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122-666: The site might have been called Zama , meaning City of Dawn, because it faces the sunrise. Tulum stands on a bluff facing east toward the Caribbean Sea . Tulúm is also the Yucatán Mayan word for fence , wall or trench. The walls surrounding the site allowed the Tulum fort to be defended against invasions. Tulum had access to both land and sea trade routes, making it an important trade hub, especially for obsidian . From numerous depictions in murals and other works around

244-509: A postalveolar ejective affricate consonant. Traditional Yucatec Maya spelling in Latin letters, used from the 16th through mid 20th century, spelled it as "Chichen Itza" (as accents on the last syllable are usual for the language, they are not indicated as they are in Spanish). The word "Itzaʼ" has a high tone on the "a" followed by a glottal stop (indicated by the apostrophe). Evidence in

366-400: A bacterial relative of syphilis . According to study lead researcher Wolfgang Stinnesbeck, "It really looks as if this woman had a very hard time and an extremely unhappy end of her life. Obviously, this is speculative, but given the traumas and the pathological deformations on her skull, it appears a likely scenario that she may have been expelled from her group and was killed in the cave, or

488-400: A door to the west and a narrow staircase that was built on top of another temple that served as its base. In the niche located at the top of the door stands a sculpture that's found throughout Tulum. He has wings, a headdress, and holds an object in his hands. Also in the central precinct is the pyramid, which is 7.5 m (25 ft) tall. The Castillo was built on a previous building that

610-542: A large Indio-Spanish army and conquered the peninsula. The Spanish crown later issued a land grant that included Chichen Itza and by 1588 it was a working cattle ranch. Chichén Itzá entered the popular imagination in 1843 with the book Incidents of Travel in Yucatan by John Lloyd Stephens (with illustrations by Frederick Catherwood ). The book recounted Stephens' visit to Yucatán and his tour of Maya cities, including Chichén Itzá. The book prompted other explorations of

732-545: A multitude of architectural styles, reminiscent of styles seen in central Mexico and of the Puuc and Chenes styles of the Northern Maya lowlands. The presence of central Mexican styles was once thought to have been representative of direct migration or even conquest from central Mexico, but most contemporary interpretations view the presence of these non-Maya styles more as the result of cultural diffusion . Chichén Itzá

854-434: A powerful regional capital controlling north and central Yucatán. It established Isla Cerritos as a trading port. The layout of Chichén Itzá site core developed during its earlier phase of occupation, between 750 and 900 AD. Its final layout was developed after 900 AD, and the 10th century saw the rise of the city as a regional capital controlling the area from central Yucatán to the north coast, with its power extending down

976-569: A regional center by 1100, before the rise of Mayapan. Ongoing research at the site of Mayapan may help resolve this chronological conundrum. After Chichén Itzá elite activities ceased, the city may not have been abandoned. When the Spanish arrived, they found a thriving local population, although it is not clear from Spanish sources if these Maya were living in Chichen Itza proper, or a nearby settlement. The relatively high population density in

1098-727: A relatively shallow sea compared to other bodies of water. The pressure of the South American Plate to the east of the Caribbean causes the region of the Lesser Antilles to have high volcanic activity. A very serious eruption of Mount Pelée in 1902 caused many casualties. The Caribbean sea floor is also home to two oceanic trenches : the Cayman Trench and the Puerto Rico Trench , which put

1220-469: A series of nine square terraces, each approximately 2.57 meters (8.4 ft) high, with a 6-meter (20 ft) high temple upon the summit. The sides of the pyramid are approximately 55.3 meters (181 ft) at the base and rise at an angle of 53°, although that varies slightly for each side. The four faces of the pyramid have protruding stairways that rise at an angle of 45°. The talud walls of each terrace slant at an angle of between 72° and 74°. At

1342-500: A single dynastic lineage . Instead, the city's political organization could have been structured by a " multepal " system, which is characterized as rulership through council composed of members of elite ruling lineages. This theory was popular in the 1990s, but in recent years, the research that supported the concept of the "multepal" system has been called into question, if not discredited. The current belief trend in Maya scholarship

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1464-489: A statue of a figure on its back, knees drawn up, upper torso raised on its elbows with a plate on its stomach. Augustus Le Plongeon called it "Chaacmol" (later renamed " Chac Mool ", which has been the term to describe all types of this statuary found in Mesoamerica). Teobert Maler and Alfred Maudslay explored Chichén in the 1880s and both spent several weeks at the site and took extensive photographs. Maudslay published

1586-621: A year visit the area, including (in 1991–1992) about 8 million cruise ship tourists. Tourism based upon scuba diving and snorkeling on coral reefs of many Caribbean islands makes a major contribution to their economies. These three form the SSS islands that with the ABC islands comprise the Dutch Caribbean , of which the BES islands are not direct Kingdom constituents but subsumed with

1708-810: Is Aw (Tropical Savanna Climate). Caribbean Sea The Caribbean Sea is a sea of the North Atlantic Ocean in the tropics of the Western Hemisphere , located south of the Gulf of Mexico and southwest of the Sargasso Sea . It is bounded by the Greater Antilles to the north from Cuba to Puerto Rico , the Lesser Antilles to the east from the Virgin Islands to Trinidad and Tobago , South America to

1830-478: Is called coral bleaching , and can lead to the devastation of large areas of reef. Over 42% of corals are completely bleached, and 95% are experiencing some type of whitening. Historically the Caribbean is thought to contain 14% of the world's coral reefs. The habitats supported by the reefs are critical to such tourist activities as fishing and diving , and provide an annual economic value to Caribbean nations of US$ 3.1–4.6 billion. Continued destruction of

