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98-662: Dakhil Aidan was born on April 14, 1881, in the city of Amarah in Maysan Governorate , southern Iraq . He belonged to the Manduia lineage, a long line of Mandaean religious leaders. He was a fluent speaker of the Arabic and Mandaic languages. His father, Sheikh Aidan (also known as Adam, son of Mhatam Yuhana), died in Nasiriyah when he was 12 years old. In 1904, he became a tarmida (junior priest) in Nasiriyah at

196-655: A country rife with factionalism led Saddam to pursue both massive repression and the improvement of living standards. Following the end of the First Iraqi–Kurdish War in November 1970, Saddam signed a peace treaty with Mustafa Barzani, which agreement granted autonomy to the Kurds. However the failure of the agreement and Arabization program in oil-rich regions around Kirkuk and Khanaqin in Northern Iraq,

294-569: A good instinct for what the " Arab street " demanded, following the decline in Egyptian leadership brought about by the trauma of Israel's six-day victory in the 1967 war, the death of the pan-Arabist hero, Gamal Abdul Nasser, in 1970, and the "traitorous" drive by his successor, Anwar Sadat, to sue for peace with the Jewish state. Saddam's self-aggrandizing propaganda, with himself posing as the defender of Arabism against Zionist or Persian intruders,

392-529: A law degree at Cairo Law School (1962–1963). It is possible that Saddam visited the U.S. embassy in Cairo during his exile, and some evidence suggests that he was "in frequent contact with US officials and intelligence agents." A former high-ranking U.S. official told historians Marion Farouk–Sluglett and Peter Sluglett that Iraqi Ba'athists, including Saddam, "had made contact with the American authorities in

490-528: A member of the Badr Organization, was killed in a bombing. Badr fighters blamed the Mahdi Army for the killing. After the brother of Sheikh Fadel al-Bahadli, the Mahdi Army commander in the province, was captured, the Mahdi Army captured least three police stations and other state facilities on October 20, 2006, resulting in at least 22 deaths, three of which were children. On June 18, 2008,

588-533: A new cemetery for Jews in Baghdad. In 1998, on the day of Jewish festival of Sukkot , a Palestinian entered the Baghdad synagogue and shot four people to death, including two Jews. The preparator was arrested and executed in 1999. A cabinet meeting chaired by him condemned the attack. Saddam also said that: "Anyone who hurt the Jews in Baghdad would pay a heavy price". Saddam was also recognized for safeguarding

686-554: A pivotal role in the negotiations leading up to the Algiers Agreement, representing Iraq's interests. Saddam Hussein's growing influence within the Iraqi government allowed him to shape Iraq's approach and stance during the negotiation process. Following the agreement, Iraq and Iran restored full diplomatic relations and exchanged ambassadors, representing a significant diplomatic breakthrough. The Algiers Agreement emphasized

784-524: A purported effort to capture Iran 's Arab-majority Khuzestan province , thwart Iranian attempts to export its 1979 revolution to the Arab world , and end Iranian calls for the overthrow of the Sunni-dominated Ba'athist regime . The Iran–Iraq War ended in stalemate after nearly eight years in a ceasefire , after a million people were killed and Iran suffered economic losses of $ 561 billion. At

882-489: A temperature of 53.0 °C (127.4 °F) was recorded. 31°50′N 47°09′E  /  31.833°N 47.150°E  / 31.833; 47.150 Saddam Hussein Saddam Hussein (28 April 1937 – 30 December 2006) was an Iraqi politician and revolutionary who served as the fifth president of Iraq from 1979 to 2003. He also served as prime minister of Iraq from 1979 to 1991 and later from 1994 to 2003. He

980-569: Is a feeling that at least three million Iraqis are watching the eleven million others." —"A European diplomat", quoted in The New York Times , April 3, 1984. Iraqi society fissures along lines of language, religion and ethnicity. The Ba'ath Party, secular by nature, adopted Pan-Arab ideologies which in turn were problematic for significant parts of the population. Following the Iranian Revolution of 1979, Iraq faced

1078-493: Is generally accepted that Egypt, in some capacity, was involved in the assassination attempt, and that "[t]he United States was working with Nasser on some level." Sale and Darwish's account has been disputed by historian Bryan R. Gibson who concludes that available U.S. declassified documents show that "while the United States was aware of several plots against Qasim, it had still adhered to [a] nonintervention policy." On

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1176-760: Is not believed to have received any training outside of Iraq, as he was a late addition to the assassination team. Richard Sale of United Press International (UPI), citing former United States diplomat and intelligence officials, Adel Darwish , and other experts, reported that the unsuccessful assassination attempt on Qasim was a collaboration between the United States Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) and Egyptian intelligence . Pertinent contemporary records relating to CIA operations in Iraq have remained classified or heavily redacted, thus "allow[ing] for plausible deniability." It

