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65-652: The Capitoline Museum was established in 1471 under the observation of Pope Sixtus IV , who donated to the city a collection of important bronzes from the Lateran (including the Capitoline Wolf ), which he had placed in the courtyard of the Palazzo dei Conservatori and in the Campidoglio square. In 1734 Pope Clement XII purchased the prestigious collection of antiquities of Cardinal Alessandro Albani , which

130-447: A "barbarian" was evidenced for the figure's neck torc , thick hair and moustache, weapons and shield carved on the floor, and a type of Gallic carnyx between his legs. The white marble statue, which may originally have been painted, depicts a wounded, slumped Gaulish or Galatian Celt , shown with remarkable realism and pathos , particularly as regards the face. A bleeding sword puncture is visible in his lower right chest. The warrior

195-580: A Roman army at the Battle of Telamon of 225 BC: The Insubres and the Boii wore trousers and light cloaks, but the Gaesatae , in their love of glory and defiant spirit, had thrown off their garments and taken up their position in front of the whole army naked and wearing nothing but their arms... The appearance of these naked warriors was a terrifying spectacle, for they were all men of splendid physique and in

260-593: A clear difference in status between those who had converted and those who resisted. The ecclesiastical penalties were directed towards those who were enslaving the recent converts. As a civic patron in Rome, even the anti-papal chronicler Stefano Infessura agreed that Sixtus should be admired. The dedicatory inscription in the fresco by Melozzo da Forlì in the Vatican Palace records: "You gave your city temples, streets, squares, fortifications, bridges and restored

325-544: A hereditary ally and champion of the papacy. The angered Italian princes allied to force Sixtus IV to make peace to his great annoyance. For refusing to desist from the very hostilities that he himself had instigated and for being a dangerous rival to Della Rovere dynastic ambitions in the Marche , Sixtus placed Venice under interdict in 1483. He also lined the coffers of the state by unscrupulously selling high offices and privileges. In ecclesiastical affairs, Sixtus promoted

390-748: A line of Della Rovere dukes of Urbino that lasted until the line expired, in 1631. Six of the thirty-four cardinals that he created were his nephews. In his territorial aggrandizement of the Papal States , his niece's son, Cardinal Raffaele Riario (for whom the Palazzo della Cancelleria was constructed) was suspected of colluding in the failed Pazzi conspiracy of 1478 to assassinate both Lorenzo de' Medici and his brother Giuliano and replace them in Florence with Sixtus IV's other nephew, Girolamo Riario . Francesco Salviati , Archbishop of Pisa and

455-609: A main organizer of the plot, was hanged on the walls of the Florentine Palazzo della Signoria . Sixtus IV replied with an interdict and two years of war with Florence. However, Infessura had partisan allegiances to the Colonna and so is not considered to be always reliable or impartial. The English churchman and Protestant polemicist John Bale , writing a century later, attributed to Sixtus "the authorisation to practice sodomy during periods of warm weather" to

520-483: A patron of the arts, Sixtus was a patron of the sciences. Before he became pope, he had spent time at the very liberal and cosmopolitan University of Padua , which maintained considerable independence from the Church and had a very international character. As Pope, he issued a papal bull allowing local bishops to give the bodies of executed criminals and unidentified corpses to physicians and artists for dissection. It

585-525: A pope" and "true flood of corresponding lampoons, reviling poems, and fictional epitaphs" following his death are at the very least evidence for his contemporaries' opinions about the promotions of these young men. The secular fortunes of the Della Rovere family began when Sixtus invested his nephew Giovanni with the lordship of Senigallia and arranged his marriage to the daughter of Federico III da Montefeltro , duke of Urbino ; from that union came

650-766: A power-station between the 1890s and 1930s) in southern Rome, between the Pyramid of Cestius and the Basilica of Saint Paul Outside the Walls , close to the Metro station Garbatella . In 1997, the Centrale Montemartini was adapted to temporarily accommodate a part of the antique sculpture collection of the Capitoline museums, at that time closed for renovation; the temporary exhibition was so appreciated that

715-736: Is an ancient Roman marble semi-recumbent statue now in the Capitoline Museums in Rome . It is a copy of a now lost Greek sculpture from the Hellenistic period (323–31 BC) thought to have been made in bronze . The original may have been commissioned at some time between 230 and 220 BC by Attalus I of Pergamon to celebrate his victory over the Galatians , the Celtic or Gaulish people of parts of Anatolia . The original sculptor

