The United States National Student Association (known as the National Student Association or NSA ) was a confederation of college and university student governments in the United States that was in operation from 1947 to 1978.
137-635: NSA held annual national conferences attended by student leaders, especially student body presidents from their respective student governments. From the early 1960s, the NSA played a significant role in the student activism movement, advocating for a student-centric vision within American universities. Many founding members of Students for a Democratic Society began their involvement in national activism through NSA, and numerous students were introduced to civil rights and antiwar movements through NSA events. The NSA
274-478: A protest against the dictatorial regime of Georgios Papadopoulos . His suicide greatly embarrassed the junta, and caused a sensation in Greece and abroad as it was the first tangible manifestation of the depth of resistance against the junta. The junta delayed the arrival of his remains to Corfu for four months citing security reasons and fearing demonstrations while presenting bureaucratic obstacles through
411-513: A CIA domestic surveillance program was uncovered that had not been subject to congressional oversight. When the CIA was created, its purpose was to create a clearinghouse for foreign policy intelligence and analysis, collecting, analyzing, evaluating, and disseminating foreign intelligence, and carrying out covert operations. As of 2013, the CIA had five priorities: The CIA has an executive office and five major directorates: The director of
548-534: A CIA paid mob led by Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini would spark what a U.S. embassy officer called "an almost spontaneous revolution" but Mosaddegh was protected by his new inner military circle, and the CIA had been unable to gain influence within the Iranian military. Their chosen man, former General Fazlollah Zahedi, had no troops to call on. After the failure of the first coup, Roosevelt paid demonstrators to pose as communists and deface public symbols associated with
685-466: A Presidential military order issued by President Roosevelt on June 13, 1942. The idea for a centralized intelligence organization was first proposed by General William J. Donovan, who envisioned an intelligence service that could operate globally to counter communist threats and provide crucial intelligence directly to the President. Donovan proposed the idea to President Roosevelt in 1944, suggesting
822-642: A Russian translator and Soviet spy. However, the CIA was successful in influencing the 1948 Italian election in favor of the Christian Democrats . The $ 200 million Exchange Stabilization Fund (equivalent to $ 2.5 billion in 2023), earmarked for the reconstruction of Europe, was used to pay wealthy Americans of Italian heritage. Cash was then distributed to Catholic Action , the Vatican's political arm, and directly to Italian politicians. This tactic of using its large fund to purchase elections
959-466: A University of Saskatchewan conference. While CUCND had focused on protest marches, SUPA sought to change Canadian society as a whole. The scope expanded to grass-roots politics in disadvantaged communities and 'consciousness raising' to radicalize and raise awareness of the 'generation gap' experienced by Canadian youth. SUPA was a decentralized organization, rooted in local university campuses. SUPA however disintegrated in late 1967 over debates concerning
1096-627: A brownstone on S Street, NW, for many years until its 1978 mergers with the National Student Lobby and the National Student Educational Fund. Following the revelations, the NSA experienced a period of growth and transformation. During the 1967 Congress, a resolution endorsing the Black Power movement 's struggle " by any means necessary " was passed, leading to NSA's withdrawal from membership in
1233-523: A candidate committed to ending the Vietnam War . Known as the " Dump Johnson movement ", it paved the way for antiwar candidacies by Eugene McCarthy and Robert F. Kennedy for President of the United States, ultimately leading to LBJ's surprising announcement in early 1968 that he would not seek re-election. The NSA, after initially neglecting certain groups, began to broaden its outreach in
1370-408: A decade, a select group of NSA officers and staff collaborated closely with CIA officials, while other NSA leaders, particularly those focused solely on domestic issues, remained uninformed of these dealings. Although some individuals later alleged coercion in their cooperation, the majority were motivated by self-interest and a genuine belief in the government's objectives. Throughout the early 1960s,
1507-679: A demonstration. The global reverberations from the French uprising of 1968 continued into 1969 and even into the 1970s. In 1815 in Jena ( Germany ) the "Urburschenschaft" was founded. That was a Studentenverbindung that was concentrated on national and democratic ideas. In 1817, inspired by liberal and patriotic ideas of a united Germany, student organisations gathered for the Wartburg festival at Wartburg Castle , at Eisenach in Thuringia , on
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#17327717170571644-708: A key role in Suharto's 1998 fall by initiating large demonstrations that gave voice to widespread popular discontent with the president in the aftermath of the May 1998 riots . High school and university students in Jakarta , Yogyakarta , Medan , and elsewhere were some of the first groups willing to speak out publicly against the military government. Student groups were a key part of the political scene during this period. Upon taking office after Suharto stepped down, B. J. Habibie made numerous mostly unsuccessful overtures to placate
1781-650: A long history of being active in political debates. This is particularly true in the newer universities that have been established in suburban areas. For much of the 20th century, the major campus organizing group across Australia was the Australian Union of Students , which was founded in 1937 as the Union of Australian University Students. The AUS folded in 1984. It was replaced by the National Union of Students in 1987. Student politics of Bangladesh