1952-707: Is concentrated around coral reefs where there is little variation in water temperature, purity and salinity. Leeward side of lagoons provide areas of growth for sea grasses . Turtle grass ( Thalassia testudinum ) is common in the Caribbean as is manatee grass ( Syringodium filiforme ) which can grow together as well as in fields of single species at depths up to 20 m (66 ft). Another type shoal grass ( Halodule wrightii ) grows on sand and mud surfaces at depths of up to 5 m (16 ft). In brackish water of harbours and estuaries at depths less than 2.5 m (8 ft 2 in) widgeongrass ( Ruppia maritima ) grows. Representatives of three species belonging to

2074-411: Is endangered. The Antilles along with Central America lie in the flight path of migrating birds from North America so the size of populations is subject to seasonal fluctuations. Parrots and bananaquits are found in forests. Over the open sea can be seen frigatebirds and tropicbirds . The Caribbean region has seen a significant increase in human activity since the colonization period. The sea

2196-484: Is endangered. The rhinoceros iguana from the island of Hispaniola which is shared between Haiti and the Dominican Republic is also endangered. The region has several types of sea turtle ( loggerhead , green turtle , hawksbill , leatherback turtle , Atlantic ridley and olive ridley ). Some species are threatened with extinction. Their populations have been greatly reduced since the 17th century –

2318-453: Is maintained by Mexico's Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia (National Institute of Anthropology and History). The land under the monuments had been privately owned until 29 March 2010, when it was purchased by the state of Yucatán. Chichén Itzá is one of the most visited archeological sites in Mexico with over 2.6 million tourists in 2017. The Maya name "Chichen Itza" means "At

2440-538: Is now divided into six main areas: the archeological site, the Pueblo (or town), the Zona Hotelera (or hotel zone along the seafront), Aldea Zama (south of Pueblo), La Veleta (south-west of Pueblo), and the biosphere reserve of Sian Ka'an . The impact of tourism on Tulum is a subject of growing controversy. Director Rachel Appel filmed a documentary entitled "The Dark Side of Tulum" in 2018 as an exposé of

2562-678: Is one of the best-preserved coastal Maya sites. Its proximity to the modern tourism developments along the Mexican Caribbean coastline and its short distance from Cancún and the surrounding " Riviera Maya " has made it a popular Maya tourist site in the Yucatán Península. Daily tour buses bring a constant stream of visitors to the site. The Tulum ruins are the third most-visited archeological site in Mexico, after Teotihuacan and Chichen Itza , receiving over 2.2 million visitors in 2017. A large number of cenotes are located in

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2684-445: Is one of the largest oil production areas in the world, producing approximately 170 million tons per year. The area also generates a large fishing industry for the surrounding countries, accounting for 500,000 tonnes (490,000 long tons; 550,000 short tons) of fish a year. Human activity in the area also accounts for a significant amount of pollution . The Pan American Health Organization estimated in 1993 that only about 10% of

2806-660: Is the Cayman Trough , between the Cayman Islands and Jamaica , at 7,686 m (25,217 ft) below sea level . The Caribbean coastline has many gulfs and bays : the Gulf of Gonâve , the Gulf of Venezuela , the Gulf of Darién , Golfo de los Mosquitos , the Gulf of Paria and the Gulf of Honduras . The Caribbean Sea has the world's second-largest barrier reef , the Mesoamerican Barrier Reef . It runs 1,000 km (620 mi) along

2928-694: Is the national flower of Jamaica and the Bayahibe rose ( Pereskia quisqueyana ) which is the national flower of the Dominican Republic and the ceiba which is the national tree of both Puerto Rico and Guatemala . The mahogany is the national tree of the Dominican Republic and Belize . The caimito ( Chrysophyllum cainito ) grows throughout the Caribbean. In coastal zones there are coconut palms and in lagoons and estuaries are found thick areas of black mangrove and red mangrove ( Rhizophora mangle ). In shallow water flora and fauna

3050-463: Is the second most polluted sea. Pollution (in the form of up to 300,000 tonnes of solid garbage dumped into the Caribbean Sea each year) is progressively endangering marine ecosystems, wiping out species, and harming the livelihoods of the local people, which is primarily reliant on tourism and fishing. KfW took part in a €25.7 million funding agreement to eliminate marine trash and boost

3172-611: Is toward the more traditional model of the Maya kingdoms of the Classic Period southern lowlands in Mexico . Chichén Itzá was a major economic power in the northern Maya lowlands during its apogee. Participating in the water-borne circum-peninsular trade route through its port site of Isla Cerritos on the north coast, Chichen Itza was able to obtain locally unavailable resources from distant areas such as obsidian from central Mexico and gold from southern Central America. Between AD 900 and 1050 Chichén Itzá expanded to become

3294-478: The Caribbean ; only one extant species is not endangered. There are 500 species of reptiles (94% of which are endemic ). Islands are inhabited by some endemic species such as rock iguanas and American crocodile . The blue iguana , endemic to the island of Grand Cayman , is endangered. The green iguana is invasive to Grand Cayman . The Mona ground iguana which inhabits the island of Mona, Puerto Rico ,

3416-679: The Chilam Balam books indicates another, earlier name for this city prior to the arrival of the Itza hegemony in northern Yucatán. While most sources agree the first word means seven, there is considerable debate as to the correct translation of the rest. This earlier name is difficult to define because of the absence of a single standard of orthography, but it is represented variously as Uuc Yabnal ("Seven Great House"), Uuc Hab Nal ("Seven Bushy Places"), Uucyabnal ("Seven Great Rulers") or Uc Abnal ("Seven Lines of Abnal"). This name, dating to

3538-504: The Dutch Republic , France , Courland and Denmark ). Following the colonization of the Caribbean islands, the Caribbean Sea became a busy area for European-based marine trading and transports. This commerce eventually attracted pirates such as Samuel Bellamy and Blackbeard . As of 2015 the area is home to 22 island territories and borders 12 continental countries . The International Hydrographic Organization defines

3660-584: The Sea of the Antilles became a common alternative name for the "Caribbean Sea" in various European languages. Spanish dominance in the region remained undisputed during the first century of European colonization. From the 16th century, Europeans visiting the Caribbean region distinguished the "South Sea" (the Pacific Ocean south of the isthmus of Panama) from the "North Sea" (the Caribbean Sea north of