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780-488: Is believed to have been Epigonus , a court sculptor of the Attalid dynasty of Pergamon. Until the 20th century, the marble statue was usually known as The Dying Gladiator , on the assumption that it depicted a wounded gladiator in a Roman amphitheatre. However, in the mid-19th century it was re-identified as a Gaul or Galatian and the present name "Dying Gaul" gradually achieved popular acceptance. The identification as

845-466: Is by Antonio del Pollaiuolo ; it was completed by 1493. The top of the casket is a lifelike depiction of the Pope lying in state. Around the sides are bas-relief panels depicting allegorical female figures representing Grammar, Rhetoric, Arithmetic, Geometry, Music, Painting, Astronomy, Philosophy, and Theology—the classical liberal arts , with the addition of painting and theology. Each figure incorporates

910-617: Is located beneath the Palazzo dei Conservatori and the piazza itself, and links the three palazzos sitting on the piazza. The gallery was constructed in the 1930s. It contains in situ 2nd century ruins of ancient Roman dwellings, and also houses the Galleria Lapidaria, which displays the Museums' collection of epigraphs . The new great glass covered hall — the Sala Marco Aurelio — created by covering

975-587: Is located in the attached Palazzo Caffarelli-Clementino. Statues, inscriptions, sarcophagi , busts, mosaics , and other ancient Roman artifacts occupy two floors of the Palazzo Nuovo. In the Hall of the Galatian can also be appreciated the marble statue of the " Dying Gaul " also called "Capitoline Gaul" and the statue of Cupid and Psyche . Also housed in this building are: The Galleria di Congiunzione

1040-451: Is represented with characteristic Celtic hairstyle and moustache with a Celtic torc around his neck. He sits on his shield while his sword, belt and curved trumpet lie beside him. The sword hilt bears a lion's head. The present base is a 17th-century addition. The nose and left arm restorations upon the discovery of the statue in the 17th century are contested (the right arm would be pushed even more behind his back). The Dying Gaul statue

1105-538: Is thought to have been re-discovered in the early 17th century during excavations for the building of the Villa Ludovisi (commissioned by Cardinal Ludovico Ludovisi , nephew of Pope Gregory XV ), on the site of the ancient Gardens of Sallust on the Pincian Hill in Rome . Many other antiquities (most notably the " Ludovisi Throne ") were subsequently discovered on the site in the late 19th century when

1170-579: The Acqua Vergine as far as the Trevi ..." In addition to restoring the aqueduct that provided Rome an alternative to the river water, which had made the city famously unhealthy, he restored or rebuilt over 30 of Rome's dilapidated churches such as San Vitale (1475) and Santa Maria del Popolo , and he added seven new ones. The Sistine Chapel was sponsored by Sixtus IV, as was the Ponte Sisto ,

1235-608: The College of Cardinals to elect him Pope upon the unexpected death of Paul II at the age of fifty-four. Upon being elected Pope , Della Rovere adopted the name Sixtus, which had not been used since the 5th century. One of his first acts was to declare a renewed crusade against the Ottoman Turks in Smyrna . However, after the conquest of Smyrna, the fleet disbanded. Some fruitless attempts were made towards unification with

1300-821: The Gallican Church and could never be shifted as long as Louis XI manoeuvred to replace King Ferdinand I of Naples with a French prince. Louis was thus in conflict with the papacy, and Sixtus could not permit it. On 1 November 1478, Sixtus published the papal bull Exigit Sincerae Devotionis Affectus through which the Spanish Inquisition was established in the Kingdom of Castile . Sixtus consented under political pressure from Ferdinand of Aragon , who threatened to withhold military support from his kingdom of Sicily . Nevertheless, Sixtus IV quarrelled over protocol and prerogatives of jurisdiction; he

1365-472: The Greek Church . For the remainder of his pontificate, Sixtus turned to temporal issues and dynastic considerations. Sixtus IV sought to strengthen his position by surrounding himself with relatives and friends. In the fresco by Melozzo da Forlì , he is accompanied by his Della Rovere and Riario nephews, not all of whom were made cardinals; the protonotary apostolic Pietro Riario (on his right),