1918-552: A major protest against the occupation. Student-dominated youth movements have also played a central role in the " color revolutions " seen in post-communist societies in recent years. Of the color revolutions, the Velvet Revolution of 1989 in the Czechoslovak capital of Prague was one of them. Though the Velvet Revolution began as a celebration of International Students' Day , the single event quickly turned into
2055-721: A member of the National Front , was elected Iranian prime-minister. As prime minister, he nationalized the Anglo-Persian Oil Company which his predecessor had supported. The nationalization of the British-funded Iranian oil industry, including the largest oil refinery in the world, was disastrous for Mosaddegh. A British naval embargo closed the British oil facilities, which Iran had no skilled workers to operate. In 1952, Mosaddegh resisted
2192-485: A moderate stance, fostering a harmonious relationship with the government. In this milieu, the Central Intelligence Agency covertly provided financial support to NSA's international office in the early 1950s. From the early 1950s until 1967, the international program of the NSA, and some of its domestic activities, were underwritten by clandestine funding from the CIA. Over the course of more than
2329-538: A national news agency for college publications. (The USSPA went defunct in c. 1971, with CPS becoming an independent entity.) In 1966, a California Congressman criticized NSA's association with State Department funding for a trip to Vietnam by the NSA president, alleging it undermined American foreign policy. By the mid-1960s, concerns about NSA's ties to the CIA arose among incoming officers, leading to efforts to sever these connections. By late 1966, CIA funding to NSA had significantly decreased. Meanwhile, in 1965,
2466-421: A nationwide ordeal aimed at the dissolution of communism. The demonstration had turned violent when police intervened. However, the police attacks garnered nationwide sympathy for the student protesters. Soon enough multiple other protests unraveled in an effort to breakdown the one party communist regime of Czechoslovakia. The series of protests were successful; they broke down the communist regime and implemented
2603-461: A number of subversive operations in the country, all of which failed due to the presence of double agents. Millions of dollars were spent in these efforts. These included a team of young CIA officers airdropped into China who were ambushed, and CIA funds being used to set up a global heroin empire in Burma's Golden Triangle following a betrayal by another double agent. In 1951, Mohammad Mosaddegh ,
2740-641: A principal member of the United States Intelligence Community (IC), the CIA reports to the director of national intelligence and is primarily focused on providing intelligence for the president and Cabinet . The agency's founding followed the dissolution of the Office of Strategic Services (OSS) at the end of World War II by President Harry S. Truman , who created the Central Intelligence Group under
2877-567: A seminal document in American student history, articulating the principle that students deserved adult respect within the academic realm. From its inception, NSA grappled with the question of whether to engage in political activism. While some members advocated for steering clear of political causes, others contended that addressing issues affecting students and national concerns was the association's prerogative. However, NSA faced challenges in delineating between "political" and "non-political" actions, encountering divisions within its ranks when it took
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#17327717170573014-471: A stand against school segregation in the United States and when it elected an African American, Ted Harris, as president in 1948. Throughout the 1950s, NSA engaged in measured liberalism , condemning McCarthyism in 1951 and South African apartheid in 1953, albeit limited to its impact on higher education. Predictably, this cautious approach drew criticism from both ends of the political spectrum, with conservatives accusing NSA of Communist sympathies and
3151-523: A variety of activities such as the CIA's drone fleet and anti- Iranian nuclear program activities, accounts for $ 2.6 billion. There were numerous previous attempts to obtain general information about the budget. As a result, reports revealed that CIA's annual budget in Fiscal Year 1963 was $ 550 million (inflation-adjusted US$ 5.5 billion in 2024), and the overall intelligence budget in FY 1997
3288-497: Is most often associated with left-wing politics. Student activism at the university level is nearly as old as the university itself. Students in Paris and Bologna staged collective actions as early as the 13th century, chiefly over town and gown issues. Student protests over broader political issues also have a long pedigree. In Joseon Dynasty Korea, 150 Sungkyunkwan students staged an unprecedented demonstration against
3425-485: Is reactive, confrontational and violent. Student organizations act as the armament of the political parties they are part of. Over the years, political clashes and factional feuds in the educational institutes killed many, seriously hampering the academic atmosphere. To check those hitches, universities have no options but go to lengthy and unexpected closures. Therefore, classes are not completed on time and there are session jams. The student wings of ruling parties dominate
3562-622: Is regarded as an essential step of the democratic revolution in China, and it had also given birth to Chinese Communism. During the 1927–1937 Nanjing decade , student activism played an outsized role. While nationalist Anti-American movements led by some students and intellectuals during the Chinese Civil War were instrumental in winning enough support for the CCP in urban areas to prevail, there remained lots of polarization on campuses in
