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119-605: The archaeological site and tourist attraction of Mixco Viejo was named after being erroneously associated with the Postclassic Poqomam capital referred to in colonial records by that name. The archaeological site has now been identified as Jilotepeque Viejo, the capital of the Chajoma kingdom. To distinguish between the two, the ruins of the Chajoma capital are now referred to as Mixco Viejo (Jilotepeque Viejo) while

238-638: A meridian drawn from the Arctic Pole to the Antarctic , at a distance of 370 leagues (1,800 km) west of Cape Verde . Spain received the lands west of this line. The known means of measuring longitude were so inexact that the line of demarcation could not in practice be determined, subjecting the treaty to diverse interpretations. Both the Portuguese claim to Brazil and the Spanish claim to

357-463: A Mesoamerican city. Almost all archaeological finds at the city, including both artefacts and earlier versions of later structures, date to the last few hundred years before the Spanish conquest . The architecture was built with mica and pumice slabs, in some cases this was coated with stucco. Stone sculpture is almost totally absent from the city, the only example being a ballcourt marker in the form of

476-486: A base for conquering much of Ecuador and Chile . Central Colombia , home of the Muisca was conquered by licentiate Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada , and its northern regions were explored by Rodrigo de Bastidas , Alonso de Ojeda , Juan de la Cosa , Pedro de Heredia and others. For southwestern Colombia, Bolivia , and Argentina , conquistadors from Peru combined parties with other conquistadors arriving more directly from

595-409: A cornice. The building faces east and possesses four access stairways separated by near-vertical balustrades. The retaining wall of Group B drops away into the neighbouring ravine 2 metres (6.6 ft) behind Platform B8. A great number of funerary urns were excavated around the base of this platform. Group B-X includes a number of structures in three subgroups outside the walls of Group B; they are to

714-601: A free conquistador with the Spaniards to fight the Maya in Yucatán in 1540. After the conquests he settled in the city of Mérida in the newly formed colony of Yucatán with his family. In 1574, the Spanish crown ordered that all slaves and free blacks in the colony had to pay a tribute to the crown. However, Toral wrote in protest of the tax based on his services during his conquests. The Spanish king responded that Toral need not pay

833-571: A husband. Women who travelled thus include María de Escobar, María Estrada , Marina Vélez de Ortega, Marina de la Caballería, Francisca de Valenzuela, Catalina de Salazar. Some conquistadors married Native American women or had illegitimate children. European young men enlisted in the army because it was one way out of poverty. Catholic priests instructed the soldiers in mathematics, writing, theology, Latin, Greek, and history, and wrote letters and official documents for them. King's army officers taught military arts. An uneducated young recruit could become

952-419: A military leader, elected by their fellow professional soldiers, perhaps based on merit. Others were born into hidalgo families, and as such they were members of the Spanish nobility with some studies but without economic resources. Even some rich nobility families' members became soldiers or missionaries, but mostly not the firstborn heirs. The two most famous conquistadors were Hernán Cortés who conquered

1071-443: A north-south orientation as opposed to the east-west orientation of Platform A5. The surviving parts were investigated by archaeologists and consist of the north wall and parts of the west facade. The north wall was 9.1 metres (30 ft) wide, suggesting that the earlier platform was very large and probably extended south almost as far as the ballcourt. Two funerary urns were excavated from the earlier platform. Platform A6 encloses

1190-465: A preceding version. Structure B7 was a small, well-proportioned rectangular structure south of the main Group A plaza, between the north end of the ballcourt (B1) to the east and Structure B9 to the west. This structure was likely to have been an altar shrine. Platform B8 is a range structure on the west side of Group B. It consists of a basal platform supporting inward-sloping walls that terminate in

1309-462: A purer Chajoma architectural style. Both ballcourts appear to have been remodelled after the Kaqchikel fashion, with thick coatings of stucco. Around the 13th century, Group A underwent a major remodelling, including the construction of a new retaining wall and the infilling of the 12-metre (39 ft) wide area between the old and new walls, creating a much expanded terrace for the construction of

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1428-580: A religious homogeneity. The 1492 discovery of the New World by Spain rendered desirable a delimitation of the Spanish and Portuguese spheres of exploration, thus dividing the world into two areas of exploration and colonization. This was settled by the Treaty of Tordesillas (7 June 1494) which modified the delimitation authorized by Pope Alexander VI in two bulls issued on 4 May 1493. The treaty gave to Portugal all lands which might be discovered east of

1547-675: A result of his expedition, the 1529 Diego Ribeiro world map outlined the East coast of North America almost perfectly. The Spaniard Cabeza de Vaca was the leader of the Narváez expedition of 600 men that between 1527 and 1535 explored the mainland of North America. From Tampa Bay, Florida , on 15 April 1528, they marched through Florida. Traveling mostly on foot, they crossed Texas, New Mexico and Arizona, and Mexican states of Tamaulipas , Nuevo León and Coahuila . After several months of fighting native inhabitants through wilderness and swamp ,

1666-688: A series of discussions and debates among the Bishops of the Dominican and Franciscan orders. The two orders had very different approaches to the conversion of the Indians. The Franciscans used a method of mass conversion, sometimes baptizing many thousands of Indians in a day. This method was championed by prominent Franciscans such as Toribio de Benavente . The conquistadors took many different roles, including religious leader, harem keeper, King or Emperor, deserter and Native American warrior. Caramuru

1785-531: A serpent's head with jaws agape and a human head emerging from its mouth. Originally some buildings were decorated with painted stucco but this is so poorly preserved that only a few fragments remain. A population estimate derived from the number of residential remains suggests that the city had approximately 1450 to 1600 inhabitants. The architecture is divided into a number of groups and subgroups, labelled by archaeologists as Groups A through to L; those subgroups belonging to Groups A, B, C and E that fall outside

