffith) in the 9th Frontier War in 1877, where he swiftly won a string of brilliant victories against the Gcaleka . Throughout the 9th Frontier war, Bikitsha and his location were
12760-436: Was never recognised by anti-apartheid forces in South Africa or by any international government. Other Bantustans (like KwaZulu , Lebowa , and QwaQwa ) were assigned "autonomy" but never granted "independence". In South West Africa, Ovamboland , Kavangoland , and East Caprivi were declared to be self-governing, with a handful of other ostensible homelands never being given autonomy. A new constitution effectively abolished
12876-563: Was not achieved. Only a minority (about 39% in 1986 ) of South Africa's black population lived in the Bantustans; the remainder lived in South Africa proper, many in townships , shanty-towns and slums on the outskirts of South African cities. Bantustans within the borders of South Africa were classified as "self-governing" or "independent". In theory, self-governing Bantustans had control over many aspects of their internal functioning but were not yet sovereign nations. Independent Bantustans (Transkei, Bophuthatswana, Venda and Ciskei; also known as
12992-409: Was not in each case followed in a clear-cut way, but often with a number of intermediate and overlapping steps. The homeland of Transkei served in many regards as a "testing ground" for apartheid policies; its institutional development started already before the 1959 act, and its attainment of self-government and independence were therefore implemented earlier than for the other homelands. This plan
13108-444: Was often quite arbitrary. Many individuals were assigned to homelands they did not originate from, and the designation of an individual as part of a particular ethnic group was often arbitrary, especially for individuals with mixed ancestry. Bantustan leaders were widely perceived as collaborators with the apartheid system, although some were successful in acquiring a following. Most homeland leaders had an ambivalent stance regarding
13224-437: Was stepped up under Verwoerd's successor as prime minister, John Vorster , as part of his "enlightened" approach to apartheid. However, the true intention of this policy was to fulfill Verwoerd's original plan to make South Africa's blacks nationals of the homelands rather than of South Africa—thus removing the few rights they still had as citizens. The homelands were encouraged to opt for independence, as this would greatly reduce
13340-455: Was submitted to and approved by both parties, or at any rate fairly widespread and influential sections of each. The Government's plans do not envisage the partitioning of this country into separate, self-governing States. They do not envisage equal rights, or any rights at all, for Africans outside the reserves. Partition has never been approved of by Africans and never will be. For that matter it has never been really submitted to or approved of by
13456-659: Was sworn. After the occupation of Matebeleland in 1893, the Ndebele took up arms in an effort to re-establish the Ndebele State in 1896. Cecil John Rhodes brought a group of Fengu fighters (who had fought on the side of the British) and were known as "the Cape Boys" in 1896. After the war, Rhodes tried further to 'neutralise' the 'war-like' Ndebele people by inviting more Fengu people into Southern Rhodesia. "He promised
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