3782-786: The Virgin Islands to north of Trinidad and Tobago , which is in the Atlantic. This arc was formed by the collision of the South American Plate with the Caribbean Plate . It included active and extinct volcanoes such as Mount Pelee , the Quill on Sint Eustatius in the Caribbean Netherlands , La Soufrière in Saint Vincent and the Grenadines and Morne Trois Pitons on Dominica . The larger islands in

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3904-593: The Yucatán . Salt and textiles were among some of the goods brought by traders to Tulum by sea that would be dispersed inland. Typical exported goods included feathers and copper objects that came from inland sources. These goods could be transported by sea to rivers such as the Río Motagua and the Río Usumacincta/Pasión system, which could be traveled inland, giving seafaring canoes access to both

4026-501: The circular economy in the Caribbean's Small Island Developing States . The project "Sustainable finance methods for marine preservation in the Caribbean" will assist remove solid waste and keep it out of the marine and coastal environment by establishing a new facility under the Caribbean Biodiversity Fund (CBF). Non-governmental organizations, universities, public institutions, civil society organizations, and

4148-528: The " Cenote Sagrado " or "Sacred Cenote" (also variously known as the Sacred Well or Well of Sacrifice), is the most famous. In 2015, scientists determined that there is a hidden cenote under the Temple of Kukulkan , which has never been seen by archeologists. According to post-Conquest sources (Maya and Spanish), pre-Columbian Maya sacrificed objects and human beings into the cenote as a form of worship to

4270-436: The 1970s by Arthur G. Miller . Through these later investigations done by Sanders and Miller, it has been determined that Tulum was occupied during the late Postclassic period around AD 1200. The site continued to be occupied until contact with the Spanish was made in the early 16th century. The site was abandoned by the end of the 16th century. In 2016, an underwater archaeological expedition led by Jerónimo Avilés exploring

4392-901: The Caribbean Islands and the Central American coast. Among them stands out the Belize Barrier Reef , with an area of 963 km (372 sq mi), which was declared a World Heritage Site in 1996. It forms part of the Great Mayan Reef (also known as the MBRS ) and, being over 1,000 km (600 mi) in length, is the world's second longest. It runs along the Caribbean coasts of Mexico , Belize , Guatemala and Honduras . Since 2005 unusually warm Caribbean waters have been increasingly threatening Caribbean coral reefs . Coral reefs support some of

4514-746: The Caribbean became separated from the Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic Ocean by the land of Cuba and Haiti . The Caribbean remained like this for most of the Cenozoic until the Holocene when rising water levels of the oceans restored communication with the Atlantic Ocean. The Caribbean's floor is composed of sub-oceanic sediments of deep red clay in the deep basins and troughs. On continental slopes and ridges calcareous silts are found. Clay minerals have likely been deposited by

4636-531: The Caribbean itself. The Caribbean hurricane season as a whole lasts from June through November, with the majority of hurricanes occurring during August and September. On average around nine tropical storms form each year, with five reaching hurricane strength. According to the National Hurricane Center 385 hurricanes occurred in the Caribbean between 1494 and 1900. The region has a high level of biodiversity and many species are endemic to

4758-1053: The Caribbean marine life, such as Caribbean Conservation Corporation which seeks to study and protect sea turtles while educating others about them. In connection with the foregoing, the Institute of Marine Sciences and Limnology of the National Autonomous University of Mexico , conducted a regional study, funded by the Department of Technical Cooperation of the International Atomic Energy Agency , in which specialists from 11 Latin American countries (Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Guatemala, Haiti, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Dominican Republic, Venezuela) plus Jamaica participated. The findings indicate that heavy metals such as mercury, arsenic, and lead, have been identified in

4880-412: The Caribbean there is industrial catching of lobster and sardines (off the coast of Yucatán Peninsula ). There are 90 species of mammals in the Caribbean including sperm whales , humpback whales and dolphins . The island of Jamaica is home to seals and manatees . The Caribbean monk seal which lived in the Caribbean is considered extinct. Solenodons and hutias are mammals found only in

5002-541: The Caribbean through the Anegada Passage between the Lesser Antilles and the Virgin Islands and the Windward Passage between Cuba and Haiti . The Yucatán Channel between Mexico and Cuba links the Gulf of Mexico with the Caribbean. The deepest points of the sea lie in Cayman Trough with depths reaching approximately 7,686 m (25,220 ft). Despite this, the Caribbean Sea is considered

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5124-666: The Caribbean, 600 species of birds have been recorded, of which 163 are endemic such as todies , Fernandina's flicker and palmchat . The American yellow warbler is found in many areas, as is the green heron . Of the endemic species 48 are threatened with extinction including the Puerto Rican amazon , and the Zapata wren . According to Birdlife International in 2006 in Cuba 29 species of bird are in danger of extinction and two species officially extinct. The black-fronted piping guan

5246-417: The Caribbean. The vegetation of the region is mostly tropical but differences in topography , soil and climatic conditions increase species diversity . Where there are porous limestone terraced islands these are generally poor in nutrients. It is estimated that 13,000 species of plants grow in the Caribbean of which 6,500 are endemic . For example, guaiac wood ( Guaiacum officinale ), the flower of which

5368-803: The Cenote Sagrado, in 1961 and 1967. The first was sponsored by the National Geographic, and the second by private interests. Both projects were supervised by Mexico's National Institute of Anthropology and History (INAH). INAH has conducted an ongoing effort to excavate and restore other monuments in the archeological zone, including the Osario, Akab Dzib, and several buildings in Chichén Viejo (Old Chichen). In 2009, to investigate construction that predated El Castillo, Yucatec archeologists began excavations adjacent to El Castillo under

