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133-481: In the United Kingdom, military conscription has existed for two periods in modern times. The first was from 1916 to 1920, and the second from 1939 to 1960. The last conscription term ended in 1963 although many soldiers chose to continue in the service beyond 1963. It was legally designated as "Military Service" from 1916 to 1920, and as "National Service" from 1939 to 1960. However, between 1939 and 1948, it

266-565: A men's rights group , sued the US Selective Service System in 2019, leading to it being declared unconstitutional by a US Federal Judge. The federal district judge's opinion was unanimously overturned on appeal to the U.S. Court of Appeals for the 5th Circuit . In September 2021, the House of Representatives passed the annual Defense Authorization Act, which included an amendment that states that "all Americans between

399-642: A British subject in Canada, but not the United Kingdom or South Africa. The country was included in the list of Commonwealth nations in Canadian law, despite South Africa having left the Commonwealth in 1961 and not rejoining it until 1994. By the 1980s, most colonies of the British Empire had become independent. Parliament updated nationality law to reflect the more modest geographical boundaries of

532-400: A British territory became British Overseas citizens . While all nationals under those categories continue to be Commonwealth citizens, the definition of British subject was limited to its present meaning. It currently only includes the category of people previously called British subjects without citizenship as well as women who married such persons and registered for the status. The term

665-510: A battalion under a lieutenant-colonel), and were embodied annually for training, or as required by war or emergency. Volunteers, organised under appointed Captains of Forts , also manned fortified coastal artillery batteries to maintain a standing defence against enemy vessels or landing parties. This Militia was raised under acts of the colonial Parliament of Bermuda , which required periodic renewal. Bermuda had received its first regular (English Army) unit (an Independent Company , detached from

798-577: A corps of 150,000 black slaves, called his Black Guard . He used them to coerce the country into submission. Modern conscription, the massed military enrollment of national citizens ( levée en masse ), was devised during the French Revolution , to enable the Republic to defend itself from the attacks of European monarchies. Deputy Jean-Baptiste Jourdan gave its name to the 5 September 1798 Act, whose first article stated: "Any Frenchman

931-546: A draft in order to reinforce social equality, create social consciousness, break down class divisions and allow young adults to immerse themselves in public enterprise. This justification forms the basis of Israel's People's Army Model . Charles Rangel called for the reinstatement of the draft during the Iraq War not because he seriously expected it to be adopted but to stress how the socioeconomic restratification meant that very few children of upper-class Americans served in

1064-418: A gender-neutral model. Israel has universal female conscription, although it is possible to avoid service by claiming a religious exemption and over a third of Israeli women do so. Finland introduced voluntary female conscription in 1995, giving women between the ages of 18 and 29 an option to complete their military service alongside men. Sudanese law allows for conscription of women, but this

1197-456: A national army or fyrd is a strange delusion dreamt up by antiquarians in the late eighteenth or early nineteenth centuries to justify universal military conscription. In feudal Japan the shogun decree of 1393 exempted money lenders from religious or military levies, in return for a yearly tax. The Ōnin War weakened the shogun and levies were imposed again on money lenders. This overlordism

1330-470: A one-year full-time placement in the armed forces or to perform part-time community service of 25 days per year for an unspecified number of years. Conscription Conscription is controversial for a range of reasons, including conscientious objection to military engagements on religious or philosophical grounds; political objection, for example to service for a disliked government or unpopular war; sexism , in that historically men have been subject to

1463-714: A parent born in the UK. Applicants who successfully register in this way become British citizens by descent and cannot pass citizenship to their children born outside of the UK. Individuals who become British citizens would automatically lose British subject status if they are not connected with Ireland. Otherwise, British subjects may also be British citizens simultaneously. British subjects who do not hold and have not lost any other nationality on or after 4 July 2002 are entitled to register as British citizens. In Australia , British subjects who were enrolled to vote before 26 January 1984 retain that right in elections and referendums despite

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1596-520: A particular age beyond which no one in that job would be enlisted. For example, lighthouse keepers and police officers were "reserved" at 18 years old. From 1943, some conscripts were directed into the British coal mining industry and become known as the " Bevin Boys ". Provision was also made for conscientious objectors , who were required to justify their position to a tribunal, with power to allocate

1729-523: A religion. There was a system of tribunals to adjudicate upon claims for exemption on the grounds of performing civilian work of national importance, domestic hardship, health, and conscientious objection . The law went through several changes before the war ended. Married men were exempt in the original Act, although this was changed in May 1916. The age limit was also eventually raised to 51 years old. Recognition of work of national importance also diminished. In

1862-471: A select class of warriors or mercenaries . Jean Jacques Rousseau argued vehemently against professional armies since he believed that it was the right and privilege of every citizen to participate to the defense of the whole society and that it was a mark of moral decline to leave the business to professionals. He based his belief upon the development of the Roman Republic , which came to an end at

1995-517: A subject by royal prerogative . By this method, a foreigner became a denizen – although they were no longer considered an alien, they could not pass subject status to their children by descent and were barred from Crown service and public office. This mechanism was no longer used after 1873. Until the mid-19th century, it was unclear whether nationality regulations in Great Britain (the United Kingdom from 1801) were applicable elsewhere in

2128-513: Is a soldier and owes himself to the defense of the nation." It enabled the creation of the Grande Armée , what Napoleon Bonaparte called "the nation in arms", which overwhelmed European professional armies that often numbered only into the low tens of thousands. More than 2.6 million men were inducted into the French military in this way between the years 1800 and 1813. The defeat of

2261-461: Is no longer synonymous with Commonwealth citizen . British citizens are not British subjects as defined by the 1981 Act. In other Commonwealth countries that still retained it, British subject status under the previous definition was progressively abolished. The status remained in law in South Africa until 1961, Canada until 1977, New Zealand until 1977, and Australia until 1987. Though