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1430-620: The Louvre Museum until 1816 when it was returned to Rome. The statue serves both as a reminder of the Celts' defeat, thus demonstrating the might of the people who defeated them, and a memorial to their bravery as worthy adversaries. The statue may also provide evidence to corroborate ancient accounts of the fighting style— Diodorus Siculus reported that "Some of them have iron breastplates or chainmail while others fight naked". Polybius wrote an evocative account of Galatian tactics against

1495-586: The Sistine Bridge (the first new bridge across the Tiber since Antiquity), and the building of Via Sistina (later named Borgo Sant'Angelo ), a road leading from Castel Sant'Angelo to Saint Peter. All of that was done to facilitate the integration of the Vatican Hill and Borgo with the heart of Old Rome. That was part of a broader scheme of urbanization carried out under Sixtus IV, who swept

1560-520: The Spanish Inquisition through the bull Exigit sincerae devotionis affectus (1478), and he annulled the decrees of the Council of Constance . He was noted for his nepotism and was personally involved in the infamous Pazzi conspiracy , a plot to remove the Medici family from power in Florence . Francesco was a member of Della Rovere family, a son of Leonardo della Rovere and Luchina Monleoni. He

1625-616: The bronze she-wolf nursing Romulus and Remus , which has become the emblem of Rome. The Conservator's Apartment is distinguished by elaborate interior decorations, including frescoes , stuccos , tapestries , and carved ceilings and doors. The third floor of the Palazzo dei Conservatori houses the Capitoline Art Gallery, housing the museums' painting and applied art galleries. The Capitoline Coin Cabinet, containing collections of coins , medals , jewels , and jewelry ,

1690-587: The "Cardinal of Santa Lucia". This prompted the noted historian of the Catholic Church, Ludwig von Pastor , to issue a firm rebuttal. Sixtus continued a dispute with King Louis XI of France , who upheld the Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges (1438), which held that papal decrees needed royal assent before they could be promulgated in France. That was a cornerstone of the privileges claimed for

1755-601: The Canary Islands, and in the spring of 1478, they sent Juan Rejon with sixty soldiers and thirty cavalry to the Grand Canary, where the natives retreated inland. Sixtus's earlier threats to excommunicate all captains or pirates who enslaved Christians in the bull Regimini Gregis of 1476 could have been intended to emphasise the need to convert the natives of the Canary Islands and Guinea and establish

1820-526: The Capitoline museum. Opened to the public in 1734 under Clement XII , the Capitoline Museums are considered one of the oldest museums in the world, understood as a place where art could be enjoyed by all and not only by the owners. In 2016, the museum enclosed several of its nude statues in white-colored wooden panels ahead of a meeting between Iranian president Hassan Rouhani and Italian Prime Minister Matteo Renzi that it hosted. The move

1885-647: The Franciscan order at the age of 50. In 1467, he was appointed Cardinal by Pope Paul II with the titular church being the Basilica of San Pietro in Vincoli . Before his papal election, Cardinal della Rovere was renowned for his unworldliness and had written learned treatises, including On the Blood of Christ and On the Power of God . His reputation for piety was one of the deciding factors that prompted

1950-586: The Giardino Romano is similar to the one used for the Sala Ottagonale and British Museum Great Court . The 1996 design is by the architect Carlo Aymonino . Its volume recalls that of the oval space designed by Michelangelo for the piazza. Its centerpiece is the bronze equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius, which was once in the centre of Piazza del Campidoglio and has been kept indoors ever since its modern restoration. Moving these statues out of

2015-515: The Gladiator lie He leans upon his hand—his manly brow Consents to death, but conquers agony, And his drooped head sinks gradually low— And through his side, the last drops, ebbing slow From the red gash, fall heavy, one by one... It was widely copied, with kings, academics and wealthy landowners commissioning their own reproductions of the Dying Gaul . Thomas Jefferson wanted

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2080-593: The Italian historian Stefano Infessura , Diary of the City of Rome , Sixtus was a "lover of boys and a sodomite" ( Latin : puerorum amator et sodomita ) awarding benefices and bishoprics in return for sexual favours and nominating a number of young men as cardinals. Sexualised polemics, in truth concerned with politics and not the sexual lives of their victims, were not uncommon during this time; but as Pfisterer (sic) notes "the novel flood of accusations of sodomy against