3699-778: Is responsible for all matters pertaining to congressional interaction and oversight of US intelligence activities. It claims that it aims to: The CIA established its first training facility, the Office of Training and Education, in 1950. Following the end of the Cold War , the CIA's training budget was slashed, which had a negative effect on employee retention . In response, Director of Central Intelligence George Tenet established CIA University in 2002. CIA University holds between 200 and 300 courses each year, training both new hires and experienced intelligence officers, as well as CIA support staff. The facility works in partnership with
3836-402: Is responsible for collecting foreign intelligence (mainly from clandestine HUMINT sources), and for covert action. The name reflects its role as the coordinator of human intelligence activities between other elements of the wider U.S. intelligence community with their HUMINT operations. This directorate was created in an attempt to end years of rivalry over influence, philosophy, and budget between
3973-465: Is work by students to cause political, environmental, economic, or social change. In addition to education, student groups often play central roles in democratization and winning civil rights . Modern student activist movements span all ages, races, socio-economic backgrounds, and political perspectives. Some student protests focus on the internal affairs of an institution (like disinvestment ); others tackle wars or dictatorships . Student activism
4110-519: The 1956 Hungarian Revolution was started by peaceful student demonstrations in the streets of Budapest , later attracting workers and other Hungarians. In Czechoslovakia , one of the most known faces of the protests following the Soviet -led invasion that ended the Prague Spring was Jan Palach , a student who committed suicide by setting fire to himself on January 16, 1969. The act triggered
4247-706: The Communist Party USA branding it as fascist. During the 1950s, the NSA encountered financial challenges, leading to the elimination of three out of its five staff positions in 1951. Concurrently, with the onset of the Cold War , the U.S. government intensified its interest in student politics, especially upon recognizing that the International Union of Students had aligned with the Eastern Bloc . Despite NSA's inclusive approach to student representation, its leadership generally maintained
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4384-475: The Departments of State and War . The division lasted only a few months. The first public mention of the "Central Intelligence Agency" appeared on a command-restructuring proposal presented by Jim Forrestal and Arthur Radford to the U.S. Senate Military Affairs Committee at the end of 1945. Army Intelligence agent Colonel Sidney Mashbir and Commander Ellis Zacharias worked together for four months at
4521-470: The Indian government to identify and expel illegal, (mostly Bangladeshi ), immigrants and protect and provide constitutional, legislative and administrative safeguards to the indigenous Assamese people . The Jadavpur University of Kolkata have played an important role to contribute to the student activism of India. The Hokkolorob Movement (2014) stirred many around the world. It took place after
4658-761: The Israeli-Palestinian conflict remains unresolved, it continues to be a key issue driving student activism in Canada. From 2011 to 2013, Chile was rocked by a series of student-led nationwide protests across Chile , demanding a new framework for education in the country , including more direct state participation in secondary education and an end to the existence of profit in higher education. Currently in Chile, only 45% of high school students study in traditional public schools and most universities are also private. No new public universities have been built since
4795-682: The National Intelligence University , and includes the Sherman Kent School for Intelligence Analysis , the Directorate of Analysis' component of the university. For later stage training of student operations officers, there is at least one classified training area at Camp Peary , near Williamsburg, Virginia . Students are selected, and their progress evaluated, in ways derived from the OSS, published as
4932-540: The National Security Council issued Directive 10/2 calling for covert action against the Soviet Union , and granting the authority to carry out covert operations against "hostile foreign states or groups" that could, if needed, be denied by the U.S. government. To this end, the Office of Policy Coordination (OPC) was created inside the new CIA. The OPC was unique; Frank Wisner , the head of
5069-457: The National Student Lobby (NSL). That same year, the NSA sponsored an international conference for students from more than 30 countries. At that point, the NSA represented students from more than 500 U.S. colleges and universities. The conference, which took place at Georgetown University , was attended by representatives from more than 40 U.S. colleges/universities. It was the NSA's first participation in an international student conference since
5206-636: The October Crisis . This was the only peacetime use of the War Measures Act. Since the 1970s, PIRGs ( Public Interest Research Groups ) have been created as a result of Student Union referendums across Canada in individual provinces. Like their American counterparts, Canadian PIRGs are student directed, run, and funded. Most operate on a consensus decision making model. Despite efforts at collaboration, Canadian PIRGs are independent of each other. Anti-Bullying Day (a.k.a. Pink Shirt Day)
5343-621: The Pro-Beijing camp would not have opportunities to be nominated. The Hong Kong Federation of Students and Scholarism led a strike against the NPCSC's decision beginning on 22 September 2014, and started protesting outside the government headquarters on 26 September 2014. On 28 September, the Occupy Central with Love and Peace movement announced that the beginning of their civil disobedience campaign. Students and other members of