2394-476: Is not implemented in practice. In the United Kingdom during World War II , beginning in 1941, women were brought into the scope of conscription but, as all women with dependent children were exempt and many women were informally left in occupations such as nursing or teaching, the number conscripted was relatively few. Most women who were conscripted were sent to the factories, although some were part of

2527-676: The Auxiliary Territorial Service (ATS), Women's Land Army , and other women's services. None were assigned to combat roles unless they volunteered. In contemporary United Kingdom, in July 2016, all exclusions on women serving in Ground Close Combat (GCC) roles were lifted. In the Soviet Union , there was never conscription of women for the armed forces , but the severe disruption of normal life and

2660-481: The 2024 general election and was announced as such on 25 May 2024, despite the Conservative defence minister Andrew Murrison stating just two days prior that government policy was that circumstances demanded a volunteer professional military and that national service would have a negative effect on morale. Under these plans, which would have cost £2.5 billion, all 18-year-olds would have been required to perform

2793-646: The 2nd Regiment of Foot ) in 1701. This was withdrawn in 1763, following the Seven Years' War , and replaced by a company detached from the 9th Regiment of Foot in Florida and a detachment from the Independent Company of the Bahamas, but these were withdrawn in 1768, leaving only the militia and volunteer gunners. Two companies of the invalid Royal Garrison Battalion were posted to Bermuda during

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2926-794: The Abbasid caliphs in 9th-century Baghdad . Over time they became a powerful military caste . On more than one occasion, they seized power, for example, ruling Egypt from 1250 to 1517. From 1250 Egypt had been ruled by the Bahri dynasty of Kipchak origin. Slaves from the Caucasus served in the army and formed an elite corps of troops. They eventually revolted in Egypt to form the Burgi dynasty . The Mamluks' excellent fighting abilities, massed Islamic armies, and overwhelming numbers succeeded in overcoming

3059-619: The American War of Independence , but this unit was disbanded at Bermuda in 1783. Regular British Army infantry (a detachment of the 47th Regiment of Foot ) was detached to Bermuda to re-establish the Bermuda Garrison in 1793 as the French Revolution led to war between Britain and France. This unit was joined in 1794 by a company Invalid Royal Artillery from the Board of Ordnance Military Corps (and not at that time part of

3192-744: The Bermuda Garrison , with the reserve units taking on greater responsibilities). Conscription into the Bermuda Militia Artillery and the Bermuda Volunteer Rifle Corps was discussed during the First World War , but had not been put into place before the cessation of hostilities. It was introduced during the Second World War , with conscripts serving full-time for the duration in the BMA, BVRC,

3325-759: The Bermuda Volunteer Engineers (raised in 1931), or the Bermuda Militia Infantry (raised in 1939). Those unable to serve full-time were directed into the Bermuda Home Guard (raised for the duration of the war). Although conscription ended with the war, a shortfall of volunteers led to its reintroduction to the BVRC in 1957 (when the regular army components of the Bermuda Garrison were withdrawn, leaving only

3458-793: The Cyprus Emergency , Kenya Emergency , and the Korean War , where conscripts to the Gloucestershire Regiment took part in the last stand during the Battle of the Imjin River . In addition, National Servicemen served in the Suez Crisis in 1956. During the 1950s there was a prohibition on serving members of the armed forces standing for election to Parliament. A few National Servicemen stood for election in

3591-582: The English Civil War ; the United Kingdom abolished conscription in 1960. Around the reign of Hammurabi (1791–1750 BC ), the Babylonian Empire used a system of conscription called Ilkum . Under that system those eligible were required to serve in the royal army in time of war. During times of peace they were instead required to provide labour for other activities of the state. In return for this service, people subject to it gained

3724-662: The First World War , the Dominions developed distinct national identities. Britain formally recognised this at the 1926 Imperial Conference , jointly issuing the Balfour Declaration with all the Dominion heads of government, which stated that the United Kingdom and Dominions were autonomous and equal to each other within the British Commonwealth of Nations . Legislative independence of the Dominions

3857-508: The Isle of Man were liable to be called up, with some exemptions: Pregnant women were not exempted, but in practice were not called up. Men under 20 years old were initially not liable to be sent overseas, but this exemption was lifted by 1942. People called up before they were 51 years old but who reached their 51st birthday during their service were liable to serve until the end of the war. People who had retired, resigned or been dismissed from

3990-639: The Judicial Yuan of the Republic of China in its Interpretation 490 considered that the physical differences between males and females and the derived role differentiation in their respective social functions and lives would not make drafting only males a violation of the Constitution of the Republic of China . Though women are not conscripted in Taiwan, transsexual persons are exempt. In 2018,

4123-593: The Netherlands started including women in its draft registration system, although conscription is not currently enforced for either sex. France and Portugal , where conscription was abolished, extended their symbolic, mandatory day of information on the armed forces for young people - called Defence and Citizenship Day in France and Day of National Defence in Portugal – to women in 1997 and 2008, respectively; at

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4256-900: The Nurse Corps in preparation for a planned invasion of Japan . In 1981 in the United States , several men filed lawsuit in the case Rostker v. Goldberg , alleging that the Selective Service Act of 1948 violates the Due Process Clause of the Fifth Amendment by requiring that only men register with the Selective Service System (SSS). The Supreme Court eventually upheld the Act, stating that "the argument for registering women

4389-666: The Prussian Army in particular shocked the Prussian establishment, which had believed it was invincible after the victories of Frederick the Great . The Prussians were used to relying on superior organization and tactical factors such as order of battle to focus superior troops against inferior ones. Given approximately equivalent forces, as was generally the case with professional armies, these factors showed considerable importance. However, they became considerably less important when