5490-647: The Descending God. Among the more spectacular buildings here is the Temple of the Frescoes that included a lower gallery and a smaller second story gallery. The Temple of the Frescoes was used as an observatory for tracking the movements of the sun. Niched figurines of the Maya "diving god" or Venus deity decorate the facade of the temple. This "diving god" is also depicted in the Temple of the Diving God in

5612-879: The Group of the Initial Series, Group of the Lintels, and Group of the Old Castle. The Puuc-style architecture is concentrated in the Old Chichen area, and also the earlier structures in the Nunnery Group (including the Las Monjas, Annex and La Iglesia buildings); it is also represented in the Akab Dzib structure. The Puuc-style building feature the usual mosaic-decorated upper façades characteristic of

5734-549: The Late Classic Period, is recorded both in the book of Chilam Balam de Chumayel and in hieroglyphic texts in the ruins. Chichén Itzá is located in the eastern portion of Yucatán state in Mexico. The northern Yucatán Peninsula is karst , and the rivers in the interior all run underground. There are four visible, natural sink holes, called cenotes , that could have provided plentiful water year round at Chichen, making it attractive for settlement. Of these cenotes,

5856-545: The Maya rain god Chaac . Edward Herbert Thompson dredged the Cenote Sagrado from 1904 to 1910, and recovered artifacts of gold, jade , pottery and incense , as well as human remains. A study of human remains taken from the Cenote Sagrado found that they had wounds consistent with human sacrifice. Several archeologists in the late 1980s suggested that unlike previous Maya polities of the Early Classic, Chichén Itzá may not have been governed by an individual ruler or

5978-585: The Mexico, Belize , Guatemala , and Honduras coasts. The name Caribbean derives from the Caribs , one of the region's dominant native people at the time of European contact during the late 15th century . After Christopher Columbus landed in The Bahamas in 1492 and later discovered some of the islands in The Caribbean, the Spanish term Antillas applied to the lands; stemming from this,

6100-430: The Osario (High Priest's Temple). Thompson is most famous for dredging the Cenote Sagrado (Sacred Cenote) from 1904 to 1910, where he recovered artifacts of gold, copper and carved jade, as well as the first-ever examples of what were believed to be pre-Columbian Maya cloth and wooden weapons. Thompson shipped the bulk of the artifacts to the Peabody Museum at Harvard University . In 1913, the Carnegie Institution accepted

6222-414: The Temple of Warriors and the Caracol, among other major buildings. At the same time, the Mexican government excavated and restored El Castillo (Temple of Kukulcán) and the Great Ball Court. In 1926, the Mexican government charged Edward Thompson with theft, claiming he stole the artifacts from the Cenote Sagrado and smuggled them out of the country. The government seized the Hacienda Chichén. Thompson, who

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6344-440: The Tulum area such as Maya Blue, Naharon, Temple of Doom, Tortuga, Vacaha, Grand Cenote, Abejas, Nohoch Kiin, Calavera,and Zacil-Ha. Tulum has some of the best beaches in Mexico. Most popular beaches in Tulum are Playa Paraiso, Playa Ruinas, Playa Akumal, Papaya Playa and more. CV Villas researchers named Tulum beaches with the whitest sand, 1.4 points off the whitest shade from over 200 beaches worldwide. The tourist destination

6466-406: The Yucatán Peninsula, decimated his forces but ended with the establishment of a small fort at Xaman Haʼ , south of what is today Cancún . Montejo returned to Yucatán in 1531 with reinforcements and established his main base at Campeche on the west coast. He sent his son, Francisco Montejo The Younger, in late 1532 to conquer the interior of the Yucatán Peninsula from the north. The objective from

6588-399: The accents are sometimes maintained in other languages to show that both parts of the name are stressed on their final syllable. Other references prefer the modern Maya orthography, Chichʼen Itzaʼ (pronounced [tʃitʃʼen itsáʔ] ). This form preserves the phonemic distinction between chʼ and ch , since the base word chʼeʼen (which, however, is not stressed in Maya) begins with

6710-468: The area at a high risk of earthquakes . Underwater earthquakes pose a threat of generating tsunamis which could have a devastating effect on the Caribbean islands. Scientific data reveals that over the last 500 years, the area has seen a dozen earthquakes above 7.5 magnitude. Most recently, a 7.1 earthquake struck Haiti on January 12, 2010. The hydrology of the sea has a high level of homogeneity. Annual variations in monthly average water temperatures at

6832-420: The area is tropical , varying from tropical rainforest in some areas to tropical savanna in others. There are also some locations that are arid climates with considerable drought in some years. Rainfall varies with elevation, size, and water currents (cool upwelling keep the ABC islands arid). Warm, moist trade winds blow consistently from the east, creating both rainforest and semi-arid climates across

6954-413: The base of the balustrades of the northeastern staircase are carved heads of a serpent. Mesoamerican cultures periodically superimposed larger structures over older ones, and the Temple of Kukulcán is one such example. In the mid-1930s, the Mexican government sponsored an excavation of the temple. After several false starts, they discovered a staircase under the north side of the pyramid. By digging from

7076-426: The base of the high interior walls are slanted benches with sculpted panels of teams of ball players. In one panel, one of the players has been decapitated; the wound emits streams of blood in the form of wriggling snakes. At one end of the Great Ball Court is the North Temple , also known as the Temple of the Bearded Man ( Templo del Hombre Barbado ). This small masonry building has detailed bas relief carving on

7198-454: The beginning was to go to Chichén Itzá and establish a capital. Montejo the Younger eventually arrived at Chichén Itzá, which he renamed Ciudad Real. At first he encountered no resistance, and set about dividing the lands around the city and awarding them to his soldiers. The Maya became more hostile over time, and eventually they laid siege to the Spanish, cutting off their supply line to the coast, and forcing them to barricade themselves among