1274-645: The 1941 Iraqi coup d'état and Anglo-Iraqi War , and often mentored and told tales of his exploits to the young Saddam. In 1958, a year after Saddam had joined the Ba'ath party, army officers led by General Abd al-Karim Qasim overthrew Faisal II of Iraq in the 14 July Revolution . The Ba'ath Party was originally represented in Qasim's cabinet; however, Qasim—reluctant to join Nasser's newly formed union between Egypt and Syria —sided with various groups within Iraq (notably

1372-567: The 1991 Iraqi uprisings of the Kurds and Shias , which sought to gain independence or overthrow the government. Saddam adopted an anti-American stance and established the Faith Campaign , pursuing an Islamist agenda in Iraq. In 2003, the United States and its coalition of allies invaded Iraq , accusing Saddam of developing weapons of mass destruction and of having ties with al-Qaeda , accusations that turned out to be false. After

1470-588: The Al-Bu Nasir tribe, which was descended from Ahmed Bin Hussein 'Nasiruddin', a descendant of Husayn ibn Ali . The Al-Bu Nasir tribe had settled in Tikrit after migrating from Yemen . Saddam's name means "the fighter who stands steadfast". His father died before his birth. This made Saddam's mother, Subha, so depressed that she unsuccessfully attempted to abort her pregnancy and commit suicide . His mother

1568-761: The Ba'ath Party in 1957, and later in 1966 the Iraqi and Baghdad-based Ba'ath parties. He played a key role in the 17 July Revolution and was appointed vice president of Iraq by Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr . During his time as vice president, Saddam nationalized the Iraq Petroleum Company , diversifying the Iraqi economy . He presided over the Second Iraqi–Kurdish War (1974–1975) and the Algiers Agreement which settled territorial disputes along

1666-710: The Chaldean Catholic minority , was selected by Saddam to serve as Iraq’s Deputy Prime Minister from 1979 to 2003 and Foreign Minister from 1983 to 1991. A close advisor to him, Aziz was also appointed as a member of the Revolutionary Command Council and the Regional Command of the Iraqi Branch of the Ba'ath Party . Michel Aflaq , the founder of Ba'athism , was also a Christian . Cardinal Fernando Filoni , who

1764-460: The Iran–Iraq border . Following al-Bakr's resignation in 1979, Saddam formally took power, although he had already been the de facto head of Iraq for several years. Positions of power in the country were mostly filled with Sunni Arabs, a minority that made up about a fifth of the population . In 1979, upon taking office, Saddam purged the Ba'ath Party . He ordered the invasion of Iran in 1980 in

1862-685: The Iraqi Army launched a major operation in Amarah to wrest the city from the control of militias loyal to Muqtada al-Sadr and to reduce the flow of weapons and Shiite militants transiting through the city from nearby Iran . The operation, codenamed Promise of Peace (Bashir Al Salem in Arabic), followed significant Iraqi Army operations in Basra , the Sadr City neighborhood of Baghdad , and Mosul in

1960-634: The Mandaean minority in Iraq. Mandaeans were given state protection under his government. As a sign of respect, the Mandaean Book of John's first copy translation into Arabic was given to Saddam. After this he vowed to construct temples for the Mandaeans, with quoting, "Iraqis have religious freedom, whether they are Muslims, Christians or Sabaeans ". The Sabian–Mandaean Mandi in Baghdad

2058-493: The Second Iraqi–Kurdish War . In Iraq, especially compared to other middle-eastern countries such as Iran , Turkey , and Syria , Iraqi Kurds were treated well under the regime of Saddam when compared to the situation in neighbouring countries, with the Kurdish language being tolerated under Saddams regime in education, and media, and spoken as a official language. Saddam also had multiple Kurdish ministers and generals, with

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2156-761: The Tigris River waterway south of Baghdad about 50 km (31 mi) from the border with Iran . It lies at the northern tip of the marshlands between the Tigris and Euphrates . It had a population of about 340,000 in 2002, 420,000 in 2005, and 1,100,000 in 2020. Amarah is the seat of the Maysan Province. A major trading center for the surrounding agricultural area, the city is known for woven goods and silverware. The staple economic goods produced in northern Amarah are winter cereals such as wheat and barley, as well as animals such as sheep and horses. The city

2254-499: The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). At the center of this strategy was Iraq's oil. On 1 June 1972, Saddam oversaw the seizure of international oil interests, which, at the time, dominated the country's oil sector. A year later, world oil prices rose dramatically as a result of the 1973 energy crisis , and skyrocketing revenues enabled Saddam to expand his agenda. With

2352-664: The social democrats and the Iraqi Communist Party ) that told him such an action would be dangerous. Instead, Qasim adopted a wataniyah policy of "Iraq First". To strengthen his own position within the government, Qasim also had an alliance with the Iraqi Communist Party, which was opposed to the notion of pan-Arabism. His policies angered several pan-Arab organisations, including the Ba'ath Party, which later began plotting to assassinate Qasim at Al-Rashid Street on 7 October 1959 and take power. Saddam