1904-400: A single level set upon a base and possesses corniced walls. Access was via an inset stairway in the centre of the south side. The platform top was floored with slabs and possessed a low double terrace at the rear. Platform B5 possesses two stepped levels with cornices and encloses the northern part of the west side of the Group B plaza. The lower level possesses a single inset stairway, while

2023-677: A slaved domestic servant in Puebla, Mexico. In 1533, Juan Valiente made a deal with his owner to allow him to be a conquistador for four years with the agreement that all earnings would come back to Alonso. He fought for many years in Chile and Peru. By 1540, he was a captain, horseman, and partner in Pedro de Valdivia's company in Chile. He was later awarded an estate in Santiago; a city he would help Valdivia found. Both Alonso and Valiente tried to contact

2142-502: A small company to conquer Mixco Viejo (Chinautla Viejo), the capital of the Poqomam. At the Spanish approach, the inhabitants remained enclosed in the fortified city. The Spanish attempted an approach from the west through a narrow pass but were forced back with heavy losses. Alvarado himself launched the second assault with 200 Tlaxcalan allies but was also beaten back. The Poqomam then received reinforcements, possibly from Chinautla, and

2261-539: A small contingent to find it. With the guidance of Hopi Indians, Cárdenas and his men became the first outsiders to see the Grand Canyon. However, Cárdenas was reportedly unimpressed with the canyon, assuming the width of the Colorado River at six feet (1.8 m) and estimating 300-foot-tall (91 m) rock formations to be the size of a person. After unsuccessfully attempting to descend to the river, they left

2380-480: Is 53.3 kilometres (33.1 mi) from Guatemala City by road. All dates are approximate. Around 1450 the Chajoma, led by their king Lajuj No'j, moved to Mixco Viejo (Jilotepeque Viejo) from Ochal to make their capital more inaccessible to their hostile neighbours. In spite of this, Iximche defeated the Chajoma and Jilotepeque Viejo became subject to the Kaqchikel kingdom. Groups C and E show Kaqchikel influence in their architectural styles, while groups A and B have

2499-530: Is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . This article relating to the Indigenous peoples of North America is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Conquistador Conquistadors ( / k ɒ n ˈ k ( w ) ɪ s t ə d ɔːr z / , US also /- ˈ k iː s -, k ɒ ŋ ˈ -/ ) or conquistadores ( Spanish: [koŋkistaˈðoɾes] ; Portuguese: [kõkiʃtɐˈðoɾɨʃ, kõkistɐˈdoɾis] ; lit 'conquerors')

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2618-425: Is aligned northeast to southwest and faces northwest onto the Group B plaza. It had two access stairways flanked by steep balustrades topped with vertical cornices. Behind the platform two stairways descend Group B's retaining wall towards Group B-X. Pyramid B3 is actually two pyramids built upon a single basal platform. Together they comprise the most important architectural unit in Group B. The northern pyramid of

2737-461: Is flanked by wide balustrades that form the western facade of the temple platform. Structure B-X3 has been restored. Structure B-X4 has also been restored. It is a south-facing range structure with four inset access stairways. Group C lies to the southwest of Group B and east of Group E. Group C is arranged around two large structures (C1 and C2). It possesses two small plazas; the East Plaza

2856-621: Is located behind Platform C2 and is enclosed to the north by three platforms (C9, C10 and C17). Poqomam people The Poqomam are a Maya people in Guatemala and El Salvador . Their indigenous language is also called Poqomam and is closely related to Poqomchiʼ . Notable Poqomam settlements are located in Chinautla ( Guatemala (department) ), Palín ( Escuintla ), and in San Luis Jilotepeque ( Jalapa ). Before

2975-709: Is now the southern and western United States , and from Mexico sailing the Pacific Ocean to the Spanish East Indies . Other conquistadors took over the Inca Empire after crossing the Isthmus of Panama and sailing the Pacific to northern Peru . From 1532 to 1572, Francisco Pizarro succeeded in subduing this empire in a manner similar to Cortés. Subsequently, other conquistadores used Peru as

3094-423: Is possible that it stands where originally erected before the pyramid was built over it. A funerary urn was excavated from underneath the rear of Pyramid B3b. A drain near the northeast corner of Pyramid B3 carries runoff rainwater from the Group B plaza and channels it outside the retaining wall to the area between Groups B and D. Platform B4 encloses the north side of the Group B plaza. The platform consists of

3213-404: Is the larger of the two, enclosing an area to the east of the main temple, Pyramid C1. The East Plaza was accessed via a narrow alley that ran between a large, low platform and a high-status residential structure with a patio (C8). An inset stairway climbed outside of the retaining wall of Group C and accessed the East Plaza between the high-status residence and a platform to its east. The West Plaza

3332-599: Is the term used to refer to Spanish and Portuguese soldiers and explorers who carried out the conquests and explorations of the Age of Discovery . Conquistadors sailed beyond the Iberian Peninsula to the Americas , Oceania , Africa and Asia , establishing new colonies and trade routes . They brought much of the " New World " under the dominion of Spain and Portugal. After Christopher Columbus ' arrival in

3451-431: Is to the east of Pyramid A1, on the eastern side of the Group A plaza. It faces northwest towards the pyramid and had two access stairways. Behind the platform was a finely paved terrace extending along the edge of the retaining wall. Platform A9 is to the east of the ballcourt (A11) and faces towards it. It had four access stairways set between corniced balustrades; each stairway had nine steps. Ballcourt A11 encloses

3570-634: Is today Panama, reaching Inca territory by 1526. After one more expedition in 1529, Pizarro received royal approval to conquer the region and be its viceroy. The approval read: "In July 1529 the queen of Spain signed a charter allowing Pizarro to conquer the Inca. Pizarro was named governor and captain of all conquests in New Castile." The Viceroyalty of Peru was established in 1542, encompassing all Spanish holdings in South America. In early 1536,