5480-1003: The Research and Analysis Wing (RAW) in India , the Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI) in Pakistan , the General Intelligence Service in Egypt , Mossad in Israel , and the National Intelligence Service (NIS) in South Korea . The CIA was instrumental in the establishment of intelligence services in several U.S. allied countries, including Germany's BND and Greece's EYP (then known as KYP). The closest links of
5617-820: The Rose Revolution , and PORA in Ukraine , which was key in organising the demonstrations that led to the Orange Revolution . Like Otpor, these organisations have consequently practiced non-violent resistance and used ridiculing humor in opposing authoritarian leaders. Similar movements include KelKel in Kyrgyzstan , Zubr in Belarus and MJAFT! in Albania . Student movements in Ethiopia in
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5754-547: The Soviet atomic bomb project . In particular, the agency failed to predict the Chinese entry into the Korean War with 300,000 troops. The famous double agent Kim Philby was the British liaison to American Central Intelligence. Through him, the CIA coordinated hundreds of airdrops inside the iron curtain, all compromised by Philby. Arlington Hall , the nerve center of CIA cryptanalysis, was compromised by Bill Weisband ,
5891-431: The U.S. military , including the U.S. Army Intelligence and Security Command , by providing it with information it gathers, receiving information from military intelligence organizations, and cooperating with field activities. The associate deputy director of the CIA is in charge of the day-to-day operations of the agency. Each branch of the agency has its own director. The Office of Military Affairs (OMA), subordinate to
6028-856: The United States Department of Defense (DOD) and the CIA. In spite of this, the Department of Defense announced in 2012 its intention to organize its own global clandestine intelligence service, the Defense Clandestine Service (DCS), under the Defense Intelligence Agency (DIA). Contrary to some public and media misunderstanding, DCS is not a "new" intelligence agency but rather a consolidation, expansion and realignment of existing Defense HUMINT activities, which have been carried out by DIA for decades under various names, most recently as
6165-654: The United States Student Association (USSA). Leadership positions were filled from both the NSA and the NSL, and new guidelines were implemented to ensure the diversity of campus delegations. The merger saw the NSL absorbed by the NSA, and the NSA renamed as the USSA, no new entity was created. By the mid-1980s, the USSA met annually in Washington, D.C., with several hundred students attending. In
6302-652: The fiscal year 2010, the CIA had the largest budget of all intelligence community agencies, exceeding prior estimates. The CIA's role has expanded since its creation, now including covert paramilitary operations. One of its largest divisions, the Information Operations Center (IOC), has shifted from counterterrorism to offensive cyber operations . The agency has been the subject of several controversies , including its use of torture , domestic wiretapping , propaganda , and alleged human rights violations and drug trafficking . In 2022,
6439-421: The 1967 revelations about the group's prior funding by the CIA. Actions such as NSA president Tabankin's 1972 visit to North Vietnam led to the NSA being placed on President Nixon 's " enemies list ," causing further divisions among members. For its 1973 annual convention, NSA produced a series of booklets given to all attendees, including The Student Press , Women on Campus , and Men on Campus. In 1974,
6576-614: The 300th anniversary of Martin Luther's 95 theses . In May 1832 the Hambacher Fest was celebrated at Hambach Castle near Neustadt an der Weinstraße with about 30,000 participants, amongst them many students. Together with the Frankfurter Wachensturm in 1833 planned to free students held in prison at Frankfurt and Georg Büchner 's revolutionary pamphlet Der Hessische Landbote that were events that led to
6713-577: The Agency's mission activities. It is the Agency's newest directorate. The Langley, Virginia -based office's mission is to streamline and integrate digital and cybersecurity capabilities into the CIA's espionage, counterintelligence, all-source analysis, open-source intelligence collection, and covert action operations. It provides operations personnel with tools and techniques to use in cyber operations. It works with information technology infrastructure and practices cyber tradecraft . This means retrofitting
6850-823: The Air Force. A DS&T organization analyzed imagery intelligence collected by the U-2 and reconnaissance satellites called the National Photointerpretation Center (NPIC), which had analysts from both the CIA and the military services. Subsequently, NPIC was transferred to the National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency (NGA). The Directorate of Support has organizational and administrative functions to significant units including: The Directorate of Digital Innovation (DDI) focuses on accelerating innovation across
6987-432: The CIA for cyberwarfare . DDI officers help accelerate the integration of innovative methods and tools to enhance the CIA's cyber and digital capabilities on a global scale and ultimately help safeguard the United States. They also apply technical expertise to exploit clandestine and publicly available information (also known as open-source data ) using specialized methodologies and digital tools to plan, initiate and support
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#17327717170577124-453: The CIA would corroborate Hart's findings. The CIA's station in Seoul had 200 officers, but not a single speaker of Korean . Hart reported to Washington that Seoul station was hopeless, and could not be salvaged. Loftus Becker, deputy director of intelligence, was sent personally to tell Hart that the CIA had to keep the station open to save face. Becker returned to Washington, D.C., pronouncing