4522-714: The Territorial Force (later renamed the Territorial Army ) in Britain in 1907–1908, with the introduction of terms of service (specific lengths of service for which volunteers enlisted), but this did not occur in Bermuda until the 1920s (1921 for the BVRC and 1928 for the BMA, as post-war reductions of the British Government's defence budget let to the reduction of the regular army components of

4655-409: The 1951 and 1955 general elections in order to be dismissed from service. National Service ended gradually from 1957. It was decided that those born on or after 1 October 1939 would not be required, but conscription continued for those born earlier whose call-up had been delayed for any reason. In November 1960 the last conscripted men entered service, as call-ups formally ended on 31 December 1960, and

4788-644: The 820s and 830s. The Turkic troops soon came to dominate the government , establishing a pattern throughout the Islamic world of a ruling military class, often separated by ethnicity, culture and even religion by the mass of the population, a paradigm that found its apogee in the Mamluks of Egypt and the Janissary corps of the Ottoman Empire , institutions that survived until the early 19th century. In

4921-648: The British Army). Royal Engineers officers had already been posted to Bermuda to survey the defences and oversee their improvement. There were no Royal Sappers and Miners present, however, until the 19th century, and civilians (including retired soldiers) were hired locally to carry out the construction work. At the same time, the Royal Navy established in Bermuda what was to become the Royal Naval Dockyard, Bermuda and an Admiralty House , and

5054-437: The British government has never conceded to suggestions that its policies and legislation concerning nationality were discriminatory or racist, Parliament has since revised nationality law to correct remaining cases of statelessness caused by deprivation of the right to settle in the UK after 1962. The Nationality, Immigration and Asylum Act 2002 granted British subjects who do not hold and have not lost an alternative nationality

5187-802: The Christian Crusader fortresses in the Holy Land. The Mamluks were the most successful defence against the Mongol Ilkhanate of Persia and Iraq from entering Egypt. On the western coast of Africa, Berber Muslims captured non-Muslims to put to work as laborers. They generally converted the younger people to Islam and many became quite assimilated. In Morocco, the Berber looked south rather than north. The Moroccan Sultan Moulay Ismail , called "the Bloodthirsty" (1672–1727), employed

5320-515: The Commonwealth that wished to become republics rather than preserve the monarch as head of state. The change in naming also indicated a shift in the base theory to this aspect of British nationality; allegiance to the Crown was no longer a requirement to possess British subject status and the common status would be maintained by voluntary agreement among the various members of the Commonwealth. British subject/Commonwealth citizen status co-existed with

5453-417: The Crown, and could not voluntarily renounce British subject status until 1870, when it was first permitted. Prior to 1708, foreigners could only be naturalised through Acts of Parliament . Although procedures were created after this point for aliens to become subjects, personalised naturalising legislation continued to be enacted until 1975. Additionally, the monarch could personally make any individual

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5586-456: The Empire. Individual colonies had each developed their own procedures and requirements for naturalisation, granting subject status at the discretion of those local governments. In 1847, Parliament formalised a clear distinction between subjects who were naturalised in the UK and those who became British subjects in other territories. Individuals naturalised in the UK were deemed to have received

5719-773: The Janissaries in origin and means of development were the Mamluks of Egypt in the Middle Ages . The Mamluks were usually captive non-Muslim Iranian and Turkic children who had been kidnapped or bought as slaves from the Barbary coasts. The Egyptians assimilated and trained the boys and young men to become Islamic soldiers who served the Muslim caliphs and the Ayyubid sultans during the Middle Ages . The first mamluks served

5852-432: The Kapikulu system willingly, as they saw this as a potentially invaluable career opportunity for their children. Eventually the Sultan turned to foreign volunteers from the warrior clans of Circassians in southern Russia to fill his Janissary armies. As a whole the system began to break down, the loyalty of the Jannissaries became increasingly suspect. Mahmud II forcibly disbanded the Janissary corps in 1826. Similar to

5985-428: The Ministry of Defence and a spokesman for the British Prime Minister Rishi Sunak publicly denying this was a plan by the armed forces, with the former issuing a statement declaring "The British military has a proud tradition of being a voluntary force and there is absolutely no suggestion of a return to conscription". Reintroduction of mandatory national service was a key plank of the Conservative Party manifesto for

6118-423: The Prussian armies faced Napoleon's forces that outnumbered their own in some cases by more than ten to one. Scharnhorst advocated adopting the levée en masse , the military conscription used by France. The Krümpersystem was the beginning of short-term compulsory service in Prussia, as opposed to the long-term conscription previously used. In the Russian Empire , the military service time "owed" by serfs

6251-445: The Sultan's Kapıkulu forces increased to about 100,000. In later years, Sultans turned to the Barbary Pirates to supply their Jannissaries corps. Their attacks on ships off the coast of Africa or in the Mediterranean, and subsequent capture of able-bodied men for ransom or sale provided some captives for the Sultan's system. Starting in the 17th century, Christian families living under the Ottoman rule began to submit their sons into

6384-416: The UK or any former British territory. Women married to British subjects were also able to register for the status before 1983. Virtually all other individuals with this status hold it by virtue of their own, or their father's, birth in former British India . British subjects automatically lose the status if they acquire any other nationality, including other British nationality classes, unless they possess

6517-445: The UK. However, strong economic conditions in Britain after the Second World War attracted an unprecedented wave of colonial migration. In response to growing anti-immigration sentiment, Parliament imposed immigration controls on subjects originating from outside the British Islands with the Commonwealth Immigrants Act 1962 . The Immigration Act 1971 relaxed controls on patrials, subjects whose parents or grandparents were born in

6650-442: The UK. If they hold no other citizenship, British subjects without right of abode in the UK are effectively stateless , as they are not guaranteed the right to enter the country in which they are nationals. Before the concept of nationality was codified in legislation, inhabitants of English communities owed allegiance to their feudal lords , who were themselves vassals of the monarch . This system of loyalty, indirectly owed to