7320-421: The building is big enough. As the walls flare out there are usually two sets of molding near the top. The room usually contains one or two small windows with an altar at the back wall, roofed by either a beam-and-rubble ceiling or being vaulted. This type of architecture resembles what can be found in the nearby Chichen Itza , just on a much smaller scale. Tulum was protected on one side by steep sea cliffs and on

7442-496: The cenote cave system discovered the skeleton of a female about 30 years of age that may be at least 9,900 years old. According to craniometric measurements, the skull is believed to conform to the mesocephalic pattern, like the other three skulls found in Tulum caves. Three different scars on the skull of the woman showed that she was hit with something hard and her skull bones were broken. Her skull also had crater-like deformations and tissue deformities that appeared to be caused by

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7564-417: The central precinct of the site. Above the entrance in the western wall a stucco figure of the "diving god" is still preserved, giving the temple its name. A mural can still be seen on the eastern wall that resembles that of a style that originated in highland Mexico, called the Mixteca-Puebla style, though visitors are no longer permitted to enter. The Temple of the Descending God consists of a single room with

7686-448: The chronicles state, there were no survivors, so Hunac Ceel leaped into the Cenote Sagrado, and when removed, prophesied his own ascension. While there is some archeological evidence that indicates Chichén Itzá was at one time looted and sacked, there appears to be greater evidence that it could not have been by Mayapan, at least not when Chichén Itzá was an active urban center. Archeological data now indicates that Chichen Itza declined as

7808-401: The city. In 1860, Désiré Charnay surveyed Chichén Itzá and took numerous photographs that he published in Cités et ruines américaines (1863). Visitors to Chichén Itzá during the 1870s and 1880s came with photographic equipment and recorded more accurately the condition of several buildings. In 1875, Augustus Le Plongeon and his wife Alice Dixon Le Plongeon visited Chichén, and excavated

7930-407: The coastal zone of the Caribbean Sea. Analysis of toxic metals and hydrocarbons is based on the investigation of coastal sediments that have accumulated less than 50 meters deep during the last hundred and fifty years. The project results were presented in Vienna in the forum "Water Matters", and the 2011 General Conference of said multilateral organization. After the Mediterranean, the Caribbean Sea

8052-416: The collapse of both cities. According to some colonial Mayan sources (e.g., the Book of Chilam Balam of Chumayel), Hunac Ceel , ruler of Mayapan , conquered Chichén Itzá in the 13th century. Hunac Ceel supposedly prophesied his own rise to power. According to custom at the time, individuals thrown into the Cenote Sagrado were believed to have the power of prophecy if they survived. During one such ceremony,

8174-422: The corporate sector are all eligible for financing. The project is estimated to prevent and remove at least 15 000 tonnes of marine trash, benefiting at least 20 000 individuals. The climate of the Caribbean is driven by the low latitude and tropical ocean currents that run through it. The principal ocean current is the North Equatorial Current , which enters the region from the tropical Atlantic . The climate of

8296-449: The country of the Netherlands . Physiographically , these continental islands are not part of the volcanic Windward Islands arc, although sometimes grouped with them culturally and politically. Disputed territories administered by Guyana . Disputed territories administered by Colombia . Chichen Itza Chichén Itzá (often spelled Chichen Itza in English and traditional Yucatec Maya) Yucatec Maya pronunciation

8418-406: The direction of Rafael (Rach) Cobos. Chichen Itza was one of the largest Maya cities, with the relatively densely clustered architecture of the site core covering an area of at least 5 square kilometers (1.9 sq mi). Smaller scale residential architecture extends for an unknown distance beyond this. The city was built upon broken terrain, which was artificially levelled in order to build

8540-496: The east and west coasts of the peninsula. The earliest hieroglyphic date discovered at Chichen Itza is equivalent to 832 AD, while the last known date was recorded in the Osario temple in 998. The Late Classic city was centered upon the area to the southwest of the Xtoloc cenote, with the main architecture represented by the substructures now underlying the Las Monjas and Observatorio and the basal platform upon which they were built. Chichén Itzá rose to regional prominence toward

8662-405: The end of the Early Classic period (roughly 600 AD). It was, however, toward the end of the Late Classic and into the early part of the Terminal Classic that the site became a major regional capital, centralizing and dominating political, sociocultural, economic, and ideological life in the northern Maya lowlands. The ascension of Chichen Itza roughly correlates with the decline and fragmentation of

8784-455: The environmental impacts of the local tourist industry. According to the crime statistics provided by Numbeo, Tulum is considered a safe destination for most tourists. The primary safety concerns in the area typically revolve around natural occurrences such as hurricanes during the months of June to October. Considered a tropical savanna climate typically with a pronounced dry season . The Köppen Climate Classification subtype for this climate

8906-505: The existence of at least two morphologically diverse groups of people living separately in Mexico during the transition from Pleistocene to Holocene . Tulum has architecture typical of Maya sites on the east coast of the Yucatán Peninsula . This architecture is recognized by a step running around the base of the building, which sits on a low substructure. Doorways of this type are usually narrow, with columns used as support if

9028-572: The first long-form description of Chichen Itza in his book, Biologia Centrali-Americana . In 1894, the United States Consul to Yucatán, Edward Herbert Thompson , purchased the Hacienda Chichén , which included the ruins of Chichen Itza. For 30 years, Thompson explored the ancient city. His discoveries included the earliest dated carving upon a lintel in the Temple of the Initial Series and the excavation of several graves in

9150-488: The genus Halophila , ( Halophila baillonii , Halophila engelmannii and Halophila decipiens ) are found at depths of up to 30 m (98 ft) except for Halophila engelmani which does not grow below 5 m (16 ft) and is confined to the Bahamas , Florida , the Greater Antilles and the western part of the Caribbean. Halophila baillonii has been found only in the Lesser Antilles . Marine biota in

9272-592: The highlands and the lowlands. The Río Motagua starts from the highlands of Guatemala and empties into the Caribbean. The Río Pasión/Ucamacincta river system also originates in the Guatemalan highlands and empties into the Gulf of Mexico. It may have been one of these seafaring canoes that Christopher Columbus first encountered off the shores of the Bay Islands of Honduras. Jade and obsidian appear to be some of