3689-678: The Aztec Empire and Francisco Pizarro who led the conquest of the Inca Empire . They were second cousins born in Extremadura , where many of the Spanish conquerors were born. Catholic religious orders that participated and supported the exploration, evangelizing and pacifying, were mostly Dominicans , Carmelites , Franciscans and Jesuits , for example Francis Xavier , Bartolomé de Las Casas , Eusebio Kino , Juan de Palafox y Mendoza or Gaspar da Cruz . In 1536, Dominican friar Bartolomé de las Casas went to Oaxaca to participate in

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3808-564: The Governor of Cuba Hernando de Soto . Dávila made an agreement with Francisco Pizarro and Diego de Almagro , which brought about the discovery of Peru, but withdrew in 1526 for a small compensation, having lost confidence in the outcome. In 1526 Dávila was superseded as Governor of Panama by Pedro de los Ríos , but became governor in 1527 of León in Nicaragua. An expedition commanded by Pizarro and his brothers explored south from what

3927-503: The Paraná River . In 1517, Francisco Hernández de Córdoba sailed from Cuba in search of slaves along the coast of Yucatán . The expedition returned to Cuba to report on the discovery of this new land. After receiving notice from Juan de Grijalva of gold in the area of what is now Tabasco , the governor of Cuba , Diego de Velasquez , sent a larger force than had previously sailed, and appointed Cortés as Captain-General of

4046-597: The Persian Gulf , the East Indies , and East Africa ; and Filipe de Brito e Nicote who led conquests into Burma . Portugal established a route to China in the early 16th century, sending ships via the southern coast of Africa and founding numerous coastal enclaves along the route. Following the discovery in 1492 by Spaniards of the New World with Italian explorer Christopher Columbus ' first voyage there and

4165-649: The Spanish Conquest , the Poqomam had their capital at Chinautla Viejo. The Poqomam that advanced further east, to the territories of present-day El Salvador, were largely displaced by the migration of the Pipil people in the 11th century. The few Poqomam that remained in El Salvador live near the Guatemala border, in the departments of Santa Ana and Ahuachapan . This Guatemala -related article

4284-652: The West Indies in 1492, the Spanish, usually led by hidalgos from the west and south of Spain, began building a colonial empire in the Caribbean using colonies such as Santo Domingo , Cuba , and Puerto Rico as their main bases. From 1519 to 1521, Hernán Cortés led the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire , ruled by Moctezuma II . From the territories of the Aztec Empire , conquistadors expanded Spanish rule to northern Central America and parts of what

4403-655: The municipality of San Martín Jilotepeque ; they are strung out over 1 kilometre (0.62 mi) along a 880-metre (2,890 ft) high ridge approximately 4 kilometres (2.5 mi) from the point where the Pixcaya River flows into the Motagua River, which drains into the Caribbean Sea . The ruins are surrounded by deep ravines dropping off sharply into a tributary of the Pixcaya River. The site

4522-536: The 1520s and 1530s. Granted a house plot in Mexico City, he raised a family there, working at times as a guard and town crier. He claimed to have been the first person to plant wheat in Mexico. Sebastian Toral was an African slave and one of the first black conquistadors in the New World. While a slave, he went with his Spanish owner on a campaign. He was able to earn his freedom during this service. He continued as

4641-459: The 15th century, Portuguese explorers sailed the coast of Africa, establishing trading posts for tradable commodities such as firearms, spices, silver, gold, and slaves crossing Africa and India. In 1434 the first consignment of slaves was brought to Lisbon ; slave trading was the most profitable branch of Portuguese commerce until the Indian subcontinent was reached. Due to the importation of

4760-680: The Adelantado of Canary Islands , Pedro Fernández de Lugo , arrived to Santa Marta , a city founded in 1525 by Rodrigo de Bastidas in modern-day Colombia, as governor. After some expeditions to the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta , Fernández de Lugo sent an expedition to the interior of the territory, initially looking for a land path to Peru following the Magdalena River . This expedition was commanded by Licentiate Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada , who ended up discovering and conquering

4879-676: The Americas. After Mexico fell, Hernán Cortés's enemies Bishop Fonseca , Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar , Diego Columbus and Francisco Garay were mentioned in Cortés' fourth letter to the King in which he describes himself as the victim of a conspiracy. Infante Dom Henry the Navigator of Portugal, son of King João I , became the main sponsor of exploration travels. In 1415, Portugal conquered Ceuta , its first overseas colony. Throughout

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4998-506: The Americas. The predisposition inspired a lot of the entradas to seek slaves as part of the conquest. After his father's death in 1479, Ferdinand II of Aragón married Isabella I of Castile , unifying both kingdoms and creating the Kingdom of Spain . He later tried to incorporate the kingdom of Portugal by marriage. Notably, Isabella supported Columbus' first voyage that launched the Spanish conquistadors into action. The Iberian Peninsula

5117-566: The Armada. Cortés then applied all of his funds, mortgaged his estates and borrowed from merchants and friends to outfit his ships. Velásquez may have contributed to the effort, but the government of Spain offered no financial support. Pedro Arias Dávila , Governor of the Island La Española was descended from a converso 's family. In 1519 Dávila founded Darién , then in 1524 he founded Panama City and moved his capital there laying

5236-463: The Aztecs, the slow progression of conquest, erection of towns, and cultural dominance over the natives brought more Spanish troops and support to modern-day Mexico. As trading routes over the seas were established by the works of Columbus, Magellan, and Elcano, land support system was established as the trails of Cortés' conquest to the capital. Human infections gained worldwide transmission vectors for