6783-432: The US, men who do not register with the Selective Service cannot apply for citizenship, receive federal financial aid, grants or loans, be employed by the federal government, be admitted to public colleges or universities, or, in some states, obtain a driver's license. Many American libertarians oppose conscription and call for the abolition of the Selective Service System , arguing that impressment of individuals into

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6916-447: The United Kingdom are exempted from obtaining a visa or entry certificate when visiting the UK for less than six months. When travelling in other countries, they may seek British consular protection. British subjects are not considered foreign nationals when residing in the UK and are entitled to certain rights as Commonwealth citizens . These include exemption from registration with local police, voting eligibility in UK elections, and

7049-433: The United Kingdom for more than five years and possessing either right of abode or ILR for more than one year. Registration in this way confers citizenship otherwise than by descent , meaning that children born outside of the UK to those successfully registered will be British citizens by descent . British subjects with right of abode may also register for citizenship without residence requirements by virtue of their birth to

7182-430: The United Kingdom was also allowed to become a paper tiger after the conclusion of the Napoleonic Wars and the American War of 1812, and was not restored until the 1850s, from which time it recruited only volunteers; the Volunteer Force was raised at the same time to boost Britain's defences). The British Government spent the next eight decades unsuccessfully asking, pleading and cajoling the local government to restore

7315-467: The United Kingdom, and gave effective preferential treatment to Commonwealth citizens from white-majority countries. Outside of the United Kingdom, British subjects already did not have an automatic right to settle. Australia, Canada, New Zealand, and South Africa had immigration restrictions in place for British subjects from outside their jurisdictions targeted at non-white migrants since the late 19th century. After 1949, non-local British subjects under

7448-458: The United Kingdom, though non-white immigration into the United Kingdom was systemically discouraged. This entitlement was part of a wider initiative to preserve close relationships with certain Dominions and colonies (Australia, Canada, New Zealand, South Africa, and Southern Rhodesia ) and to moderate nationalist attitudes within the Commonwealth. It was thought that only a limited number of non-white colonial migrants would ever seek to settle in

7581-551: The United Kingdom. The British Nationality Act 1981 recategorised CUKCs into different nationality groups based on patriality and birthplace. CUKCs with the right of abode in the United Kingdom or those closely connected with the UK, Channel Islands , or Isle of Man became British citizens while those connected with a remaining colony became British Dependent Territories citizens (later renamed British Overseas Territories citizens ). Those who could not be reclassified into either of these statuses and who were no longer associated with

7714-441: The United States, every male resident is required by law to register with the Selective Service System within 30 days following his 18th birthday and be available for a draft; this is often accomplished automatically by a motor vehicle department during licensing or by voter registration. According to Milton Friedman the cost of conscription can be related to the parable of the broken window in anti-draft arguments. The cost of

7847-471: The ability to enlist in the British Armed Forces . British subjects are also eligible to serve in all Civil Service posts, be granted British honours , receive peerages , and sit in the House of Lords . If given indefinite leave to remain (ILR), they are eligible to stand for election to the House of Commons and local government. British subjects only have right of abode in the UK if they were born to at least one British subject parent who themself

7980-404: The ages of 18 and 25 must register for selective service." This amendment omitted the word "male", which would have extended a potential draft to women; however, the amendment was removed before the National Defense Authorization Act was passed. Feminists have argued, first, that military conscription is sexist because wars serve the interests of what they view as the patriarchy ; second, that

8113-480: The all-volunteer American armed forces. It is estimated by the British military that in a professional military, a company deployed for active duty in peacekeeping corresponds to three inactive companies at home. Salaries for each are paid from the military budget. In contrast, volunteers from a trained reserve are in their civilian jobs when they are not deployed. Under the total defense doctrine, conscription paired with periodic refresher training ensures that

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8246-516: The applicant to one of three categories: unconditional exemption; exemption conditional upon performing specified civilian work (frequently farming, forestry or menial hospital work); exemption from only combatant service, meaning that the objector had to serve in the specially created Non-Combatant Corps or in some other non-combatant unit such as the Royal Army Medical Corps . By 1942 all male British subjects between 18 and 51 years old and all females 20 to 30 years old resident in Great Britain and

8379-401: The armed forces amounts to involuntary servitude . For example, Ron Paul , a former U.S. Libertarian Party presidential nominee, has said that conscription "is wrongly associated with patriotism , when it really represents slavery and involuntary servitude". The philosopher Ayn Rand opposed conscription, opining that "of all the statist violations of individual rights in a mixed economy,

8512-456: The basis that it violates gender equality , and some countries, especially in Europe , have extended conscription obligations to women. In 2006, eight countries ( China , Eritrea , Israel , Libya , Malaysia , North Korea , Peru , and Taiwan ) conscripted women into military service. Norway introduced female conscription in 2015, making it the first NATO member to have a legally compulsory national service for both men and women, and

8645-445: The building trades, were released in 1945, although restrictions on their immediate employment were supposed to be enforced. All women were released at the end of the war. National Service as peacetime conscription was formulated by the National Service Act 1948 introduced by Clement Attlee's Labour government. From 1 January 1949, healthy males 17 to 21 years old were required to serve in the armed forces for 18 months, and remain on

8778-442: The citizenships of each Commonwealth country. A person born in Australia would be both an Australian citizen and a British subject. British subjects under the previous meaning who held that status on 1 January 1949 because of a connection with the United Kingdom or a remaining colony became Citizens of the United Kingdom and Colonies (CUKC) . CUKC status was the principal form of British nationality during this period of time. There

8911-450: The civilian workforce. Every soldier conscripted in the army is taken away from his civilian work, and away from contributing to the economy which funds the military. This may be less a problem in an agrarian or pre-industrialized state where the level of education is generally low, and where a worker is easily replaced by another. However, this is potentially more costly in a post-industrial society where educational levels are high and where