2145-791: The Ludovisi's estate was redeveloped and built over. The Dying Gaul was first recorded in a 1623 inventory of the collections of the Ludovisi family and in 1633 was in the Palazzo Grande , part of the Villa Ludovisi. Pope Clement XII (ruled 1730–1740) acquired it for the Capitoline collections . It was later taken by Napoleon's forces under the terms of the Treaty of Tolentino and was displayed with other Italian works of art in

2210-527: The Portuguese the rights to acquire slaves along the African Coast by force or trade. Those concessions were confirmed by Sixtus in his own bull, Aeterni regis , of 21 June 1481. Arguably the "ideology of conquest" expounded in those texts became the means by which commerce and conversion were facilitated. In November 1476, Isabel and Fernando ordered an investigation into rights of conquest in

2275-448: The bachelor's, master's, licentiate, and doctoral degrees. The archbishop of Uppsala was also named as the university's Chancellor , and was charged with maintaining the rights and privileges of the university and its members. This act of Sixtus IV had a profound long-term effect on the society and culture of Sweden, an effect which continues up to the present. Sixtus IV became ill on 8 August 1484; this illness worsened on 10 August while

2340-464: The buildings themselves. For the history of their design and construction, see Capitoline Hill#Michelangelo . The Capitoline Museums are composed of three main buildings surrounding the Piazza del Campidoglio and interlinked by an underground gallery beneath the piazza. The three main buildings of the Capitoline Museums are: In addition, the 16th century Palazzo Caffarelli-Clementino , located off

2405-547: The collections of the Capitoline Museums . He also refounded, enriched and enlarged the Vatican Library . He had Regiomontanus attempt the first sanctioned reorganisation of the Julian calendar and increased the size and prestige of the papal chapel choir, bringing singers and some prominent composers ( Gaspar van Weerbeke , Marbrianus de Orto and Bertrandus Vaqueras ) to Rome from the north. In addition to being

2470-496: The dignity of heroic nudity or pathetic nudity. It was not infrequent for Greek warriors to be likewise depicted as heroic nudes, as exemplified by the pedimental sculptures of the Temple of Aphaea at Aegina . The message conveyed by the sculpture, as H. W. Janson comments, is that "they knew how to die, barbarians that they were". The Dying Galatian became one of the most celebrated works to have survived from antiquity and

2535-541: The dogma of the Immaculate Conception , which had been confirmed at the Council of Basle in 1439, and he designated 8 December as its feastday. In 1476, he issued the apostolic constitution Cum Praeexcelsa , establishing a Mass and Office for the feast. He formally annulled the decrees of the Council of Constance in 1478. The two papal bulls issued by Pope Nicholas V , Dum Diversas of 1452 and Romanus Pontifex of 1455, had effectively given

2600-465: The foundation of the temple (6th century BC). In the three halls adjacent to the Appartamento dei Conservatori are to be found the showcases of the famous Castellani Collection with a part of the set of Greek and Etruscan vases that was donated to the municipality of Rome by Augusto Castellani in the mid-19th century. The Centrale Montemartini is a former power station of Acea (active as

2665-510: The future Pope Julius II / Giuliano Della Rovere standing before him; and Girolamo Riario and Giovanni della Rovere , behind the kneeling Platina , author of the first humanist history of the popes. His nephew, Pietro Riario, possibly also benefited from his alleged nepotism. He was successively promoted to be a cardinal, the bishop of Florence, the Patriarch of Constantinople and given some 45 additional benefices . Pietro became one of

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2730-429: The impression they left on his contemporaries as causal. Criticisms of Pietro 's meteoric rise were not constrained to the charge of benefiting from nepotism as Sixtus IV's nephew, nor to allegations of possibly having been Sixtus IV's illegitimate son. Indeed, Pietro and his brother Girolamo Riario were alleged to have been lovers of Sixtus IV in polemics against the latter. According to the later published chronicle of

2795-478: The long-established markets from the Campidoglio in 1477 and decreed in a bull of 1480 the widening of streets and the first post-Roman paving, the removal of porticoes and other post-classical impediments to free public passage. At the beginning of his papacy, in 1471, Sixtus had donated several historically important Roman sculptures that founded a papal collection of art, which would eventually develop into