5355-730: The Caribbean and Río de la Plata - Paraguay respectively. These conquests founded the basis for modern Hispanic America and the Hispanosphere . Spanish conquistadors also made significant explorations into the Amazon Jungle , Patagonia , the interior of North America , and the discovery and exploration of the Pacific Ocean. Conquistadors founded numerous cities, some of them in locations with pre-existing settlements, such as Cusco and Mexico City . Conquistadors in

5474-638: The Castilian Crown. For example, Ioánnis Fokás (known as Juan de Fuca) was a Castilian of Greek origin who discovered the strait that bears his name between Vancouver Island and Washington state in 1592. German-born Nikolaus Federmann , Hispanicised as Nicolás de Federmán, was a conquistador in Venezuela and Colombia. The Venetian Sebastiano Caboto was Sebastián Caboto, Georg von Speyer Hispanicised as Jorge de la Espira, Eusebio Francesco Chini Hispanicised as Eusebio Kino , Wenceslaus Linck

5593-554: The Chajoma under their lord Achi Q'alel rebelled against the Kaqchikels of Iximche. It is possible that the Chajoma of Mixco Viejo (Jilotepeque Viejo) initially allied themselves with the Spanish together with the Kaqchikel kingdom of Iximche , and that they also rebelled against the Spanish in 1524. It is known that when the lords of Iximche broke their alliance with the conquistadors, they took refuge in Jilotepeque. The site

5712-711: The Colorado River, sailed up the Gulf of California and a short distance into the river's delta. The Basques were fur trading, fishing cod and whaling in Terranova ( Labrador and Newfoundland ) in 1520, and in Iceland by at least the early 17th century. They established whaling stations at the former, mainly in Red Bay , and probably established some in the latter as well. In Terranova they hunted bowheads and right whales , while in Iceland they appear to have only hunted

5831-858: The Gulf of California coast to what is now Sinaloa , Mexico, over a period of roughly eight years. They spent years enslaved by the Ananarivo of the Louisiana Gulf Islands . Later they were enslaved by the Hans , the Capoques and others. In 1534 they escaped into the American interior, contacting other Native American tribes along the way. Only four men, Cabeza de Vaca, Andrés Dorantes de Carranza , Alonso del Castillo Maldonado , and an enslaved Moroccan Berber named Estevanico , survived and escaped to reach Mexico City . In 1539, Estevanico

5950-739: The Incan silver mines, Potosí was the most important site in Colonial Spanish America, located in the current department of Potosí in Bolivia and it was the location of the Spanish colonial mint. The first settlement in the way was the fort of Sancti Spiritu , established in 1527 next to the Paraná River . Buenos Aires was established in 1536, establishing the Governorate of the Río de la Plata . Africans were also conquistadors in

6069-519: The Moluccas depended on the treaty. It was particularly valuable to the Portuguese as a recognition of their new-found, particularly when, in 1497–1499, Vasco da Gama completed the voyage to India. Later, when Spain established a route to the Indies from the west, Portugal arranged a second treaty, the Treaty of Zaragoza . Sevilla la Nueva , established in 1509, was the first Spanish settlement on

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6188-444: The Muslims back to Granada, which was the Muslims' last control of the Iberian Peninsula. The marriage between Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabel of Castile resulted in joint rule by the spouses of the two kingdoms, honoured as the "Catholic Monarchs" by Pope Alexander VI. Together, the Crown Kings saw about the fall of Granada, victory over the Muslim minority, and expulsion or forcibly converted Jews and non-Christians to turn Iberia into

6307-469: The Spanish in 1524. The site was abandoned after the conquest and never reoccupied. The historical Mixco Viejo has been identified as Chinautla Viejo ("Old Chinautla"), near the modern town of Mixco. Mixco Viejo ("Old Mixco") was the capital of the Poqomam Maya kingdom , and was founded on a defensive mountain-top location in the 12th century AD. The peak population in the early 16th century may have been around 10,000 people. In 1525 Pedro de Alvarado sent

6426-452: The area between the new and old walls to create a greatly expanded terrace. Traces of charcoal at the base of the old retaining wall have been radiocarbon dated to the 13th century, indicating that the expansion of Group A took place no earlier than that. Pyramid A1 is one of the principal structures of Group A, together with the ballcourt. The pyramid is 6.9 metres (23 ft) high and measures 15.4 by 7.25 metres (50.5 by 23.8 ft) at

6545-415: The ballcourt indicate that it was at least partly coated. Structure A12 was a residential structure on the southwest side of the Group A plaza between the ballcourt and Platform A6. All that remains of this structure is its outline marked in stones. Structure A14 was a residential structure immediately northeast of Platform A5. Structures A31 and A32 were residential structures near platform A5 on

6664-437: The ballcourt playing area measures 37.21 metres (122.1 ft) north-south and the playing alley is 9.46 metres (31.0 ft) wide between the side benches. The walls were built of small stone slabs and have a slight slope; as is common with the architecture of Mixco Viejo (Jilotepeque Viejo), the walls were topped with vertical cornices. However, the end zone walls are all completely vertical. Fragments of stucco recovered around

6783-410: The base. It was built using cut stone and has four stepped levels, each of which terminates in a cornice. The pyramid faces west onto the plaza and has two access stairways with 27 steps each. The stairways are flanked by smooth balustrades built from well-fitted slabs. The summit of the pyramid supports a 60-centimetre (24 in) high platform that once formed the base for the summit temple. The pyramid

6902-688: The basis for the exploration of South America's west coast and the subsequent conquest of Peru . Dávila was a soldier in wars against Moors at Granada in Spain, and in North Africa, under Pedro Navarro intervening in the Conquest of Oran . At the age of nearly seventy years he was made commander in 1514 by Ferdinand of the largest Spanish expedition. Dávila sent Gil González Dávila to explore northward, and Pedro de Alvarado to explore Guatemala . In 1524 he sent another expedition with Francisco Hernández de Córdoba , executed there in 1526 by Dávila, by then aged over 85. Dávila's daughters married Rodrigo de Contreras and conquistador of Florida and Mississippi,