7261-575: The CIA's computer network operations budget for fiscal year 2013 was $ 685.4 million. The NSA's budget was roughly $ 1 billion at the time. Rep. Adam Schiff , the California Democrat who served as the ranking member of the House Intelligence Committee , endorsed the reorganization. "The director has challenged his workforce, the rest of the intelligence community, and the nation to consider how we conduct
7398-401: The CIA. The role and functions of the CIA are roughly equivalent to those of the Federal Intelligence Service (BND) in Germany , MI6 in the United Kingdom , the Australian Secret Intelligence Service (ASIS) in Australia , the Directorate-General for External Security (DGSE) in France , the Foreign Intelligence Service in Russia , the Ministry of State Security (MSS) in China ,
7535-461: The Central Intelligence Agency (D/CIA) is appointed by the president with Senate confirmation and reports directly to the director of national intelligence (DNI); in practice, the CIA director interfaces with the director of national intelligence (DNI), Congress , and the White House , while the deputy director (DD/CIA) is the internal executive of the CIA and the chief operating officer (COO/CIA), known as executive director until 2017, leads
7672-445: The Company , is a civilian foreign intelligence service of the federal government of the United States tasked with gathering, processing, and analyzing national security information from around the world, primarily through the use of human intelligence (HUMINT) and conducting covert action through its Directorate of Operations . The agency is headquartered in the George Bush Center for Intelligence in Langley, Virginia . As
7809-417: The Defense Human Intelligence Service. This Directorate is known to be organized by geographic regions and issues, but its precise organization is classified. The Directorate of Science & Technology was established to research, create, and manage technical collection disciplines and equipment. Many of its innovations were transferred to other intelligence organizations, or, as they became more overt, to
7946-432: The German Bundesnachrichtendienst is keeping contact to the CIA office in Wiesbaden . The success of the British Commandos during World War II prompted U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt to authorize the creation of an intelligence service modeled after the British Secret Intelligence Service (MI6), and Special Operations Executive . This led to the creation of the Office of Strategic Services (OSS) by
8083-434: The Greek consulate and the junta government. Hong Kong Student activist group Scholarism began an occupation of the Hong Kong government headquarters on 30 August 2012. The goal of the protest was, expressly, to force the government to retract its plans to introduce Moral and National Education as a compulsory subject. On 1 September, an open concert was held as part of the protest, with an attendance of 40,000. At last,
8220-523: The International Union of Students it had helped establish. Delegates reaffirmed the association's dedication to student empowerment and university reform, receiving applause when a network television commentator described NSA as "a left-wing radical outfit." At the same Congress, an extraordinary campaign was launched, orchestrated by Allard K. Lowenstein , a former NSA president and Democratic activist. This initiative aimed to prevent Lyndon B. Johnson 's renomination for President in 1968 and replace him with
8357-414: The NSA established a separate foundation for non-political activities. This strategic move facilitated greater involvement in lobbying efforts and fostered collaboration with the National Student Lobby. In August 1978, a joint meeting between the NSA and the NSL resulted in a resounding approval for a merger due to overlapping lobbying work and student government-based membership, leading to the formation of
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#17327717170578494-465: The NSA opened an office at 2115 S Street NW in Washington, D.C. The story of the CIA's secret financing of the NSA was eventually exposed by Michael Wood, a former staffer, through an article published by Ramparts magazine in February 1967, sparking a national scandal. Despite this, it did not measurably damage the NSA's standing with student governments; the majority of the million-plus students that NSA claimed to "represent" were likely unaware of
8631-509: The NSA played a significant role in the burgeoning student activism movement, advocating for a student-centric vision within American universities. Beginning in the late 1950s, the NSA conducted an annual Southern Student Human Relations Seminar (SSHRS), educating Southern student leaders on issues relating to race and civil rights . In late 1959 the SSHRS leadership opened a year-round office in Atlanta , headed by Constance Curry, an alumna. When student sit-ins against segregation spread across
8768-418: The OPC, answered not to the CIA Director , but to the secretaries of defense, state, and the NSC. The OPC's actions were a secret even from the head of the CIA. Most CIA stations had two station chiefs, one working for the OSO, and one working for the OPC. With the agency unable to provide sufficient intelligence about the Soviet takeovers of Romania and Czechoslovakia , the Soviet blockade of Berlin , and
8905-414: The OSO was tasked with spying and subversion overseas with a budget of $ 15 million (equivalent to $ 190 million in 2023), the largesse of a small number of patrons in Congress. Vandenberg's goals were much like the ones set out by his predecessor: finding out "everything about the Soviet forces in Eastern and Central Europe – their movements, their capabilities, and their intentions." On June 18, 1948,
9042-424: The Office of Reports and Estimates, which drew its reports from a daily take of State Department telegrams, military dispatches, and other public documents. The CIA still lacked its intelligence-gathering abilities. On August 21, 1950, shortly after, Truman announced Walter Bedell Smith as the new Director of the CIA. The change in leadership took place shortly after the start of the Korean War in South Korea , as