2450-428: The 90's Iraqi-healthcare decreased in its effectiveness with the sanctions restricting basic-medical equipment and supplies from getting into Iraq. Nationalization of oil was implemented, which aimed to achieve economic independence. By the late 1970s, Iraq experienced significant economic growth, with a budget reserve surpassing US$ 35 billion. The value of 1 Iraqi dinar was worth more than 3 dollars, making it one of

2548-416: The Amarah area. Many were killed and crudely buried in a mass grave outside the city. Saddam Hussein also resorted to a crude tactic of draining the marshes surrounding Amarah. Furthermore, Saddam constructed a number of dams in an effort to cut off the water supply to the area. Throughout the 90's, the town's population swelled with refugees from the marshes. Saddam Hussein occasionally neglected service to

2646-462: The Ba'ath Party had a large following in Syria at the time, but in 1955 there were fewer than 300 Ba'ath Party members in Iraq, and it is believed that Saddam's primary reason for joining the party as opposed to the more established Iraqi nationalist parties was his familial connection to Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr and other leading Ba'athists through his uncle. Revolutionary sentiment was characteristic of

2744-595: The Ba'ath Party in response to the Marxist takeover of the Syrian Ba'ath earlier that year, resulting in the Party's formalized split into two separate factions . Saddam then created a Ba'athist security service, which he alone controlled. In July 1968, Saddam participated in a bloodless coup led by Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr that overthrew Abdul Rahman Arif , Salam Arif's brother and successor. While Saddam's role in

2842-402: The Ba'ath Party's civilian wing upon his return. Unlike during the Qasim years, Saddam remained in Iraq following Arif's anti-Ba'athist purge in November 1963, and became involved in planning to assassinate Arif. In marked contrast to Qasim, Saddam knew that he faced no death penalty from Arif's government and knowingly accepted the risk of being arrested rather than fleeing to Syria again. Saddam

2940-473: The Ba'ath party. Relationships with fellow party members were carefully cultivated, and Saddam soon accumulated a powerful circle of support within the party. In 1979, al-Bakr started to make treaties with Syria, also under Ba'athist leadership, that would lead to unification between the two countries. Syrian President Hafiz al-Assad would become deputy leader in a union, and this would drive Saddam to obscurity. Saddam acted to secure his grip on power. He forced

3038-521: The Ba'athists in the rural areas. After nationalizing foreign oil interests, Saddam supervised the modernization of the countryside, mechanizing agriculture on a large scale, and distributing land to peasant farmers. The Ba'athists established farm cooperatives and the government also doubled expenditures for agricultural development in 1974–1975. Saddam's welfare programs were part of a combination of "carrot and stick" tactics to enhance support for Saddam. The state-owned banks were put under his thumb. Lending

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3136-526: The Baghdad Metro project in 1980, though it did not ultimately come to fruition, due to troubles concerning the Iran-Iraq War . Throughout the 24 years of his presidency, Saddam built more than 100 palaces across the country. With a Muslim majority, Iraq consists of a multi-ethnic, multi-religious and multi-sectarian population. During his rule, numerous religious and ethnic groups existed in

3234-577: The British handed power over to the Iraqi government, a power struggle erupted between Shi'ite loyalists of the Mahdi Army and Badr Brigades . A number of assassinations occurred in the city between the rival factions. According to Sheik Abdul Kareem al-Muhamadawi, the latest dispute between the Shiite militias began after Qassim al-Tamimi, the chief of investigations for the provincial police force and

3332-658: The Gulf War, Iraq was sanctioned by the UN , which caused economic decline. In 1995, then U.S. president Bill Clinton introduced Oil-for-Food Programme , in which Iraq sold oil on the world market in exchange for humanitarian needs. The program was accepted by the Ba'athist government in 1996. By 1995, GDP of Iraq dropped to US$ 9 billion from US$ 44.36 billion in 1990. Iraq had lost around US$ 170 billion of oil revenues. The economy of Iraq began improving in 2000, as its GDP increased to U$ 23.73 billion by 2000. Saddam pursued to beautify

3430-401: The Kurds to an extent, with Kurds being allowed to speak Kurdish in schools, on television, and even in newspapers, with textbooks being translated for the Kurdish regions, and Kurds in Iraq being able to elect a Kurdish representative to go to Baghdad. Saddam had already signed a deal in 1970 to grant the Kurds autonomy , but Mustafa Barazani eventually disagreed with the deal, which incited

3528-788: The Mandaean community in Australia, while the 1935 Ginza was given to Lamea Abbas Amara in San Diego, United States. Ganzibra Dakhil Aidan died on June 24, 1964, at his home in the Al-Dora suburb of Baghdad . Dakhil Aidan's sister's daughter was the poet Lamea Abbas Amara , who lived much of her life in San Diego , United States. When he was near his death in June 1964, he bequeathed some of his manuscripts to Lamea Abbas Amara. His father

3626-672: The Middle East in the 1950s and 1960s, with the collapse of the monarchies of Iraq , Egypt , and Libya . Nasser inspired nationalists throughout the Middle East by fighting the British and the French during the Suez Crisis of 1956 , modernizing Egypt, and uniting the Arab world politically. Saddam's father-in-law, Khairallah Talfah , was reported to have served five years in prison for his role in fighting against Great Britain in