7021-437: The battlefield but also to serve as interpreters, informants, servants, teachers, physicians, and scribes. India Catalina and Malintzin were Native American women slaves who were forced to work for the Spaniards. Castilian law prohibited foreigners and non-Catholics from settling in the New World. However, not all conquistadors were Castilian. Many foreigners Hispanicised their names and/or converted to Catholicism to serve

7140-404: The capital of the Aztec Empire. The fall of Tenochtitlan marks the beginning of Spanish rule in central Mexico, and they established their capital of Mexico City on the ruins of Tenochtitlan. The Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire was one of the most significant events in world history. In 1516, Juan Díaz de Solís , discovered the estuary formed by the confluence of the Uruguay River and

7259-410: The city fell under the domination of Iximche and the city's architecture, spread in a number of fortified groups along a ridge surrounded by deep ravines, shows a mixture of Chajoma and Kaqchikel styles. At the time of the Spanish conquest , the Chajoma of Jilotepeque Viejo may have initially allied themselves with the Spanish together with Iximche and have joined in the general Kaqchikel uprising against

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7378-466: The city walls are indicated with the addition of an X or an apostrophe after the group name, to give Group A-X, Group B-X, Group C' and Group E'. Group A is located on the northern end of the ridge. The group was extended during major remodelling work that included the building of the final versions of Platforms A2 and A3 on the north side; this involved building a new retaining wall some 12 metres (39 ft) further north, east and southeast and filling in

7497-452: The city. The siege had lasted more than a month and because of the defensive strength of the city, Alvarado ordered it to be burned and moved the inhabitants to the new colonial village of Mixco . Although the site now known as Mixco Viejo was traditionally considered the Poqomam capital, recent investigations have instead identified the ruins as the capital of the Kaqchikel -speaking Chajoma Maya, and have suggested that its identification as

7616-445: The direction of archaeologist Henri Lehmann, who certainly believed that he was excavating the Pocomam capital as described in Colonial records. Although the site was restored during the archaeological investigations, it suffered considerable damage in the 1976 Guatemala earthquake . This resulted in destruction of some of the restoration work, although some of the damage has now been repaired. The ruins consist of 15 groups containing

7735-431: The earlier structure extended 1.27 metres (4.2 ft) above the retaining wall. The final version extended 4 metres (13 ft) further to the west and 2 metres (6.6 ft) further to the north. It had two levels, each terminating in a cornice. On the north side a 1-metre (3.3 ft) wide bench extends along the base of the wall. Platform A4 divides the Group A plaza in two. It was a later addition to Group A during

7854-419: The early conquest campaigns in the Caribbean and Mexico. In the 1500s there were enslaved black and free black sailors on Spanish ships crossing the Atlantic and developing new routes of conquest and trade in the Americas. After 1521, the wealth and credit generated by the acquisition of the Aztec Empire funded auxiliary forces of black conquistadors that could number as many as five hundred. Spaniards recognized

7973-435: The first Adelantado of Cuba , Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar founded the island's first Spanish settlement at Baracoa; other towns soon followed, including Havana , which was founded in 1515. After he pacified Hispaniola , where the native Indians had revolted against the administration of governor Nicolás de Ovando , Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar led the conquest of Cuba in 1511 under orders from Viceroy Diego Columbus and

8092-434: The first circumnavigation of the world by Ferdinand Magellan in 1521, expeditions led by conquistadors in the 16th century established trading routes linking Europe with all these areas. The Age of Discovery was hallmarked in 1519, shortly after the European discovery of the Americas, when Hernán Cortés began his conquest of the Aztec Empire. As the Spaniards, motivated by gold and fame, established relations and war with

8211-590: The first time: from Africa and Eurasia to the Americas and vice versa . The spread of Old World diseases , including smallpox , influenza , and typhus , led to the deaths of many indigenous inhabitants of the New World . In the 16th century, perhaps 240,000 Spaniards entered American ports. By the late 16th century, gold and silver imports from the Americas provided one-fifth of Spain's total budget. Contrary to popular belief, many conquistadors were not trained warriors, but mostly artisans, lesser nobility or farmers seeking an opportunity to advance themselves in

8330-400: The former Poqomam capital is referred to as Mixco Viejo (Chinautla Viejo). This confusion in the identification of the site has hindered study. The Chajoma capital has been investigated archaeologically, under the assumption that it was the Poqomam capital. Although the Chajoma ruins of Jilotepeque Viejo have been well described archaeologically, the archaeological data has been associated with

8449-415: The group's architecture. Owing to its possession of two ballcourts , it is possible that Jilotepeque Viejo served as a regional centre for the Mesoamerican ballgame during the Postclassic; no other Postclassic ballcourt has been identified in the area of San Martín Jilotepeque although three of four Classic period ballcourts at other sites appear to have continued in use. Shortly before the Spanish Conquest,

8568-564: The historical Mixco Viejo is the result of confusion in the interpretation of colonial records. The site was apparently known to the Chajoma by a variety of names, including Chuapec Kekacajol Nima Abaj (also spelt Chuwa Pek Q'eqak'ajol Nima Ab'aj ), meaning "Great stone in front of the Cave of the Children of Night", Zakicajol and Nimcakajpec . Jilotepeque Viejo is estimated to have had a population of approximately 1,500 inhabitants. Jilotepeque

8687-655: The history of a different site entirely. Doubts about the identification of the archaeological site were first raised by Robert M. Carmack , who realised that the supposed Poqomam capital was not located within the Poqomam linguistic area but rather within the linguistic area of the Kaqchikels . The Poqomam who were settled in the new colonial settlement of Mixco by the Spanish had a long history of fine polychrome ceramic production, but no evidence of such production had been recovered during archaeological investigations, and