9179-429: The Shah to exercise his constitutional right to dismiss Mosaddegh. Mosaddegh launched a military coup , and the Shah fled the country. Under CIA Director Allen Dulles , Operation Ajax was put into motion. Its goal was to overthrow Mossadegh with military support from General Fazlollah Zahedi and install a pro-western regime headed by the Shah of Iran. Kermit Roosevelt Jr. oversaw the operation in Iran. On August 16,
9316-408: The South in early 1960, Curry provided vital support to activists, and she later joined the executive committee of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC). In August 1960, however, the NSA's convention in Minneapolis debated a motion to deny support to the fledgling SNCC. The motion was defeated following a standing ovation given to an intervention by Sandra Cason (Casey Hayden) . She
9453-447: The U.S. intelligence community to other foreign intelligence agencies are to Anglophone countries: Australia, Canada, New Zealand, and the United Kingdom. Special communications signals that intelligence-related messages can be shared with these four countries. An indication of the United States' close operational cooperation is the creation of a new message distribution label within the main U.S. military communications network. Previously,
9590-413: The US. Thus the two areas of responsibility for the CIA were covert action and covert intelligence. One of the main targets for intelligence gathering was the Soviet Union , which had also been a priority of the CIA's predecessors. U.S. Air Force General Hoyt Vandenberg , the CIG's second director, created the Office of Special Operations (OSO) and the Office of Reports and Estimates (ORE). Initially,
9727-414: The Youth Pledge ( Sumpah Pemuda ) helped to give voice to anti-colonial sentiments. During the political turmoil of the 1960s, right-wing student groups staged demonstrations calling for then-President Sukarno to eliminate alleged Communists from his government, and later demanding that he resign. Sukarno did step down in 1967, and was replaced by Army general Suharto . Student groups also played
9864-526: The administration. In protest of the closure and the expulsion of Nanterre students, students of the Sorbonne in Paris began their own demonstration. The situation escalated into a nationwide insurrection . The events in Paris were followed by student protests throughout the world. The German student movement participated in major demonstrations against proposed emergency legislation . In many countries,
10001-404: The alleged police attack over unarmed students inside the campus demanding the fair justice of a student who was molested inside the campus. The Movement finally led to the expulsion of the contemporary Vice Chancellor of the university, Mr. Abhijit Chakraborty, who allegedly ordered the police to do open lathicharge over the students. Some anti-social goons were also involved in the harassment of
10138-618: The associate deputy director, manages the relationship between the CIA and the Unified Combatant Commands , who produce and deliver regional and operational intelligence and consume national intelligence produced by the CIA. The Directorate of Analysis , through much of its history known as the Directorate of Intelligence (DI), is tasked with helping "the President and other policymakers make informed decisions about our country's national security" by looking "at all
10275-585: The available information on an issue and organiz[ing] it for policymakers". The directorate has four regional analytic groups, six groups for transnational issues, and three that focus on policy, collection, and staff support. There are regional analytical offices covering the Near East and South Asia , Russia , and Europe; and the Asia–Pacific , Latin America , and Africa . The Directorate of Operations
10412-405: The book Assessment of Men, Selection of Personnel for the Office of Strategic Services . Additional mission training is conducted at Harvey Point , North Carolina . The primary training facility for the Office of Communications is Warrenton Training Center , located near Warrenton, Virginia . The facility was established in 1951 and has been used by the CIA since at least 1955. Details of
10549-516: The business of intelligence in a world that is profoundly different from 1947 when the CIA was founded," Schiff said. The Office of Congressional Affairs ( OCA ) serves as the liaison between the CIA and the US Congress . The OCA states that it aims to ensures that Congress is fully and currently informed of intelligence activities. The office is the CIA's primary interface with Congressional oversight committees, leadership, and members. It
10686-581: The campus in Madison . University of Chicago student William Birenbaum was an NSA co-founder, serving as the organization's first president and remaining active in its growth and development for many years. The NSA elected officers at its annual National Student Congress. NSA's early orientation centered on campus-related matters, aiming to fortify student governance, bolster civil liberties within American campuses, and broaden access to higher education. Notably, NSA's 1947 Student Bill of Rights emerged as
10823-447: The campuses and residential halls through crime and violence to enjoy various unauthorized facilities. They control the residential halls to manage seats in favor of their party members and loyal pupils. They eat and buy for free from the restaurants and shops nearby. They extort and grab tenders to earn illicit money. They take money from the freshmen candidates and put pressure on teachers to get an acceptance for them. They take money from
10960-572: The city, particularly the Hotel Cortez, with music, drugs, and free love. Bill M. Shamblin, former editor of the University of Alabama 's newspaper, The Crimson White , was one of the meeting's lead speakers. The NSA's Executive Vice President, James Hercules Sutton, presented testimony that year against an all-volunteer United States Army to a Congressional panel that included General James M. Gavin and General Omar Bradley , expressing