3724-526: The Shatt al-Arab, which had been under Iranian control. Saddam Hussein aimed to secure Iraq's territorial claims, particularly regarding the Shatt al-Arab waterway, which had been a longstanding source of contention between Iran and Iraq. Both parties recognized each other's sovereignty and territorial integrity, affirming the principle of non-aggression. The Algiers Agreement called for the restoration of full diplomatic relations between Iran and Iraq, including

3822-586: The ability to pass their citizenship down to their children even if they married a non-Iraqi, which Iraqi women no longer have the ability to do. Women's education no longer was a luxury, with women having the same opportunities as men in higher education. He also introduced social security programs, with the notable parts of the program consisting of disability benefits, with disabled people in Iraq becoming eligible for financial assistance. It also introduced healthcare coverage, ensuring Iraqi citizens had access to healthcare and medication when needed, Although during

3920-696: The age of 10, Saddam fled the family and returned to live in Baghdad with his uncle Khairallah Talfah , who became a fatherly figure to Saddam. Talfah, the father of Saddam's future wife, was a devout Sunni Muslim and a veteran of the 1941 Anglo-Iraqi War between Iraqi nationalists and the United Kingdom , which remained a major colonial power in the region. Talfah was appointed the mayor of Baghdad during Saddam's time in power, until his notorious corruption compelled Saddam to force him out of office. Later in his life, relatives from his native city became some of his closest advisors and supporters. Under

4018-463: The age of 23. In 1917, he was appointed as Ganzibra (head-priest) of the Mandaean community. Dakhil Aidan also became a member of the Nasiriyah municipal council in 1920. His malwasha ( Mandaean baptismal name ) was Mhatam Zihrun, son of Adam (Mhatam Zihrun bar Adam). Dakhil Aidan was also a copyist. In 1898 and also in 1935, he copied the Ginza Rabba . The 1898 Ginza is currently used by

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4116-438: The ailing al-Bakr to resign on 16 July 1979, and formally assumed the presidency. Saddam convened an assembly of Ba'ath party leaders on 22 July 1979. During the assembly, which he ordered videotaped, Saddam claimed to have found a fifth column within the Ba'ath Party and directed Muhyi Abdel-Hussein to read out a confession and the names of 68 alleged co-conspirators. These members were labelled "disloyal" and were removed from

4214-560: The cities of Iraq. He launched various projects across the cities, beautifying it. Many monuments were constructed in Baghdad, such as the Al-Shaheed Monument and Monument to the Unknown Soldier , which helped in beautifying the city of Baghdad. Under his regime, Iraq engaged in rapid infrastructural development. Baghdad Airport was inaugurated in 1982, bearing his name "Saddam International Airport". He also proposed

4312-524: The city in retribution for its role in the uprising. The city also supported the efforts of Moqtada al-Sadr , whose father was also killed by Saddam. In May 1999, Ba'ath party militias and units of the Special Republican Guard conducted operations in the region. Local resistance forces reportedly repelled the operation. During the 2003 invasion of Iraq , the city made a final stand as a center of resistance to Saddam Hussein. The city

4410-665: The city proper. Throughout 2008 and 2009, over 2,000 US troops from the 1st Cavalry Division partnered with the Iraqi Army, police, and the Border Enforcement Brigade in the Province to defeat Shia extremism and interdict illicit arms smuggling across the Iranian border. Working closely with British investigators and Iraqi police, US troops also successfully detained 11 out of 17 individuals who were wanted for

4508-744: The city's first cinema in 1950. During the eight-year Iran–Iraq War , the eastern parts of the province became the site of several battles, notably Operation Before the Dawn launched by Iran. Since the Baghdad-Basra highway cut through the province, Iran targeted the area due to its strategic significance to the Iraqis. After the Persian Gulf War , Amarah was one of many sites during the 1991 uprisings in Iraq against Saddam Hussein . Many insurgents throughout Iraq retreated to safe havens in

4606-473: The council. In May 2009, the PC formally appointed a Dawa Party member to the governorship to replace the radical Sadrist leadership that had held power for years in the Province. Lihadh Al-Gazali , professor of clinical genetics, was born in Amarah in 1950 Amarah experiences a hot desert climate ( Köppen climate classification BWh ) with extremely hot and dry summers and cool, wetter winters. On July 31, 2020,

4704-402: The country. Saddam, contrary to popular belief, was not inherently sectarian. While he did place his close relatives in key security and military positions, he also promoted individuals from other communities and minorities to the highest levels of power in Iraq. His primary criterion for these appointments was unwavering loyalty to him and his regime. Muhammad Saeed al-Sahhaf , a Shia Muslim,

4802-645: The countryside and roughly two-thirds were peasants. This number would decrease quickly during the 1970s as global oil prices helped revenues to rise from less than a half billion dollars to tens of billions of dollars and the country invested into industrial expansion. He nationalised independent banks, eventually leaving the banking system insolvent due to inflation and bad loans. The oil revenue benefited Saddam politically. According to The Economist , "Much as Adolf Hitler won early praise for galvanizing German industry, ending mass unemployment and building autobahns, Saddam earned admiration abroad for his deeds. He had