8806-523: The indigenous Muisca , and establishing the New Kingdom of Granada , which almost two centuries would be a viceroyalty. Jiménez de Quesada also founded the capital of Colombia, Santafé de Bogotá . Juan Díaz de Solís arrived again to the renamed Río de la Plata , literally river of the silver, after the Incan conquest. He sought a way to transport the Potosi's silver to Europe. For a long time due to

8925-425: The inhabitants to come and go. Armed with the knowledge gained from their prisoners, Alvarado sent 40 men to cover the exit from the cave and launched another assault along the ravine from the west, in single file owing to its narrowness, with crossbowmen alternating with soldiers bearing muskets, each with a companion sheltering him from arrows and stones with a shield. This tactic allowed the Spanish to break through

9044-471: The island of Jamaica , which the Spaniards called Isla de Santiago . The capital was in an unhealthy location and consequently moved around 1534 to the place they called "Villa de Santiago de la Vega", later named Spanish Town , in present-day Saint Catherine Parish . After first landing on " Guanahani " in the Bahamas , Columbus found the island which he called "Isla Juana", later named Cuba. In 1511,

9163-663: The latter. The Spanish fishery in Terranova declined over conflicts between Spain and other European powers during the late 16th and early 17th centuries. In 1524, the Portuguese Estêvão Gomes , who had sailed in Ferdinand Magellan 's fleet, explored Nova Scotia, sailing South through Maine, where he entered New York Harbor and the Hudson River and eventually reached Florida in August 1525. As

9282-456: The location of a cave providing a secret entrance to the city. A third assault broke the month-long siege, allowing the Spanish to take the city. The surviving inhabitants were moved to another settlement and Pedro de Alvarado ordered the city to be burned. Jilotepeque Viejo was settled by the Chajoma in order to provide a capital that was safer from attack from the hostile Iximche Kaqchikel kingdom than their previous capital. In spite of this,

9401-830: The new world since they had limited opportunities in Spain. A few also had crude firearms known as arquebuses . Their units ( compañia ) would often specialize in forms of combat that required long periods of training that were too costly for informal groups. Their armies were mostly composed of Spanish troops, as well as soldiers from other parts of Europe and Africa. Native allied troops were largely infantry equipped with armament and armour that varied geographically. Some groups consisted of young men without military experience, Catholic clergy who helped with administrative duties, and soldiers with military training. These native forces often included African slaves and Native Americans, some of whom were also slaves. They were not only made to fight in

9520-411: The north side of the Group A plaza. Group A-X defines a number of structures in two subgroups lying outside the walls of Group A, to the northeast and northwest of the main group. Group B is near the centre of the site, roughly equidistant between Group A (to the northeast) and Group C (to the southwest). The main plaza of Group B was at the northern end of the group and was enclosed by the ballcourt on

9639-414: The north side of the Group A plaza. The platform has two levels upon a base and a cornice terminating the walls. The platform faces south towards the plaza and ballcourt. The platform was accessed via four stairways, each with nine steps; they were flanked by steep ramps or balustrades. The visible version of Platform A5 covers the remains of an earlier structure. The earlier building was a large platform with

9758-492: The northern entrance to the ballcourt directly accessing the plaza itself. It is an enclosed sunken ballcourt, as was common in the Maya highlands during the Late Postclassic. The ballcourt is aligned north-south with two transverse end zones forming a capital I shape. The ballcourt has two entrances in the form of inset stairways in the end zones, in the centre of the ballcourt's north and south walls. The side walls of

9877-476: The northern lands of New Spain in 1540–1542. Francisco Vázquez de Coronado reached Quivira in central Kansas. Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo explored the western coastline of Alta California in 1542–1543. Vázquez de Coronado's 1540–1542 expedition began as a search for the fabled Cities of Gold, but after learning from natives in New Mexico of a large river to the west, he sent García López de Cárdenas to lead

9996-492: The northwest of Hispaniola . Juan Ponce de León equipped three ships with at least 200 men at his own expense and set out from Puerto Rico on 4 March 1513 to Florida and surrounding coastal area. Another early motive was the search for the Seven Cities of Gold , or "Cibola", rumoured to have been built by Native Americans somewhere in the desert Southwest. In 1536 Francisco de Ulloa , the first documented European to reach

10115-452: The northwest, northeast and east of Group B itself. Structure B-X3 is a step pyramid with sides so steep that it is almost cubic in shape. This temple platform would originally have supported a perishable superstructure but no trace of this now remains. The pyramid faces west and was accessed by an extremely steep stairway with fifteen steps that faces directly onto the massive 13-metre (43 ft) high retaining wall of Group B. The stairway

10234-604: The other to make an agreement about Valiente's manumission and send Alonso his awarded money. They were never able to reach each other and Valiente died in 1553 in the Battle of Tucapel. Other black conquistadors include Pedro Fulupo, Juan Bardales, Antonio Pérez, and Juan Portugués. Pedro Fulupo was a black slave that fought in Costa Rica. Juan Bardales was an African slave that fought in Honduras and Panama. For his service he

10353-442: The pair is denominated B3a; the southern is B3b. The two pyramids each have five stepped levels and face west onto the plaza. Each pyramid was accessed by a single stairway flanked by wide balustrades; each had a small altar at the base of its stairway. Both stairways had nineteen steps and the pyramids stand 6.17 metres (20.2 ft) high. Low platforms on their summits indicate where the temple buildings once stood. The double form of

10472-512: The party reached Apalachee Bay with 242 men. They believed they were near other Spaniards in Mexico, but there was in fact 1500 miles of coast between them. They followed the coast westward, until they reached the mouth of the Mississippi River near to Galveston Island . Later they were enslaved for a few years by various Native American tribes of the upper Gulf Coast . They continued through Coahuila and Nueva Vizcaya ; then down