2860-523: The most notable being Bonaventure (1482); he also beatified one person, John Buoni (1483). In 1477, Sixtus IV issued a papal bull authorizing the creation of Uppsala University – the first university in Sweden and in the whole of Scandinavia . The choice of this location for the university derived from the fact that the archbishopric of Uppsala had been one of the most important sees in Sweden proper since Christianity first spread to this region in

2925-426: The museums' collection has grown to include many ancient Roman statues, inscriptions, and other artifacts; a collection of medieval and Renaissance art; and collections of jewels , coins , and other items. The museums are owned and operated by the municipality of Rome . The statue of a mounted rider in the centre of the piazza is of Emperor Marcus Aurelius . It is a copy, the original being housed on-site in

2990-543: The ninth century, as well as Uppsala being long-standing hub for regional trade. Uppsala's bull, which granted the university its corporate rights, established a number of provisions. Among the most important of these was that the university was officially given the same freedoms and privileges as the University of Bologna . This included the right to establish the four traditional faculties of theology , law ( Canon Law and Roman law ), medicine, and philosophy, and to award

3055-514: The oak tree ("rovere" in Italian), symbol of Sixtus IV. The overall program of the panels, their beauty, complex symbolism, classical references and their relative arrangement are compelling and comprehensive illustrations of the Renaissance worldview. None of them actually states how he died. Sixtus created an unusually large number of cardinals during his pontificate (23) who were drawn from

3120-412: The original or a reproduction at Monticello . The less well-off could purchase copies of the statue in miniature for use as ornaments and paperweights. Full-size plaster copies were also studied by art students. It was requisitioned by Napoleon Bonaparte by terms of the Treaty of Campoformio (1797) during his invasion of Italy and taken in triumph to Paris , where it was put on display. The piece

3185-509: The palazzo allows those sculptures temporarily moved to the Centrale Montemartini to be brought back. It also houses the remaining fragments of the bronze colossus of Constantine and the archaeological remains of the tuff foundations of the temple of Capitoline Jupiter, with a model, drawn and computer reconstructions and finds dating from the earliest occupation on the site (in the mid Bronze Age: 17th-14th centuries B.C.) to

3250-477: The piazza adjacent to the Palazzo dei Conservatori, was added to the museum complex in the early 20th century. The collections here are ancient sculpture, mostly Roman but also Greek and Egyptian . Features the relief from the honorary monument to Marcus Aurelius . The second floor of the building is occupied by the Conservator's Apartment, a space now open to the public and housing such famous works as

3315-428: The pin concealed by the left kneecap. The Gaul's "spiky" hair is a 17th-century reworking of longer hair found as broken upon discovery. During this period, the statue was widely interpreted as representing a defeated gladiator , rather than a Galatian warrior. Hence it was known as the 'Dying' or 'Wounded Gladiator', 'Roman Gladiator', and ' Murmillo Dying'. It has also been called the 'Dying Trumpeter' because one of

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3380-543: The pope was attending an event in Rome. He felt unwell that evening and was forced to cancel a meeting he was to hold with his cardinals the following morning. The Pope grew weaker during the night of 11 August and he was unable to sleep. Sixtus IV died the following evening – 12 August. The envoy of the Medici family summed up Sixtus' reign in the announcement to his master, "Today at 5 o'clock His Holiness Sixtus IV departed this life – may God forgive him!" Pope Sixtus's tomb

3445-507: The prime of life. The Roman historian Livy recorded that the Celts of Asia Minor fought naked and their wounds were plain to see on the whiteness of their bodies. The Greek historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus regarded this as a foolish tactic: Our enemies fight naked. What injury could their long hair, their fierce looks, their clashing arms do us? These are mere symbols of barbarian boastfulness. The depiction of this particular Galatian as naked may also have been intended to lend him

3510-419: The richest men in Rome and was entrusted with Pope Sixtus IV's foreign policy, in addition to being given an unofficial post as the de facto ruler of Rome. He reportedly spent 200,000 gold ducats on foodstuffs and festivities during two years in office. Pietro died prematurely in 1474. Chroniclers of his life seem to regard his death as unnatural and thus connect his alleged grandiose spending habits and