9044-488: The constable and the marshals). Men were summoned by the bailiff (or the sénéchal in the south). Bailiffs were military and political administrators installed by the King to steward and govern a specific area of a province following the king's commands and orders. The men summoned in this way were then summoned by the lieutenant who was the King's representative and military governor over an entire province comprising many bailiwicks , seneschalties and castellanies. All men from

9177-407: The crisis, eventually resulting in a successful war for independence . Conscription legislation lapsed in 1920. However, as a result of the deteriorating international situation and the rise of Nazi Germany , the Secretary of State for War , Leslie Hore-Belisha , persuaded the cabinet of Neville Chamberlain to introduce a limited form of conscription on 27 April 1939. The Military Training Act

9310-1063: The draft in the most cases; and ideological objection, for example, to a perceived violation of individual rights. Those conscripted may evade service , sometimes by leaving the country, and seeking asylum in another country. Some selection systems accommodate these attitudes by providing alternative service outside combat -operations roles or even outside the military, such as siviilipalvelus (alternative civil service) in Finland and Zivildienst (compulsory community service) in Austria and Switzerland. Several countries conscript male soldiers not only for armed forces, but also for paramilitary agencies, which are dedicated to police -like domestic-only service like internal troops , border guards or non-combat rescue duties like civil defence . As of 2023, many states no longer conscript their citizens, relying instead upon professional militaries with volunteers . The ability to rely on such an arrangement, however, presupposes some degree of predictability with regard to both war-fighting requirements and

9443-511: The entire able-bodied population of a country can be mobilized to defend against invasion or assist civil authorities during emergencies. For this reason, some European countries have reintroduced or debated reintroducing conscription during the onset of the Second Cold War . Military Keynesians often argue for conscription as a job guarantee . For example, it was more financially beneficial for less-educated young Portuguese men born in 1967 to participate in conscription than to participate in

9576-594: The extra personnel for its planned invasion of Japan. However, the Japanese surrendered and the idea was abandoned. During the Great Patriotic War , the Red Army conscripted nearly 30 million men. Men's rights activists , feminists , and opponents of discrimination against men have criticized military conscription, or compulsory military service, as sexist . The National Coalition for Men,

9709-571: The first country in the world to draft women on the same formal terms as men. In practice only motivated volunteers are selected to join the army in Norway. Sweden introduced female conscription in 2010, but it was not activated until 2017. This made Sweden the second nation in Europe to draft women, and the second in the world (after Norway) to draft women on the same formal terms as men. Denmark will extend conscription to women from 2027, also on

9842-501: The forces before the war were liable to be called back if they had not reached 51 years of age. Britain did not completely demobilise in 1945 , as conscription continued after the war. Those already in the armed forces were given a release class determined by length of service and age. In practice, releases began in June 1945, and the last of the wartime conscripts had been released by 1949. However, urgently needed men, particularly those in

9975-651: The high proportion of civilians affected by World War II after the German invasion attracted many volunteers for " The Great Patriotic War ". Medical doctors of both sexes could and would be conscripted (as officers). Also, the Soviet university education system required Department of Chemistry students of both sexes to complete an ROTC course in NBC defense , and such female reservist officers could be conscripted in times of war. The United States came close to drafting women into

10108-458: The highly competitive job market with men of the same age who continued to higher education. Throughout history, women have only been conscripted to join armed forces in a few countries, in contrast to the universal practice of conscription from among the male population. The traditional view has been that military service is a test of manhood and a rite of passage from boyhood into manhood. In recent years, this position has been challenged on

10241-404: The holder right of abode in the United Kingdom but almost all British subjects do have this entitlement. As of 2024, about 22,700 British subjects hold valid British passports with this status and enjoy consular protection when travelling abroad; fewer than 700 do not have right of abode in the UK. Nationals of this class without right of abode are subject to immigration controls when entering

10374-608: The introduction of Australian citizenship requirements since then. Additionally, voting remains compulsory even if their enrollment had lapsed. In a case before Court of Justice of the European Union , it was argued by one of the parties that British subjects who hold no other nationality are de facto stateless because they do not have a right to enter the country that claims them as nationals. The Nationality, Immigration and Asylum Act 2002 allowed these individuals to register as British citizens, after which statelessness

10507-507: The king or the local lord, bringing along the weapons and armor according to their wealth. These levies fought as footmen, sergeants, and men at arms under local superiors appointed by the king or the local lord such as the arrière-ban in France. Arrière-ban denoted a general levy, where all able-bodied males age 15 to 60 living in the Kingdom of France were summoned to go to war by the King (or

10640-402: The land-holding aristocracy of the time and were required to serve with their own armour and weapons for a certain number of days each year. The historian David Sturdy has cautioned about regarding the fyrd as a precursor to a modern national army composed of all ranks of society, describing it as a "ridiculous fantasy": The persistent old belief that peasants and small farmers gathered to form

10773-477: The last conscripted servicemen left the armed forces in May 1963. Section 23(3) of the Civil Contingencies Act 2004 precludes the government from using that act to make emergency regulations that would "require a person, or enable a person to be required, to provide military service". The British overseas territory of Bermuda was the last jurisdiction to abolish conscription. Service in

10906-601: The last year of the war there was support for the conscription of clergy, though this was not enacted. Conscription lasted until mid-1919. Due to the political situation in Ireland, conscription was never applied there; only in Great Britain ( England , Scotland , and Wales ). An attempt to do this caused a huge backlash from the Irish public, defeating it, with Irish nationalism gaining significant support because of

11039-473: The middle of the 14th century, Ottoman Sultan Murad I developed personal troops to be loyal to him, with a slave army called the Kapıkulu . The new force was built by taking Christian children from newly conquered lands, especially from the far areas of his empire, in a system known as the devşirme (translated "gathering" or "converting"). The captive children were forced to convert to Islam . The Sultans had