10591-406: The pass and storm the entrance of the city. The Poqomam warriors fell back in disorder in a chaotic retreat through the city, and were hunted down by the victorious conquistadors and their Mesoamerican allies. Those who managed to retreat down the neighbouring valley were ambushed by Spanish cavalry who had been posted to block the exit from the cave, the survivors were captured and brought back to

10710-449: The playing alley are slightly sloped and are topped by a cornice; the playing alley is flanked by two low benches set against the east and west walls. The end zones also possess sloping walls. All the ballcourt walls were built of large stones. The ballcourt playing area measures 44.5 metres (146 ft) north-south and is 9 metres (30 ft) wide between the benches. The end zones measure 17.46 metres (57.3 ft) east-west. The ballcourt

10829-577: The remains of over 120 major structures, including temples, palaces, and courts for playing the Mesoamerican ballgame. When the site was excavated, the surface was found to be littered with abundant obsidian blades and arrowheads. Originally the city had its main entrance on the western side, a modern road has now been cut through to the ruins from the west along a similar route. The relatively short period of occupation at Mixco Viejo (Jilotepeque Viejo) led to an unusual unity of architectural styles for

10948-458: The reorganisation of the group that involved the destruction of the earlier building under Platform A5. When excavated it was very poorly reserved but was able to be reliably restored. There was no earlier version of the structure; it consists of a platform with two levels that faces east towards the principal architecture of Group A. The upper level is topped with a cornice and access was via two stairways flanked by balustrades. Platform A5 closes

11067-419: The ruins were considered too distant from colonial Mixco . Chinautla Viejo was attacked by the invading Spanish in 1525; the first two attacks against the heavily fortified city were unsuccessful. The besieged city received Poqomam reinforcements that were comprehensively defeated on an open field of battle, with the Spanish cavalry being decisive. The capture of Poqomam prisoners allowed the Spanish to discover

11186-408: The second version. The final version was much larger and was built after the new retaining wall had extended the available area for Group A. Platform A3 encloses the north side of the eastern part of the Group A plaza. It faces south onto the plaza and was accessed via two stairways on that side. The platform was built over an earlier structure that was built on top of an early tiered retaining wall;

11305-660: The service of the Portuguese Crown led numerous conquests and visits in the name of the Portuguese Empire across South America and Africa , going "anticlockwise" along the continent's coast right up to the Red Sea , as well as commercial colonies in Asia, founding the origins of modern Portuguese-speaking world . Notable Portuguese conquistadors include Afonso de Albuquerque who led conquests across India ,

11424-580: The slaves as early as 1441, the kingdom of Portugal was able to establish a number of population of slaves throughout the Iberia due to its slave markets' dominance within Europe. Before the Age of Conquest began, the continental Europe already associated darker skin color with slave-class, attributing to the slaves of African origins. This sentiment traveled with the conquistadors when they began their explorations into

11543-405: The south side, a double pyramid on the east side and three platforms. A stairway with 28 steps descends the Group B retaining wall behind the northeast corner of the double pyramid, providing an access route towards Group D. On the north side of the group another stairway, with 18 steps divided into two flights, descends towards Group A. Ballcourt B1 is immediately south of the Group B plaza, with

11662-410: The stairways of the final version. During restoration work carried out by archaeologists the back wall and a section of the facade were left exposed. Four funerary urns were found associated with the platform, mostly interred under the front of the building. Structure A7 is a small square altar in the middle of the eastern part of the Group A plaza. It faces west with steps on that side. Platform A8

11781-495: The tax because of his service. Toral died a veteran of three transatlantic voyages and two Conquest expeditions, a man who had successfully petitioned the great Spanish King, walked the streets of Lisbon, Seville, and Mexico City, and helped found a capital city in the Americas. Juan Valiente was born in West Africa and purchased by Portuguese traders from African slavers. Around 1530 he was purchased by Alonso Valiente to be

11900-551: The twin pyramids had its origin in the Valley of Mexico and indicates foreign influences at the city. A broken stela was excavated from within the fill of Pyramid B3a; it was a plain monument broken in two parts. The bottom section still stood, while the upper section was lying beside it. It is one of very few such monuments raised in the Maya highlands and such stelae are characteristic of the Classic Period (c. 250–900). It

12019-412: The two armies clashed on open ground outside of the city. The battle was chaotic and lasted for most of the day but was finally decided by the Spanish cavalry, forcing the Poqomam reinforcements to withdraw. The leaders of the reinforcements surrendered to the Spanish three days after their retreat and revealed that the city had a secret entrance in the form of a cave leading up from a nearby river, allowing

12138-468: The upper terrace has two stairways flanked by balustrades, with a third balustrade dividing the two. The platform provides a broad view across the Pancaco River valley to the west. Structure B5 was built on top of an earlier construction phase, which is exposed along the upper portion of the back wall because restoration of the building only rebuilt the lower portion. It was built from stone slabs and

12257-586: The value of these fighters. One of the black conquistadors who fought against the Aztecs and survived the destruction of their empire was Juan Garrido . Born in Africa, Garrido lived as a young slave in Portugal before being sold to a Spaniard and acquiring his freedom fighting in the conquests of Puerto Rico, Cuba, and other islands. He fought as a free servant or auxiliary, participating in Spanish expeditions to other parts of Mexico (including Baja California) in

12376-461: The west side of the Group A plaza, separating it from the retaining wall dropping off to the ravine behind the ballcourt. It is a sunken ballcourt with a north-south orientation and is entirely enclosed. A short sunken stairway leads from the plaza to the top of the south wall. Another stairway descends the south wall to the southern end zone of the ballcourt. A matching stairway in the northern end zone provides access from that direction. The interior of

12495-400: The western extreme of the Group A plaza. The platform has two levels, the upper of which has a vertical cornice. The platform faces east onto the plaza; access was via two stairways flanked by balustrades terminating in vertical cornices. Platform A6 was built over an older version of the same building; this earlier construction phase was smaller and its stairways were destroyed in order to build