4900-494: The coup was not hugely significant (except in the official account), Saddam planned and carried out the subsequent purge of the non-Ba'athist faction led by Prime Minister Abd ar-Razzaq an-Naif , whose support had been essential to the coup's success. According to a semi-official biography, Saddam personally led Naif at gunpoint to the plane that escorted him out of Iraq. Arif was given refuge in London and then Istanbul . Al-Bakr

4998-516: The coup. Ba'athist leaders were appointed to the cabinet and Abdul Salam Arif became president. Arif dismissed and arrested the Ba'athist leaders later that year in the November 1963 Iraqi coup d'état . Being exiled in Egypt at the time, Saddam played no role in the 1963 coup or the brutal anti-communist purge that followed; although he returned to Iraq after the coup, becoming a key organizer within

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5096-500: The diverse elements of Iraqi society and mobilizing mass support, he closely followed the administration of state welfare and development programs. Within just a few years, Iraq was providing unprecedented social services among Middle Eastern countries. Saddam established and controlled the "National Campaign for the Eradication of Illiteracy" and the campaign for "Compulsory Free Education in Iraq", and largely under his auspices,

5194-494: The end of the war, Saddam ordered the Anfal campaign against Kurdish rebels who sided with Iran, recognized by Human Rights Watch as an act of genocide . Later, Saddam accused his ally Kuwait of slant-drilling the Iraqi oil reserves and invaded the country , initiating the Gulf War (1990–1991), which ended in Iraq's defeat by a multinational coalition led by the United States . The United Nations subsequently placed sanctions against Iraq . Saddam brutally suppressed

5292-409: The era in Iraq and throughout the Middle East. In Iraq, progressives and socialists assailed traditional political elites (colonial-era bureaucrats and landowners, wealthy merchants and tribal chiefs, and monarchists). Moreover, the pan-Arab nationalism of Gamal Abdel Nasser in Egypt profoundly influenced young Ba'athists like Saddam. The rise of Nasser foreshadowed a wave of revolutions throughout

5390-418: The exchange of ambassadors. The agreement emphasized the importance of economic cooperation between the two countries, particularly in areas such as trade, transport, and joint development projects. The signing of the Algiers Agreement occurred during a period of relative stability in Iraq, with Saddam Hussein gradually consolidating power within the ruling Ba'ath Party. As Vice President, Saddam Hussein played

5488-416: The first half of 2008. During this time, the 4th Brigade of the US Army's 1st Cavalry Division established a semi-permanent presence in the province by constructing two large operating bases in the Province and several smaller company outposts. Specific within 4th Brigade, Amarah and its surrounding towns were covered by 2nd Battalion of the 7th Cavalry Regiment , which established FOB Garryowen just west of

5586-415: The government established universal free schooling up to the highest education levels; hundreds of thousands learned to read in the years following the initiation of the program. The government also supported families of soldiers, granted free hospitalization to everyone, and gave subsidies to farmers. Iraq created one of the most modernized public health systems in the Middle East, earning Saddam an award from

5684-405: The government issued a decree inviting Jews back to Iraq, who were expelled. The Israeli government panned the decree by calling it political propaganda. Only a few Jewish families returned to Iraq. Thus the decree failed in attracting large swaths of Jews. In 1972, Saddam signed a 15-year Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation with the Soviet Union . According to historian Charles R. H. Tripp ,

5782-460: The government. As the ailing, elderly al-Bakr became unable to execute his duties, Saddam took on an increasingly prominent role as the face of the government both internally and externally. He soon became the architect of Iraq's foreign policy and represented the nation in all diplomatic situations. He was the de facto leader of Iraq some years before he formally came to power in 1979. He slowly began to consolidate his power over Iraq's government and

5880-544: The grounds that the party should not have initiated the attempt on Qasim's life. At the same time, Aflaq secured seats in the Iraqi Ba'ath leadership for his supporters, one of them being Saddam. The assassins, including Saddam, all eventually escaped to Cairo , Egypt "where they enjoyed Nasser's protection for the remainder of Qasim's tenure in power." Saddam initially escaped to Syria and then to Egypt itself in February 1960, and he continued to live there until 1963, graduating from high school in 1961 and unsuccessfully pursuing

5978-415: The guidance of his uncle, he attended a nationalistic high school in Baghdad. After secondary school, Saddam studied at an Iraqi law school for three years, dropping out in 1957 at the age of 20 to join the revolutionary pan-Arab Ba'ath Party , of which his uncle was a supporter. During this time, Saddam apparently supported himself as a secondary school teacher. Ba'athist ideology originated in Syria and

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6076-417: The help of increasing oil revenues, Saddam diversified the largely oil-based Iraqi economy . Saddam implemented a national infrastructure campaign that made great progress in building roads, promoting mining, and developing other industries. The campaign helped Iraq's energy industries. Electricity was brought to nearly every city in Iraq, and many outlying areas. Before the 1970s, most of Iraq's people lived in