11172-424: The military draft is the worst. It is an abrogation of rights. It negates man's fundamental right—the right to life—and establishes the fundamental principle of statism : that a man's life belongs to the state, and the state may claim it by compelling him to sacrifice it in battle." In 1917, a number of radicals and anarchists, including Emma Goldman , challenged the new draft law in federal court, arguing that it

11305-567: The military for six years. In the decades prior to World War I universal conscription along broadly Prussian lines became the norm for European armies, and those modeled on them. By 1914 the only substantial armies still completely dependent on voluntary enlistment were those of Britain and the United States. Some colonial powers such as France reserved their conscript armies for home service while maintaining professional units for overseas duties. The range of eligible ages for conscripting

11438-700: The military is a sexist institution and that conscripts are therefore indoctrinated into sexism; and third, that conscription of men normalizes violence by men as socially acceptable. Feminists have been organizers and participants in resistance to conscription in several countries. Conscription has also been criticized on the ground that, historically, only men have been subjected to conscription. Men who opt out or are deemed unfit for military service must often perform alternative service, such as Zivildienst in Austria , Germany and Switzerland , or pay extra taxes, whereas women do not have these obligations. In

11571-583: The militia until the requirement of consent for American investment into the Princess Hotel and the dredging of the channel into the St. George's Harbour led the local parliament to pass new militia and volunteer acts in 1892. During the interim, Bermudian volunteers had been recruited for local-service only into the regular army and the Board of Ordnance Military Corps, under terms of service similar to those of

11704-452: The monarch personally, developed into a general establishment of subjecthood to the Crown . Calvin's Case in 1608 established the principle of jus soli , that all those who were born within Crown dominions were natural-born subjects. After the Acts of Union 1707 , English and Scottish subjects became British subjects. Natural-born subjects were considered to owe perpetual allegiance to

11837-404: The most fit and capable subtract from the productivity of the economy; add to this the cost of training them, and in some countries paying them. Compared to these extensive costs, some would argue there is very little benefit; if there ever was a war then conscription and basic training could be completed quickly, and in any case there is little threat of a war in most countries with conscription. In

11970-485: The new definition who were resident in these independent Commonwealth countries continued to retain certain privileges. This included eligibility to vote in elections, for preferred paths to citizenship, and for welfare benefits. British subjects were eligible to vote in New Zealand until 1975 and Australia until 1984 (though subjects on the electoral roll in that year are still eligible). In Canada, voting eligibility

12103-577: The old Bermuda Militia from 1612 to 1816, as in the Militia of the Kingdom of England (including the Principality of Wales) and subsequently the English and Welsh Militia of the Kingdom of Great Britain , had been compulsory, with all able-bodied, military-aged males, whether free, indentured, or enslaved, liable. The Militia was divided into nine companies, one for each parish (collectively forming

12236-724: The old militia. From 1894, recruitment into the new part-time military reserves raised under the 1892 acts had originally followed the post-1850s practices in England for the Militia of the United Kingdom , in which soldiers voluntarily enlisted for six years (embodied for the duration of wars or emergencies, or otherwise only for annual training), and the Volunteer Force , in which part-time soldiers served voluntarily and could quit their service with 14 days' notice, except while embodied for training, war, or national emergency. The Militia, Volunteer force, and Yeomanry were merged into

12369-543: The outbreak of war, on 3 September 1939, the Military Training Act was overtaken by the National Service (Armed Forces) Act 1939 . The first intake was absorbed into the army. This act imposed a liability to conscription to all men aged 18 to 41 years who were living in Great Britain. Men could be rejected for medical reasons, and those engaged in vital industries or occupations were "reserved" at

12502-670: The primary role of the growing military garrison became the protection of the main base of the Royal Navy's North America and West Indies Station as the British Government came to view Fortress Bermuda more as a base than a colony. The build-up of the regular military forces led to the Parliament of Bermuda allowing the Militia Act to lapse after 1816 as the reserve forces were perceived as an unnecessary expense (the Militia in

12635-487: The realm. The bulk of the Anglo-Saxon English army, called the fyrd , was composed of part-time English soldiers drawn from the freemen of each county. In the 690s laws of Ine of Wessex , three levels of fines are imposed on different social classes for neglecting military service. Some modern writers claim military service in Europe was restricted to the landowning minor nobility. These thegns were

12768-405: The reciprocal rights and duties of citizens. "It may not be doubted that the very conception of a just government in its duty to the citizen includes the reciprocal obligation of the citizen to render military service in case of need and the right to compel." It can be argued that in a cost-to-benefit ratio , conscription during peacetime is not worthwhile. Months or years of service performed by

12901-669: The reintroduction of national service in the UK to give young people "a sense of belonging rather than a sense of violence." In 2024, Chief of the General Staff General Patrick Saunders delivered a speech advocating a volunteer "citizen army" of the willing in the wake of global turmoil, specifically the Russo-Ukrainian War and the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine , which elements of the press mischaracterised as advocacy of conscription; these statements generated controversy, and led to

13034-434: The reserve list for four years. They could be recalled to their units for up to 20 days for no more than three occasions during these four years. Men were exempt from National Service if they worked in one of the three " essential services ": coal mining , farming , and the merchant navy for a period of eight years. If they quit early, they were subject to being called up. Exemption continued for conscientious objectors, with

13167-467: The richest noble to the poorest commoner were summoned under the arrière-ban and they were supposed to present themselves to the King or his officials. In medieval Scandinavia the leiðangr ( Old Norse ), leidang ( Norwegian ), leding , ( Danish ), ledung ( Swedish ), lichting ( Dutch ), expeditio ( Latin ) or sometimes leþing ( Old English ), was a levy of free farmers conscripted into coastal fleets for seasonal excursions and in defence of