9394-550: The inner walls, including a center figure that has carving under his chin that resembles facial hair. At the south end is another, much bigger temple, but in ruins. Built into the east wall are the Temples of the Jaguar . The Upper Temple of the Jaguar overlooks the ball court and has an entrance guarded by two, large columns carved in the familiar feathered serpent motif. Inside there is a large mural, much destroyed, which depicts

9516-455: The landward side by a wall that averaged about 3–5 meters (10–16 ft) in height. The wall also was about 8 m (26 ft) thick and 400 m (1,300 ft) long on the side parallel to the sea. The part of the wall that ran the width of the site was slightly shorter and only about 170 meters (560 ft) on both sides. Constructing this massive wall would have taken an enormous amount of energy and time, which shows how important defense

9638-415: The limits of the Caribbean Sea as follows: Although Trinidad and Tobago and Barbados are on the same continental shelf, they are considered to be in the Atlantic Ocean rather than in the Caribbean Sea. The Caribbean Sea is an oceanic sea on the Caribbean Plate . The Caribbean Sea is separated from the ocean by several island arcs of various ages. The youngest stretches from the Lesser Antilles to

9760-671: The mainland river Orinoco and the Magdalena River . Deposits on the bottom of the Caribbean Sea and the Gulf of Mexico have a thickness of about 1 km (0.62 mi). Upper sedimentary layers relate to the period from the Mesozoic to the Cenozoic (250 million years ago) and the lower layers from the Paleozoic to the Mesozoic . The Caribbean seafloor is divided into five basins separated from each other by underwater ridges and mountain ranges. Atlantic Ocean water enters

9882-557: The major architectural groups, with the greatest effort being expended in the levelling of the areas for the Castillo pyramid, and the Las Monjas, Osario and Main Southwest groups. The site contains many fine stone buildings in various states of preservation, and many have been restored. The buildings were connected by a dense network of paved causeways, called sacbeob . Archeologists have identified over 80 sacbeob criss-crossing

10004-399: The major centers of the southern Maya lowlands. As Chichén Itzá rose to prominence, the cities of Yaxuna (to the south) and Coba (to the east) were suffering decline. These two cities had been mutual allies, with Yaxuna dependent upon Coba. At some point in the 10th century Coba lost a significant portion of its territory, isolating Yaxuna, and Chichen Itza may have directly contributed to

10126-597: The monuments of the Temple of Kukulcán (El Castillo), Temple of Warriors and the Great Ball Court; The Osario Group, which includes the pyramid of the same name as well as the Temple of Xtoloc; and the Central Group, which includes the Caracol, Las Monjas, and Akab Dzib. South of Las Monjas, in an area known as Chichén Viejo (Old Chichén) and only open to archeologists, are several other complexes, such as

10248-416: The more valuable found here. The obsidian would have been brought from Ixtepeque in northern Guatemala, which was nearly 700 kilometers (430 mi) away from Tulum. This huge distance, coupled with the density of obsidian found at the site, show that Tulum was a major center for the trading of obsidian. Tulum archaeological site is relatively compact compared with many other Maya sites in the vicinity, and

10370-403: The most diverse marine habitats in the world, but they are fragile ecosystems. When tropical waters become unusually warm for extended periods of time, microscopic plants called zooxanthellae , which are symbiotic partners living within the coral polyp tissues, die off. These plants provide food for the corals and give them their color. The result of the death and dispersal of these tiny plants

10492-432: The mouth of the well of the Itza." This derives from chi' , meaning "mouth" or "edge", and chʼen or chʼeʼen , meaning "well". Itzá is the name of an ethnic-lineage group that gained political and economic dominance of the northern peninsula. One possible translation for Itza is "enchanter (or enchantment) of the water," from its (itz), "sorcerer", and ha , "water". The name is spelled Chichén Itzá in Spanish, and

10614-523: The north and its convergence with the Euramerica basin decreased in size. The next stage of the Caribbean Sea's formation began in the Triassic . Powerful rifting led to the formation of narrow troughs, stretching from modern Newfoundland to the Gulf of Mexico's west coast, forming siliciclastic sedimentary rocks . In the early Jurassic due to powerful marine transgression , water broke into

10736-449: The north-west of the Castillo is the most impressive. It is the largest and best preserved ball court in ancient Mesoamerica. It measures 168 by 70 meters (551 by 230 ft). The parallel platforms flanking the main playing area are each 95 meters (312 ft) long. The walls of these platforms stand 8 meters (26 ft) high; set high up in the center of each of these walls are rings carved with intertwined feathered serpents. At

10858-551: The northern Atlantic as the Guiana Current and part of the North Equatorial Current enter the sea on the east. On the western side of the sea, the trade winds influence a northerly current which causes an upwelling and a rich fishery near Yucatán . The Caribbean is home to about 9% of the world's coral reefs , covering about 50,000 km (19,000 sq mi), most of which are located off

10980-565: The northern part of the sea Cuba , Hispaniola , Jamaica and Puerto Rico lie on an older island arc. The geological age of the Caribbean Sea is estimated to be between 160 and 180 million years and was formed by a horizontal fracture that split the supercontinent called Pangea in the Mesozoic Era . It is assumed the proto-caribbean basin existed in the Devonian period and in the early Carboniferous movement of Gondwana to

11102-485: The northern tip of Yucatán Tropical cyclones are a threat to the nations that rim the Caribbean Sea. While landfalls are infrequent, the resulting loss of life and property damage makes them a significant hazard to life in the Caribbean. Tropical cyclones that impact the Caribbean often develop off the West coast of Africa and make their way west across the Atlantic Ocean toward the Caribbean, while other storms develop in