6174-730: The highest ranking one being Taha Yassin Ramadan , an Iraqi Kurd —was appointed by Saddam, largely due to his loyalty, as one of Iraq's three Vice Presidents. He was also made Deputy Secretary of the Regional Command of the Iraqi Branch of the Ba'ath Party and commander of the People's Army. Saddam himself personally enjoyed Kurdish culture, often wearing traditional Kurdish clothing in state visits to northern Iraq. Under Saddam's regime , substantial reforms in education and literacy took place, with Saddam Hussein introducing mandatory reading groups for adults, with punishments for not attending consisting of heavy fines, and even jail time. UNESCO awarded Iraq for having "Most effective literacy campaign in

6272-418: The hit team at a hospital; the calculating shrewdness that helped him save himself minutes before the police broke in leaving his wounded comrades behind; and finally the long trek of a wounded man from house to house, city to town, across the desert to refuge in Syria . Michel Aflaq , the leader of the Ba'athist movement, organized the expulsion of leading Iraqi Ba'athist members, such as Fuad al-Rikabi , on

6370-413: The importance of economic cooperation between Iraq and Iran, particularly in areas like trade and joint development projects. This agreement, while ultimately unable to prevent future hostilities, remained a notable diplomatic achievement for Iraq during Saddam Hussein's early political career. In 1976, Saddam rose to the position of general in the Iraqi armed forces, and rapidly became the strongman of

6468-454: The late 1950s and early 1960s." Army officers with ties to the Ba'ath Party overthrew Qasim in the Ramadan Revolution coup of February 1963; long suspected to be supported by the CIA, however, pertinent contemporary documents relating to the CIA's operations in Iraq have remained classified by the U.S. government, although the Ba'athists are documented to have maintained supportive relationships with U.S. officials before, during, and after

6566-427: The most notable economic expansions in the region. Saddam Hussein's regime aimed to diversify the Iraqi economy beyond oil. The government invested in various industries, including petrochemicals, fertilizer production, and textile manufacturing, to reduce dependence on oil revenues and promote economic self-sufficiency. By the 1970s, women employment rate also increased. Following the invasion of Kuwait which initiated

6664-501: The murder of British soldiers in Majr Al Khabir back in 2003. All 11 suspects faced murder charges in a Baghdad court. Provincial elections in January 2009 saw a dramatic shift in the balance of power in Amarah and Maysan Province in general. In an election widely recognized as both credible and legitimate, Maysan voters broke the six-year-long grip that Sadrist parties had on power in the Provincial Council resulting in an even split between Sadrist and Islamic Dawa Party affiliates in

6762-433: The new government by aiding attempts to strengthen and unify the Ba'ath party and taking a leading role in addressing the country's major domestic problems and expanding the party's following. Saddam actively fostered the modernization of the Iraqi economy and created a strong security apparatus to prevent coups within the power structure and insurrections apart from it. Ever concerned with broadening his base of support among

6860-454: The other hand, historian Kenneth Osgood writes that "the circumstantial evidence is such that the possibility of US–UAR collaboration with Ba'ath Party activists cannot be ruled out," concluding that "[w]hatever the validity of [Sale's] charges, at the very least currently declassified documents reveal that US officials were actively considering various plots against Qasim and that the CIA was building up assets for covert operations in Iraq." At

6958-401: The potentially hostile population. Membership in the Ba'ath Party remained open to all Iraqi citizens regardless of background, and repressive measures were taken against its opponents. The major instruments for accomplishing this control were the paramilitary and police organizations. Beginning in 1974, Taha Yassin Ramadan (himself a Kurdish Ba'athist), a close associate of Saddam, commanded

7056-444: The prospect of régime change from two Shi'ite factions ( Dawa and SCIRI ) which aspired to model Iraq on its neighbour Iran as a Shia theocracy. A separate threat to Iraq came from parts of the ethnic Kurdish population of northern Iraq which opposed being part of an Iraqi state and favored independence (an ongoing ideology which had preceded Ba'ath Party rule). To alleviate the threat of revolution, Saddam afforded certain benefits to

7154-656: The quick coalition victory in the war, the Ba'ath Party was banned and Saddam went into hiding. After his capture on 13 December 2003, his trial took place under the Iraqi Interim Government . On 5 November 2006, Saddam was convicted by the Iraqi High Tribunal of crimes against humanity related to the 1982 Dujail massacre and sentenced to death by hanging . He was executed on 30 December 2006. A highly polarizing and controversial figure, Saddam dominated Iraqi politics for 35 years and

7252-533: The room one by one and taken into custody. After the list was read, Saddam congratulated those still seated in the room for their past and future loyalty. The 68 people arrested at the meeting were subsequently tried together and found guilty of treason ; 22 were sentenced to execution. Other high-ranking members of the party formed the firing squad. By 1 August 1979, hundreds of high-ranking Ba'ath party members had been executed. Although his position on Kurdish politics has been debated, Saddam has allowed autonomy for