12614-610: Was Sapper who labelled each of the archaeological groups and their attendant structures. American archaeologist A. Ledyard Smith visited the ruins in 1949 and wrote a chapter about the site in his Archaeological Reconnaissance in Central America , published by the Carnegie Institution of Washington in 1955. Archeological excavations were carried out from 1954 through 1967 by the Musée de l'Homme of Paris under

12733-840: Was Wenceslao Linck, Ferdinand Konščak , was Fernando Consag, Amerigo Vespucci was Américo Vespucio, and the Portuguese Aleixo Garcia was known as Alejo García in the Castilian army. The origin of many people in mixed expeditions was not always distinguished. Various occupations, such as sailors, fishermen, soldiers and nobles employed different languages (even from unrelated language groups), so that crew and settlers of Iberian empires recorded as Galicians from Spain were actually using Portuguese, Basque, Catalan, Italian and Languedoc languages, which were wrongly identified. Castilian law banned Spanish women from travelling to America unless they were married and accompanied by

12852-580: Was a Portuguese settler in the Tupinambá Indians. Gonzalo Guerrero was a Maya war leader for Nachan Can, Lord of Chactemal . Gerónimo de Aguilar , who had taken holy orders in his native Spain, was captured by Maya lords too, and later was a soldier with Hernán Cortés. Francisco Pizarro had children with more than 40 women, many of whom were ñusta . The chroniclers Pedro Cieza de León , Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo y Valdés , Diego Durán , Juan de Castellanos and friar Pedro Simón wrote about

12971-588: Was abandoned after the Spanish conquest and the inhabitants were moved by the Spanish to San Martín Jilotepeque, after which the area was never reoccupied. German geographer Karl Sapper visited the ruins in 1896 and published a brief description of the ruins together with a site map two years later in a 6-page pamphlet by the Internationales Archiv für Ethnographie of Leyden in the Netherlands , entitled Die Ruinen von Mixco, Guatemala . It

13090-538: Was appointed governor of the island. As governor he authorized expeditions to explore lands further west, including the 1517 Francisco Hernández de Córdoba expedition to Yucatán . Diego Velázquez , ordered expeditions, one led by his nephew, Juan de Grijalva , to Yucatán and the Hernán Cortés expedition of 1519. He initially backed Cortés's expedition to Mexico, but because of his personal enmity for Cortés later ordered Pánfilo de Narváez to arrest him. Grijalva

13209-403: Was built over another structure, a stucco platform with two levels, the upper of which terminated in a cornice. Platform A2 is built along the edge of the retaining wall behind Pyramid A1. It faces west towards the pyramid and has two access stairways. Three successive versions of the platform were built, each overlying the previous. The earliest version sat upon the early retaining wall, as did

13328-553: Was close to the San Martín Jilotepeque obsidian source, giving the inhabitants ready access to the resource. The site is open to the public and has a small museum . The site was declared a protected archaeological zone by Ministerial Accord 1210 of the Guatemalan Ministry of Education on 12 June 1970. The ruins are situated at the northeastern extreme of the department of Chimaltenango within

13447-462: Was granted manumission and a pension of 50 pesos. Antonio Pérez was from North Africa, and a free black. He joined the conquest in Venezuela and was made a captain. Juan Portugués fought in the conquests in Venezuela. During the 1500s, the Spanish began to travel through and colonize North America. They were looking for gold in foreign kingdoms. By 1511 there were rumours of undiscovered lands to

13566-548: Was indicated by a hole in the upper part of the ballcourt wall. The second marker that would have been placed directly opposite the first has never been found and the area of the ballcourt wall where it would have been had collapsed prior to excavations. Replicas of the ballcourt marker have been placed in both walls; the original is in the Museo Nacional de Arqueología y Etnología in Guatemala City. Platform B2

13685-512: Was largely divided before the hallmark of this marriage. Five independent kingdoms: Portugal in the West, Aragon and Navarre in the East, Castile in the large center, and Granada in the south, all had independent sovereignty and competing interests. The conflict between Christians and Muslims to control Iberia, which started with North Africa's Muslim invasion in 711, lasted from the years 718 to 1492. Christians, fighting for control, successfully pushed

13804-648: Was one of four men who accompanied Marcos de Niza as a guide in search of the fabled Seven Cities of Cibola , preceding Coronado . When the others were struck ill, Estevanico continued alone, opening up what is now New Mexico and Arizona. He was killed at the Zuni village of Hawikuh in present-day New Mexico. The viceroy of New Spain Antonio de Mendoza , for whom is named the Codex Mendoza , commissioned several expeditions to explore and establish settlements in

13923-437: Was originally coated in stucco painted in a variety of colours; very little of this coating now remains. A drain opening empties runoff rainwater from the east side of the northern end zone; the drain continues under Platform B 2 and empties outside the retaining wall of Group B. During archaeological investigation of the ballcourt a well-preserved tenoned ballgame marker was found placed on the western bench. Its original placement

14042-400: Was originally taller than the final version of the platform but was cut back to the reduced height of the new building. Pyramid B6 enclosed the southern portion of the west side of the Group B plaza. It is very poorly preserved and the top of the pyramid has collapsed, leaving only the lower walls. Archaeological investigation revealed that the final version of the pyramid had been built over

14161-473: Was sent out with four ships and some 240 men. Hernán Cortés, led an expedition (entrada) to Mexico, which included Pedro de Alvarado and Bernardino Vázquez de Tapia. The Spanish campaign against the Aztec Empire had its final victory on 13 August 1521, when a coalition army of Spanish forces and native Tlaxcalan warriors led by Cortés and Xicotencatl the Younger captured the emperor Cuauhtemoc and Tenochtitlan,

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