11097-420: The creation of a "Central Intelligence Service" that would continue peacetime operations similar to those of the Office of Strategic Services (OSS), which he led during World War II. Upon President Roosevelt's death, the new president Harry Truman inherited a presidency largely uninformed about key wartime projects and global intelligence activities. Truman's initial view of the proposed central intelligence agency
11234-421: The day-to-day work as the third-highest post of the CIA. The deputy director is formally appointed by the director without Senate confirmation, but as the president's opinion plays a great role in the decision, the deputy director is generally considered a political position, making the chief operating officer the most senior non-political position for CIA career officers. The Executive Office also supports
11371-524: The democratisation of society and opposing the Vietnam War , but also stressed more nationally specific issues such as coming to terms with the legacy of the Nazi regime and opposing the German Emergency Acts . Student activism in Greece has a long and intense history. Student activism in the 1960s was one of the reasons cited to justify the imposition of the dictatorship in 1967 . Following
11508-761: The direction of Fleet Admiral Joseph Ernest King , and prepared the first draft and implementing directives for the creation of what would become the Central Intelligence Agency. Despite opposition from the military establishment, the State Department , and the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), Truman established the National Intelligence Authority in January 1946. Its operational extension
11645-513: The direction of a director of central intelligence by presidential directive on January 22, 1946. The agency's creation was authorized by the National Security Act of 1947 . Unlike the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), which is a domestic security service, the CIA has no law enforcement function and is mainly focused on intelligence gathering overseas, with only limited domestic intelligence collection . The CIA serves as
11782-451: The early 1950s until 1967, the international program of the NSA, and some of its domestic activities, were underwritten by clandestine funding from the Central Intelligence Agency . In 1946, students from the United States and 37 other nations convened in Prague , Czechoslovakia , to establish the International Union of Students , a coalition representing national student unions . Despite
11919-508: The early 1990s, the USSA advocated on behalf of students being eligible for credit cards and beginning to build credit. It also advocated against rising college tuition costs. In 2017, the USSA failed to elect new leadership. "Years of membership decline, restructuring of grantmaking portfolios in large private foundations, and toxic infighting" led to its operational collapse; tax returns continued to be filed in subsequent years. Student activism Student activism or campus activism
12056-528: The end of the Chilean transition to democracy in 1990, even though the number of university students has swelled. Beyond the specific demands regarding education, the protests reflected a "deep discontent" among some parts of society with Chile's high level of inequality . Protests have included massive non-violent marches, but also a considerable amount of violence on the part of a side of protestors as well as riot police. The first clear government response to
12193-567: The fiscal 2013 figure is $ 52.6 billion. According to the 2013 mass surveillance disclosures , the CIA's fiscal 2013 budget is $ 14.7 billion, 28% of the total and almost 50% more than the budget of the National Security Agency. CIA's HUMINT budget is $ 2.3 billion, the SIGINT budget is $ 1.7 billion, and spending for security and logistics of CIA missions is $ 2.5 billion. "Covert action programs," including
12330-488: The flourishing of robust national student organizations in the United States during the 1920s and 1930s, all had dissolved by the end of World War II , prompting American delegates to advocate for a fresh beginning upon their return. As a result, the National Student Association was founded at a conference at the University of Wisconsin in 1947, and established its first headquarters not far from
12467-779: The government de facto struck down the Moral and National Education. Student organizations made important roles during the Umbrella Movement . Standing Committee of the National People's Congress (NPCSC) made decisions on the Hong Kong political reform on 31 August 2014, which the Nominating Committee would tightly control the nomination of the Chief Executive candidate, candidates outside
12604-719: The imposition of the dictatorship, the Athens Polytechnic uprising in 1973 triggered a series of events that led to the abrupt end of the regime's attempted "liberalisation" process under Spiros Markezinis , and, after that, to the eventual collapse of the Greek junta during Metapolitefsi and the return of democracy in Greece. Kostas Georgakis was a Greek student of geology , who, in the early hours of 19 September 1970, set himself ablaze in Matteotti square in Genoa as
12741-469: The information they sent. In September 1952 Haney was replaced by John Limond Hart, a Europe veteran with a vivid memory for bitter experiences of misinformation. Hart was suspicious of the parade of successes reported by Tofte and Haney and launched an investigation which determined that the entirety of the information supplied by the Korean sources was false or misleading. After the war, internal reviews by
12878-623: The job seekers and put pressures on university administrations to appoint them. On August 11, 1937, the União Nacional dos Estudantes (UNE) was formed as a platform for students to create change in Brazil. The organization tried to unite students from all over Brazil. However, in the 1940s the group had aligned more with socialism. Then in the 1950s the group changed alignment again, this time aligning with more conservative values. The União Metropolitana dos Estudantes rose up in replacement of