7350-414: The story ad nauseam—tells of his familiarity with guns from the age of ten; his fearlessness and loyalty to the party during the 1959 operation; his bravery in saving his comrades by commandeering a car at gunpoint; the bullet that was gouged out of his flesh under his direction in hiding; the iron discipline that led him to draw a gun on weaker comrades who would have dropped off a seriously wounded member of

7448-451: The time of the attack, the Ba'ath Party had fewer than 1,000 members; however, the failed assassination attempt led to widespread exposure for Saddam and the Ba'ath within Iraq, where both had previously languished in obscurity, and later became a crucial part of Saddam's public image during his tenure as president of Iraq . Kanan Makiya recounts: The man and the myth merge in this episode. His biography—and Iraqi television, which stages

7546-640: The treaty upset "the US-sponsored security system established as part of the Cold War in the Middle East. It appeared that any enemy of the Baghdad regime was a potential ally of the United States." In response, the US covertly financed Kurdish rebels led by Mustafa Barzani during the Second Iraqi–Kurdish War ; the Kurds were defeated in 1975, leading to the forcible relocation of hundreds of thousands of Kurdish civilians. Saddam focused on fostering loyalty to

7644-816: The world.", with estimates being that in 1979 alone, over 2 million Iraqi adults were studying in more than 28,735 literacy schools, with over 75,000 teachers. Saddam Hussein's regime also mandated education for primary to high school, with Saddam's regime also mandating free tuition for university students. Saddam also took steps to promote women's rights within Iraq. By the late 1970s, women in Iraq held significant roles in society, representing 46% of all teachers, 29% of all doctors, 46% of all dentist and 70% of all pharmacists. These advancements signaled progress in women's participation in various professional fields. Women also saw drastic increase in rights in other-aspects of life, with women being given equal-rights in marriage, divorce, inheritance, and custody. Women in Iraq also had

7742-723: Was Saddam's minister of foreign affairs from 1991 to 2001 and later information minister , until 2003 Taha Yassin Ramadan, Saddam's deputy was from the Shabak community —a small, quasi-Shiite sect. During the Iran–Iraq War, Saddam sought to gain support from Shia community. As 80% of the Iraqi Armed Forces were Shia Muslim personnel, who chose Iraq over Iran. Before 2003, more than 1.2 million Christians lived in Iraq . Tariq Aziz , an ethnic Iraqi Assyrian and member of

7840-469: Was Sheikh Aidan ( baptismal name : Adam bar Mhatam Yuhana), Classical Mandaic : ࡀࡃࡀࡌ ࡁࡓ ࡌࡄࡀࡕࡀࡌ ࡉࡅࡄࡀࡍࡀ ), known for copying the Ginza Rabba in 1886. His paternal grandfather was Mhatam Yuhana (also known as Sheikh Damouk). Amarah Amarah ( Arabic : ٱلْعَمَارَة , romanized :  al-ʿAmārah ), also spelled Amara , is a city in south-eastern Iraq , located on a low ridge next to

7938-477: Was Vatican's ambassador to Iraq, stated that under his regime, Christians were free to practice their faith in the majority-Muslim country. In 2003, Pope John Paul II visited Saddam in March 2003 and addressed the message for peace. During his rule, Iraq retained a substantial Jewish community , around 1,000. The Jews in Iraq were treated by Saddam. It is said that he had a soft spot for Jews because his mother

8036-412: Was a leading member of the revolutionary Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party and later its Iraqi regional branch . Ideologically, he espoused Ba'athism , a mix of Arab nationalism and Arab socialism , while the policies and political ideas he championed are collectively known as Saddamism . Saddam was born in the village of Al-Awja , near Tikrit in northern Iraq , to a Sunni Arab family. He joined

8134-492: Was a strong behind-the-scenes party politician. Al-Bakr was the older and more prestigious of the two, but by 1969 Saddam had become the moving force behind the party. In the late 1960s and early 1970s, as vice chairman of the Revolutionary Command Council, formally al-Bakr's second-in-command, Saddam built a reputation as a progressive, effective politician. At this time, Saddam moved up the ranks in

8232-593: Was arrested in October 1964 and served approximately two years in prison before escaping in 1966. In 1966, Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr appointed him Deputy Secretary of the Regional Command. Saddam, who would prove to be a skilled organizer, revitalized the party. He was elected to the Regional Command, as the story goes, with help from Michel Aflaq—the founder of Ba'athist thought. In September 1966, Saddam initiated an extraordinary challenge to Syrian domination of

8330-606: Was based on cronyism. A peace treaty, which aimed to address the Shatt al-Arab dispute, was signed in 1975. Under the accord, Iraq was granted sovereignty over the eastern bank of the waterway, while Iran retained control over the western bank. The agreement also allowed for joint navigation and other provisions. The 1975 Algiers Agreement, also known as the Algiers Accord, was a significant diplomatic agreement signed between Iran and Iraq on 6 March 1975, to settle border disputes and improve bilateral relations. The agreement