11224-439: The number of green turtles has declined from 91 million to 300,000 and hawksbill turtles from 11 million to less than 30,000 by 2006. All 170 species of amphibians that live in the region are endemic. The habitats of almost all members of the toad family, poison dart frogs , tree frogs and leptodactylidae (a type of frog) are limited to only one island. The Golden coqui is in serious threat of extinction. In

11346-549: The present area of the Gulf of Mexico creating a vast shallow pool. Deep basins emerged in the Caribbean during the Middle Jurassic rifting . The emergence of these basins marked the beginning of the Atlantic Ocean and contributed to the destruction of Pangaea at the end of the late Jurassic . During the Cretaceous the Caribbean acquired a shape close to today. In the early Paleogene due to marine regression

11468-636: The proposal of archeologist Sylvanus G. Morley and committed to conduct long-term archeological research at Chichen Itza. The Mexican Revolution and the following government instability, as well as World War I, delayed the project by a decade. In 1923, the Mexican government awarded the Carnegie Institution a ten-year permit (later extended by another ten years) to allow U.S. archeologists to conduct extensive excavation and restoration of Chichen Itza. Carnegie researchers excavated and restored

11590-483: The public. Around the Spring and Autumn equinoxes , in the late afternoon, the northwest corner of the pyramid casts a series of triangular shadows against the western balustrade on the north side that evokes the appearance of a serpent wriggling down the staircase, which some scholars have suggested is a representation of the feathered-serpent deity, Kukulcán. It is a widespread belief that this light-and-shadow effect

11712-773: The reefs could severely damage the region's economy. A Protocol of the Convention for the Protection and Development of the Marine Environment of the Wider Caribbean Region came in effect in 1986 to protect the various endangered marine life of the Caribbean through forbidding human activities that would advance the continued destruction of such marine life in various areas. Currently this protocol has been ratified by 15 countries. Also, several charitable organisations have been formed to preserve

11834-612: The region have representatives of both the Indian and Pacific oceans which were caught in the Caribbean before the emergence of the Isthmus of Panama four million years ago. In the Caribbean Sea there are around 1,000 documented species of fish, including sharks ( bull shark , tiger shark , silky shark and Caribbean reef shark ), flying fish , giant oceanic manta ray , angel fish , spotfin butterflyfish , parrotfish , Atlantic Goliath grouper , tarpon and moray eels . Throughout

11956-599: The region was a factor in the conquistadors' decision to locate a capital there. According to post-Conquest sources, both Spanish and Maya, the Cenote Sagrado remained a place of pilgrimage. In 1526, Spanish Conquistador Francisco de Montejo (a veteran of the Grijalva and Cortés expeditions) successfully petitioned the King of Spain for a charter to conquer Yucatán. His first campaign in 1527, which covered much of

12078-443: The region. The tropical rainforest climates include lowland areas near the Caribbean Sea from Costa Rica north to Belize , as well as the Dominican Republic and Puerto Rico , while the more seasonal dry tropical savanna climates are found in Cuba , northern Venezuela , and southern Yucatán, Mexico . Arid climates are found along the extreme northern coast of Venezuela out to the islands including Aruba and Curaçao , as well as

12200-540: The ruins of the ancient city. Months passed, but no reinforcements arrived. Montejo the Younger attempted an all-out assault against the Maya and lost 150 of his remaining troops. He was forced to abandon Chichén Itzá in 1534 under cover of darkness. By 1535, all Spanish had been driven from the Yucatán Peninsula. Montejo eventually returned to Yucatán and, by recruiting Maya from Campeche and Champoton, built

12322-588: The same isthmus). The Caribbean Sea had been unknown to the populations of Eurasia until after 1492 when Christopher Columbus sailed into Caribbean waters to find a sea route to Asia. At that time, the Americas were generally unknown to most Europeans, although they had been visited in the 10th century by the Vikings . Following Columbus's discovery of the islands, the area was quickly colonized by several Western cultures (initially Spain , then later England ,

12444-508: The sea, Stephens and Catherwood first saw a tall building that impressed them greatly, most likely the great Castillo of the site. They made accurate maps of the site's walls, and Catherwood made sketches of the Castillo and several other buildings. Stephens and Catherwood also reported an early classic stele at the site, with an inscribed date of AD 564 (now in the British Museum 's collection). This has been interpreted as meaning that

12566-451: The seawater is about 3.6%, and its density is 1,023.5–1,024.0 kg/m (63.90–63.93 lb/cu ft). The surface water color is blue-green to green . The Caribbean's depth in its wider basins and deep-water temperatures are similar to those of the Atlantic. Atlantic deep water is thought to spill into the Caribbean and contribute to the general deep water of its sea. The surface water (30 m; 100 ft) acts as an extension of

12688-540: The sewage from the Central American and Caribbean Island countries is properly treated before being released into the sea. The region has been famous for its rum production - the drink is first mentioned in records from Barbados in around 1650, although it was likely to have been produced beforehand across the other islands. The Caribbean region supports a large tourism industry. The Caribbean Tourism Organization calculates that about 12 million people

12810-488: The site may be one of the reasons the Maya founded the city of Tulum exactly here, as Tulum later became a prominent trading port during the late Postclassic . Both coastal and land routes converged at Tulum. A number of artifacts found in or near the site show contacts with areas all over Central Mexico and Central America. Copper artifacts from the Mexican highlands have been found near the site, as have flint artifacts, ceramics, incense burners, and gold objects from all over

12932-463: The site, and extending in all directions from the city. Many of these stone buildings were originally painted in red, green, blue and purple colors. Pigments were chosen according to what was most easily available in the area. The site must be imagined as a colorful one, not like it is today. Just like Gothic cathedrals in Europe, colors provided a greater sense of completeness and contributed greatly to

13054-482: The site, Tulum appears to have been an important site for the worship of the Diving or Descending god . Tulum was first mentioned by Juan Díaz , a member of Juan de Grijalva 's Spanish expedition of 1518, the first Europeans to spot Tulum. The first detailed description of the ruins was published by John Lloyd Stephens and Frederick Catherwood in 1843 in the book Incidents of Travel in Yucatan . As they arrived from