13300-556: The right to hold land. It is possible that this right was not to hold land per se but specific land supplied by the state. Various forms of avoiding military service are recorded. While it was outlawed by the Code of Hammurabi , the hiring of substitutes appears to have been practiced both before and after the creation of the code. Later records show that Ilkum commitments could become regularly traded. In other places, people simply left their towns to avoid their Ilkum service. Another option

13433-453: The right to register as British citizens. Naturalisation as a British subject is not possible. It is expected that British subjects will obtain citizenship in the country they reside in and that the number of active status holders will eventually dwindle until there are none. It is currently only possible to transfer British subject status by descent if an individual born to a British subject parent would otherwise be stateless . The status

13566-815: The same time as the Roman Army changed from a conscript to a professional force. Similarly, Aristotle linked the division of armed service among the populace intimately with the political order of the state. Niccolò Machiavelli argued strongly for conscription in The Prince and The Art of War and saw the professional armies, made up of mercenary units, as the cause of the failure of societal unity in Italy. Other proponents, such as William James , consider both mandatory military and national service as ways of instilling maturity in young adults. Some proponents, such as Jonathan Alter and Mickey Kaus , support

13699-522: The same time, the military registry of both countries and obligation of military service in case of war was extended to women. British subject The term " British subject " has several different meanings depending on the time period. Before 1949, it referred to almost all subjects of the British Empire (including the United Kingdom , Dominions , and colonies , but excluding protectorates and protected states ). Between 1949 and 1983,

13832-491: The same tribunal system and categories. In October 1950, in response to the British involvement in the Korean War , the service period was extended to two years; in compensation, the reserve period was reduced by six months. National Servicemen who showed promise could be commissioned as officers . National Service personnel were used in combat operations, including the Palestine Emergency , Malayan Emergency ,

13965-532: The scope of hostilities. Many states that have abolished conscription still, therefore, reserve the power to resume conscription during wartime or times of crisis. States involved in wars or interstate rivalries are most likely to implement conscription, and democracies are less likely than autocracies to implement conscription. With a few exceptions, such as Singapore and Egypt, former British colonies are less likely to have conscription, as they are influenced by British anti-conscription norms that can be traced back to

14098-624: The situation had since changed with the 2013 and 2015 restriction removals. Miller's opinion was reversed by the Fifth Circuit , stating that only the Supreme Court could overturn the Supreme Court precedence from Rostker . The Supreme Court considered but declined to review the Fifth Circuit's ruling in June 2021. In an opinion authored by Justice Sonia Sotomayor and joined by Justices Stephen Breyer and Brett Kavanaugh ,

14231-412: The status by imperial naturalisation , which was valid throughout the Empire. Those naturalised in a colony were said to have gone through local naturalisation and were given subject status valid only within the relevant territory. However, when travelling outside of the Empire, British subjects who were locally naturalised in a colony were still entitled to imperial protection. British subject status

14364-480: The status through a connection with Ireland. It can also be voluntarily relinquished by a declaration made to the Home Secretary , provided that an individual already possesses or intends to acquire another nationality. British subjects may be stripped of the status if it was fraudulently acquired. There is no path to restore British subject status once lost. British subjects who do not have right of abode in

14497-426: The term was synonymous with Commonwealth citizen . Currently, it refers to people possessing a class of British nationality largely granted under limited circumstances to those connected with Ireland or British India born before 1949. Individuals with this nationality are British nationals and Commonwealth citizens, but not British citizens . The status under the current definition does not automatically grant

14630-616: The three justices agreed that the male-only draft was likely unconstitutional given the changes in the military's stance on the roles, but because Congress had been reviewing and evaluating legislation to eliminate its male-only draft requirement via the National Commission on Military, National, and Public Service (NCMNPS) since 2016, it would have been inappropriate for the Court to act at that time. On 1 October 1999, in Taiwan ,

14763-596: The two territorials in Bermuda) and the BMA in 1960. Since the two units were amalgamated in 1965, conscription was retained until July 2018, making the Royal Bermuda Regiment the last conscripted force serving under the British Crown. In 2015 Prince Harry made a call for bringing back conscription. Following the launch of his 2009 film Harry Brown , English actor Michael Caine called for

14896-442: The work, military service, does not disappear even if no salary is paid. The work effort of the conscripts is effectively wasted, as an unwilling workforce is extremely inefficient. The impact is especially severe in wartime, when civilian professionals are forced to fight as amateur soldiers. Not only is the work effort of the conscripts wasted and productivity lost, but professionally skilled conscripts are also difficult to replace in

15029-414: The workforce is sophisticated and a replacement for a conscripted specialist is difficult to find. Even more dire economic consequences result if the professional conscripted as an amateur soldier is killed or maimed for life; his work effort and productivity are lost. Classical republicans promoted conscription as a tool for maintaining civilian control of the military , thereby preventing usurpation by

15162-653: The young boys trained over several years. Those who showed special promise in fighting skills were trained in advanced warrior skills, put into the sultan's personal service, and turned into the Janissaries , the elite branch of the Kapıkulu . A number of distinguished military commanders of the Ottomans, and most of the imperial administrators and upper-level officials of the Empire, such as Pargalı İbrahim Pasha and Sokollu Mehmet Paşa , were recruited in this way. By 1609,

15295-416: Was 25 years at the beginning of the 19th century. In 1834 it was decreased to 20 years. The recruits were to be not younger than 17 and not older than 35. In 1874 Russia introduced universal conscription in the modern pattern, an innovation only made possible by the abolition of serfdom in 1861. New military law decreed that all male Russian subjects, when they reached the age of 20, were eligible to serve in

15428-540: Was a violation of the Thirteenth Amendment 's prohibition against slavery and involuntary servitude. However, the Supreme Court unanimously upheld the constitutionality of the draft act in the case of Arver v. United States on 7 January 1918, on the ground that the Constitution gives Congress the power to declare war and to raise and support armies. The Court also relied on the principle of