8428-410: Was based on the principles of territorial integrity, respect for sovereignty, non-interference in internal affairs, and the peaceful resolution of disputes. The agreement established a new border line along the Shatt al-Arab, dividing the waterway equally between Iran and Iraq up to the midpoint. Iran made significant concessions in the agreement, including relinquishing its claims on the eastern bank of

8526-455: Was built on land donated by the Ministry of Finance. Mandaeans were some of the best goldsmiths and jewelers in Iraq, with Saddam's personal jeweler being of Mandaean background. However, after his downfall, Mandaeans faced severe persecution, and constant kidnappings. They often expressed that they were better under Saddam's rule, and praise him for the protection they received. "There

8624-402: Was founded in the 1860s as an Ottoman military outpost from which the empire tried to control the warring Banu Lam and Al Bu Muhammad tribes. In 1915 Amarah was captured by the British. Before the revolution in 1958 Amarah was known for its feudal system with local estate-holders maintaining private militias. Abdul Rahim al-Rahmani founded the first bookstore in Amarah in 1922, and

8722-563: Was heavy-handed, but consistent as a drumbeat. It helped, of course, that his mukhabarat (secret police) put dozens of Arab news editors, writers and artists on the payroll." After the Ba'athists took power in 1968, Saddam focused on attaining stability in a nation riddled with profound tensions. Long before him, Iraq had been split along social, ethnic, religious, and economic fault lines: Sunni versus Shi'ite , Arab versus Kurd , tribal chief versus urban merchant, nomad versus peasant and Jews versus anti-Semites. The desire for stable rule in

8820-422: Was mediated by the then-President of Algeria, Houari Boumediene . Prior to the Algiers Agreement, Iran and Iraq had been engaged in a long-standing territorial dispute over the Shatt al-Arab waterway, which serves as the border between the two countries. Algeria played a crucial role in mediating the negotiations between Iran and Iraq, with President Boumediene acting as the chief mediator. The Algiers Agreement

8918-413: Was named president and Saddam was named his deputy, and deputy chairman of the Ba'athist Revolutionary Command Council . According to biographers, Saddam never forgot the tensions within the first Ba'athist government, which formed the basis for his measures to promote Ba'ath party unity as well as his resolve to maintain power and programs to ensure social stability. Although Saddam was al-Bakr's deputy, he

9016-502: Was one of the triggers for the Second Iraqi–Kurdish War. On the other hands Feyil Kurds were also systamically persecuted . During the early years of the Ba'ath rule, Jews were oppressed under the government. Saddam was given the charge of publicly hanging 13 men , including many Jews. They were accused by the government of spying for Israel. Later government abolished its repressive policies on Jews. In November 1975,

9114-465: Was recruited to the assassination conspiracy by its ring-leader, Abdul Karim al-Shaikhly, after one of the would-be assassins left. During the ambush, Saddam (who was only supposed to provide cover) began shooting prematurely, which disorganised the whole operation. Qasim's chauffeur was killed and Qasim was hit in the arm and shoulder. The assassins thought they had killed Qasim and quickly retreated to their headquarters, but Qasim survived. Saddam himself

9212-471: Was responsible for the murder or disappearance of 250,000 to 290,000 Iraqis . Saddam's government has been described by several analysts as authoritarian and totalitarian , and by some as fascist , although the applicability of those labels has been contested. Saddam Hussein was born in al-Awja , a small village near Tikrit , to Hussein Abd Al-Majid and Subha Tulfah Al-Mussallat. They were both from

9310-577: Was saved by Jewish neighbors. Saddam reportedly helped the estimated 150 remaining Iraqi Jews, allowing many to leave the country. There was a Jewish representative in the government. Shaul Sasson, the Technical Head of state-owned enterprises under the Ministry of Industry , was a Jew. A Jewish chemist from Basra was also sent by him on a trade mission to China in 1988. Saddam helped in restoration of Meir Taweig Synagogue and construction

9408-457: Was saved by a Jewish family. Subha "would have nothing to do with him", and Saddam would eventually be taken in by an uncle. His mother remarried, and Saddam gained three half-brothers through this marriage. His stepfather, Ibrahim al-Hassan, treated Saddam harshly after his return, and (according to a psychological profile created by the CIA ) beat him regularly, sometimes to wake him up. At around

9506-528: Was soon occupied by British forces, which set up two camps. Local residents hired diggers to unearth the bodies in the mass grave after twelve years. However, in June 2003, citizens of Amarah took up arms against patrolling British forces, killing six soldiers each in two separate attacks, south of the City in Majar al-Kabir . The British bases frequently experienced mortar attacks afterward. Battle of Amarah : After

9604-506: Was the subject of a cult of personality . Many Arabs regard Saddam as a resolute leader who challenged Western imperialism , opposed the Israeli occupation of Palestine , and resisted foreign intervention in the region. Conversely, many Iraqis, particularly Shias and Kurds, perceive him negatively as a dictator responsible for severe authoritarianism , repression, and numerous injustices. Human Rights Watch estimated that Saddam's regime

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