13176-557: The site, with the most important being the Las Monjas group. Dominating the North Platform of Chichen Itza is the Temple of Kukulcán (a Maya feathered serpent deity similar to the Aztec Quetzalcoatl ). The temple was identified by the first Spaniards to see it, as El Castillo ("the castle"), and it regularly is referred to as such. This step pyramid stands about 30 meters (98 ft) high and consists of

13298-751: The south from the Venezuelan coastline to the Colombian coastline , and Central America and the Yucatán Peninsula to the west from Panama to Mexico . The geopolitical region centered around the Caribbean Sea, including the numerous islands of the West Indies and adjacent coastal areas in the mainland of the Americas , is known as the Caribbean . The Caribbean Sea is one of the largest seas on Earth and has an area of about 2,754,000 km (1,063,000 sq mi). The sea's deepest point

13420-522: The stele was likely built elsewhere and brought to Tulum to be reused. Work conducted at Tulum continued with that of Sylvanus Morley and George P. Howe, beginning in 1913. They worked to restore and open the public beaches. The work was continued by the Carnegie Institution from 1916 to 1922, Samuel Lothrop in 1924 who also mapped the site, Miguel Ángel Fernández in the late 1930s and early 1940s, William Sanders in 1956, and then later in

13542-624: The style but differ from the architecture of the Puuc heartland in their block masonry walls, as opposed to the fine veneers of the Puuc region proper. At least one structure in the Las Monjas Group features an ornate façade and masked doorway that are typical examples of Chenes-style architecture, a style centered upon a region in the north of Campeche state, lying between the Puuc and Río Bec regions. Those structures with sculpted hieroglyphic script are concentrated in certain areas of

13664-410: The surface do not exceed 3 °C (5.4 °F). Over the past 50 years, the Caribbean has gone through three stages: cooling until 1974, a cold phase with peaks during 1974–1976 and 1984–1986, and finally a warming phase with an increase in temperature of 0.6 °C (1.1 °F) per year. Virtually all temperature extremes were associated with the phenomena of El Niño and La Niña . The salinity of

13786-476: The symbolic impact of the buildings. The architecture encompasses a number of styles, including the Puuc and Chenes styles of the northern Yucatán Peninsula. The buildings of Chichen Itza are grouped in a series of architectonic sets, and each set was at one time separated from the other by a series of low walls. The three best known of these complexes are the Great North Platform, which includes

13908-405: The top, they found another temple buried below the current one. Inside the temple chamber was a Chac Mool statue and a throne in the shape of Jaguar, painted red and with spots made of inlaid jade. The Mexican government excavated a tunnel from the base of the north staircase, up the earlier pyramid's stairway to the hidden temple, and opened it to tourists. In 2006, INAH closed the throne room to

14030-824: Was a large pre-Columbian city built by the Maya people of the Terminal Classic period. The archeological site is located in Tinúm Municipality , Yucatán State , Mexico . Chichén Itzá was a major focal point in the Northern Maya Lowlands from the Late Classic (c. AD 600–900) through the Terminal Classic (c. AD 800–900) and into the early portion of the Postclassic period (c. AD 900–1200). The site exhibits

14152-509: Was achieved on purpose to record the equinoxes, but the idea is highly unlikely: it has been shown that the phenomenon can be observed, without major changes, during several weeks around the equinoxes, making it impossible to determine any date by observing this effect alone. Archeologists have identified in Chichen Itza thirteen ballcourts for playing the Mesoamerican ballgame , but the Great Ball Court about 150 meters (490 ft) to

14274-484: Was colonnaded and had a beam and mortar roof. The lintels in the upper rooms have serpent motifs carved into them. The construction of the Castillo appears to have taken place in stages. A small shrine appears to have been used as a beacon for incoming canoes. This shrine marks a break in the barrier reef that is opposite the site. Here there is a cove and landing beach in a break in the sea cliffs that would have been perfect for trading canoes coming in. This characteristic of

14396-722: Was in the United States at the time, never returned to Yucatán. He wrote about his research and investigations of the Maya culture in a book People of the Serpent published in 1932. He died in New Jersey in 1935. In 1944 the Mexican Supreme Court ruled that Thompson had broken no laws and returned Chichen Itza to his heirs. The Thompsons sold the hacienda to tourism pioneer Fernando Barbachano Peon. There have been two later expeditions to recover artifacts from

14518-405: Was in this small cove where the canoes would return from trading and fishing. Near the northern side of the wall a small cenote provided the city with fresh water. It is this impressive wall that makes Tulum one of the most well-known fortified sites of the Maya. There are three major structures of interest at the Tulum archeological site. El Castillo, the Temple of the Frescoes, and the Temple of

14640-546: Was left in the cave to die there”. The newly discovered skeleton was 140 meters away from the Chan Hol 2 site. Although archeologists assumed the divers found the remains of the missing Chan Hol 2, the analysis proved that these assumptions were erroneous in a short time. Stinnesbeck compared the new bones to old photographs of Chan Hol 2 and showed that the two skeletons represent different individuals. Due to their distinctive features, study co-researcher Samuel Rennie suggest

14762-400: Was one of the largest Maya cities and it was likely to have been one of the mythical great cities, or Tollans , referred to in later Mesoamerican literature. The city may have had the most diverse population in the Maya world, a factor that could have contributed to the variety of architectural styles at the site. The ruins of Chichén Itzá are federal property, and the site's stewardship

14884-404: Was to the Maya when they chose this site. On the southwest and northwest corners there are small structures that have been identified as watch towers, showing again how well defended the city was. There are five narrow gateways in the wall with two each on the north and south sides and one on the west. The seaward side is protected by the steep cliffs, except for one small cove with a sandy beach. It

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