15561-545: Was also a category of people called British subjects without citizenship (BSWC) . Irish citizens who fulfilled certain requirements could file formal claims with the Home Secretary to remain British subjects under this definition. Additionally, those who did not qualify for CUKC status or citizenship in other Commonwealth countries, or were connected with a country that had not yet defined citizenship laws, would transitionally remain British subjects in this group. All British subjects initially held an automatic right to settle in

15694-479: Was arbitrary and unpredictable for commoners. While the money lenders were not poor, several overlords tapped them for income. Levies became necessary for the survival of the overlord, allowing the lord to impose taxes at will. These levies included tansen tax on agricultural land for ceremonial expenses. Y akubu takumai tax was raised on all land to rebuild the Ise Grand Shrine , and munabechisen tax

15827-642: Was based on considerations of equity, but Congress was entitled, in the exercise of its constitutional powers, to focus on the question of military need, rather than 'equity.'" In 2013, Judge Gray H. Miller of the United States District Court for the Southern District of Texas ruled that the Service's men-only requirement was unconstitutional, as while at the time Rostker was decided, women were banned from serving in combat,

15960-429: Was born in the UK or, if they are female, were married to a person with right of abode before 1983. Almost every person who still retains British subject status has UK right of abode. As of 2024, about 22,700 people hold valid British passports with the status, and fewer than 700 do not have right of abode. All British subjects may become British citizens by registration, rather than naturalisation , after residing in

16093-584: Was codified in statute law for the first time by the British Nationality and Status of Aliens Act 1914 , which formalised the status as a common nationality among the United Kingdom, its colonies, and the self-governing Dominions . Dominions that adopted this Act as part of their own nationality laws ( Australia , Canada , Ireland , Newfoundland , New Zealand , and South Africa ) were authorised to grant subject status to aliens by imperial naturalisation . During this time, British subject status

16226-676: Was common during the Second World War: in Britain, it was commonly known as "call-up" and extended to age 51. Nazi Germany termed it Volkssturm ("People's Storm") and included boys as young as 16 and men as old as 60. During the Second World War, both Britain and the Soviet Union conscripted women. The United States was on the verge of drafting women into the Nurse Corps because it anticipated it would need

16359-544: Was expanded to meet national demand during the World Wars . In the United States, the Selective Service System drafted men for World War I initially in an age range from 21 to 30 but expanded its eligibility in 1918 to an age range of 18 to 45. In the case of a widespread mobilization of forces where service includes homefront defense, ages of conscripts may range much higher, with the oldest conscripts serving in roles requiring lesser mobility. Expanded-age conscription

16492-429: Was generally resolved for people who were solely British subjects. British subjects without right of abode are subject to immigration controls when entering the United Kingdom. They are required to pay an immigration health surcharge to access National Health Service benefits when residing in the UK for longer than six months and do not qualify for most welfare programmes. Before the United Kingdom withdrew from

16625-468: Was given legal effect after passage and ratification of the Statute of Westminster 1931 . Diverging developments in Dominion nationality laws, as well as growing assertions of local national identity separate from that of Britain and the Empire, culminated with the creation of Canadian citizenship in 1946 . Combined with the approaching independence of India and Pakistan in 1947, nationality law reform

16758-400: Was granted in 1949 to British subjects who did not become CUKCs or citizens of any other Commonwealth country or the Republic of Ireland . Irish citizens born before 1949 may make formal claims at any time to retain status as British subjects based on: Crown service in the UK, passports or certificates of entitlement describing holders as British subjects, or proof of other associations with

16891-529: Was imposed on all houses . At the time, land in Kyoto was acquired by commoners through usury and in 1422 the shogun threatened to repossess the land of those commoners who failed to pay their levies. The system of military slaves was widely used in the Middle East , beginning with the creation of the corps of Turkic slave-soldiers ( ghulams or mamluks ) by the Abbasid caliph al-Mu'tasim in

17024-413: Was necessary at this point to address ideas that were incompatible with the previous system. The British Nationality Act 1948 redefined British subject as any citizen of the United Kingdom, its colonies, or other Commonwealth countries. Commonwealth citizen was first defined in this Act to have the same meaning. This alternative term was necessary to retain a number of newly independent countries in

17157-665: Was often referred to as "War Service" in documents relating to National Insurance and pension provision . Conscription during the First World War began when the British Parliament passed the Military Service Act in January 1916. The Act specified that single men aged 18 to 40 years old were liable to be called up for military service unless they were widowed with children, or were ministers of

17290-485: Was passed the following month. Only single men 20 to 22 years old were liable to be called up, and they were to be known as "militiamen" to distinguish them from the regular army. To emphasise this distinction, each man was issued with a suit in addition to a uniform. The intention was for the first intake to undergo six months of basic training before being discharged into an active reserve. They would then be recalled for short training periods and attend an annual camp. At

17423-409: Was revoked at the federal level in 1975, but not fully phased out in provinces until 2006. Because each country now defined British subject in separate pieces of legislation and these definitions were not always updated or kept at parity, individuals could have been British subjects in one country at a given time but not another. For example, a South African citizen in 1967 would have been considered

17556-527: Was the principal form of British nationality. There were certain territories that came under British jurisdiction but were not formally incorporated as Crown territory proper. These included protectorates , protected states, League of Nations mandates , and United Nations trust territories . Because they were foreign lands, birth in one of these areas did not automatically confer British subject status. Instead, most people associated with these territories were designated as British protected persons . Following

17689-540: Was to sell Ilkum lands and the commitments along with them. With the exception of a few exempted classes, this was forbidden by the Code of Hammurabi. Under the feudal laws on the European continent, landowners in the medieval period enforced a system whereby all peasants , freemen commoners and noblemen aged 15 to 60 living in the countryside or in urban centers, were summoned for military duty when required by either

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