3575-652: The roster of the princely houses of Italy, France and Spain, thus ensuring that many of his policies continued after his death: Pope Sixtus is portrayed by Raoul Bova in the second season, and John Lynch in the third season of the TV series Medici: Masters of Florence . Pope Sixtus is also portrayed by James Faulkner in all three seasons of the Starz TV series Da Vinci's Demons . Dying Gaul The Dying Gaul , also called The Dying Galatian ( Italian : Galata Morente ) or The Dying Gladiator ,

3640-469: The scattered objects lying beside the figure is a horn. The artistic quality and expressive pathos of the statue aroused great admiration among the educated classes in the 17th and 18th centuries and was a "must-see" sight on the Grand Tour of Europe undertaken by young men of the day. Byron was one such visitor, commemorating the statue in his poem Childe Harold's Pilgrimage : I see before me

3705-541: The venue was eventually converted into a permanent museum. Its permanent collection comprises 400 ancient statues, moved here during the reorganisation of the Capitoline Museums in 1997, along with tombs, busts, and mosaics. Many of them were excavated in the ancient Roman horti (e.g. the Gardens of Sallust ) between the 1890s and 1930s, a fruitful period for Roman archaeology. Pope Sixtus IV Pope Sixtus IV (or Xystus IV , Italian : Sisto IV ; born Francesco della Rovere ; 21 July 1414 – 12 August 1484)

3770-407: Was about to be purchased by English collectors, and opened the museum to the public, making it the oldest public museum in the world, the first place in the world that allowed ordinary people to enjoy art. The history of the museum can be traced to 1471, when Pope Sixtus IV donated a collection of important ancient bronzes to the people of Rome and located them on the Capitoline Hill. Since then,

3835-406: Was born in Celle Ligure , a town near Savona . As a young man, Della Rovere joined the Franciscan Order , an unlikely choice for a political career, and his intellectual qualities were revealed while he was studying philosophy and theology at the University of Pavia . He went on to lecture at Padua and many other Italian universities. In 1464, Della Rovere was elected Minister General of

3900-516: Was criticized by Italian Culture Minister Dario Franceschini as "incomprehensible," while the museum said that it had done so following a request from the prime minister's office, although Franceschini said that the government had not been informed of the matter in advance. Rouhani also denied asking Italian officials to cover up the artefacts but expressed his thanks to his hosts for making his visit "as pleasant as possible". This section contains collections sorted by building, and brief information on

3965-410: Was destroyed in the Sack of Rome in 1527 . Today, his remains, along with the remains of his nephew Pope Julius II (Giuliano della Rovere), are interred in St. Peter's Basilica, in the floor in front of the monument to Pope Clement X. A marble tombstone marks the site. His bronze funerary monument, now in the basement Treasury of St. Peter's Basilica , made like a giant casket of goldsmith's work,

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4030-446: Was engraved and endlessly copied by artists, for whom it was a classic model for depiction of strong emotion, and by sculptors. It shows signs of having been repaired, with the head seemingly having been broken off at the neck, though it is unclear whether the repairs were carried out in Roman times or after the statue's 17th-century rediscovery. As discovered, the proper left leg was in three pieces. They are now pinned together with

4095-412: Was head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 9 August 1471 until his death. His accomplishments as pope included the construction of the Sistine Chapel and the creation of the Vatican Library . A patron of the arts, he brought together the group of artists who ushered the early Renaissance into Rome with the first masterpieces of the city's new artistic age. Sixtus founded

4160-495: Was that access to corpses which allowed the anatomist Vesalius , along with Titian 's pupil Jan Stephen van Calcar , to complete the revolutionary medical/anatomical text De humani corporis fabrica . The Pope created 34 cardinals in eight consistories held during his reign, among them three nephews, one grandnephew and one other relative, thus continuing the practice of nepotism that he and his successors would engage in during this period. Sixtus IV named seven new saints, with

4225-423: Was unhappy with the excesses of the Inquisition and condemned the most flagrant abuses in 1482. As a temporal prince who constructed stout fortresses in the Papal States , he encouraged the Venetians to attack Ferrara , which he wished to obtain for another nephew. Ercole I d'Este , Duke of Ferrara , was allied with the Sforzas of Milan , the Medicis of Florence along with the King of Naples , normally

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