13015-801: The king in 1519 over the Kimyo purge . In Argentina , as elsewhere in Latin America , the tradition of student activism dates back to at least the 19th century, but it was not until after 1900 that it became a major political force. In 1918 student activism triggered a general modernization of the universities especially tending towards democratization, called the University Revolution (Spanish: revolución universitaria ). The events started in Córdoba and were accompanied by similar uprisings across Latin America. Australian students have
13152-523: The lack of a clear warning to the President and NSC about the imminent North Korean invasion was seen as a grave failure of intelligence. The CIA had different demands placed on it by the various bodies overseeing it. Truman wanted a centralized group to organize the information that reached him. The Department of Defense wanted military intelligence and covert action, and the State Department wanted to create global political change favorable to
13289-537: The late 1940's with a wide range of views. Ironically, America's influence in post-war China, designed to prevent Soviet influence appears to have backfired for the United States as some Chinese students were sensitive to any overt foreign influence after the Japanese occupation. In 1989, the Tiananmen Square protests , led by students, inspired ended in a brutal government massacre of thousands, damaging
13426-516: The late 1960s and early 1970s, incorporating workshops on gay rights and pledging support to activists of color. Internal tensions, however, arose amidst radicalization and societal upheaval. The National Association of Black Students (NASB) broke off from NSA in 1969; the NASB folded in 1972. In 1969, the NSA held its annual meeting in El Paso, Texas , where thousands of student delegates overwhelmed
13563-401: The late 1960s, during the reign of Emperor Haile Selassie , included debates about the social sciences and social change and played a significant role in political opposition to Haile Selassie , which led to the 1974 Ethiopian Revolution . Student activism played a role in both socially progressive aspects of the revolution and in human rights violations. Student activism and their use of
13700-435: The marking of NOFORN (i.e., No Foreign Nationals) required the originator to specify which, if any, non-U.S. countries could receive the information. A new handling caveat, USA/AUS/CAN/GBR/NZL Five Eyes , used primarily on intelligence messages, gives an easier way to indicate that the material can be shared with Australia, Canada, United Kingdom, and New Zealand. The task of the division called " Verbindungsstelle 61 " of
13837-540: The military services. The development of the U-2 high-altitude reconnaissance aircraft, for instance, was done in cooperation with the United States Air Force . The U-2's original mission was clandestine imagery intelligence over denied areas such as the Soviet Union . It was subsequently provided with signals intelligence and measurement and signature intelligence capabilities and is now operated by
13974-541: The modern Chinese history. Fueled mostly by Chinese nationalism , Chinese student activism strongly believes that young people are responsible for China's future. This strong nationalistic belief has been able to manifest in several forms such as pro-democracy , anti-Americanism and pro-communism . In 1919, the May Fourth Movement saw over 3,000 students of Peking University and other schools gather together in front of Tiananmen and demonstrate. It
14111-623: The national manager for HUMINT, coordinating activities across the IC. It also carries out covert action at the behest of the president . The CIA exerts foreign political influence through its paramilitary operations units, including its Special Activities Center . The CIA was instrumental in establishing intelligence services in many countries, such as Germany 's Federal Intelligence Service . It has also provided support to several foreign political groups and governments, including planning, coordinating, training in torture , and technical support. It
14248-472: The non-military National Intelligence Program, including $ 4.8 billion for the CIA. After the Marshall Plan was approved, appropriating $ 13.7 billion over five years, 5% of those funds or $ 685 million were secretly made available to the CIA. A portion of the enormous M-fund, established by the U.S. government during the post-war period for reconstruction of Japan, was secretly steered to
14385-488: The once socialist UNE. However, it was not long until União Nacional dos Estudantes once again sided with socialism, thus joining forces with the União Metropolitana dos Estudantes. The União Nacional dos Estudantes was influential in the democratization of higher education. Their first significant feat occurred during World War II when they successfully pressured Brazilian president Getúlio Vargas to join
14522-451: The organization. The NSA had concentrated its recruiting efforts on persuading the on-campus student governments, typically a handful of leaders, to formally affiliate. Only in rare instances did the NSA and its campus agents go directly to the student body for a vote of approval. In August 1967, the NSA formally cut its ties with the CIA and began, for example, paying the mortgage on its offices in Washington, D.C. The organization remained in
14659-566: The overall United States intelligence budget are classified. Under the Central Intelligence Agency Act of 1949, the Director of Central Intelligence is the only federal government employee who can spend "un-vouchered" government money . The government showed its 1997 budget was $ 26.6 billion for the fiscal year. The government has disclosed a total figure for all non-military intelligence spending since 2007;
14796-522: The protests was a proposal for a new education fund and a cabinet shuffle which replaced Minister of Education Joaquín Lavín and was seen as not fundamentally addressing student movement concerns. Other government proposals were also rejected. Since the defeat of the Qing Dynasty during the First (1839–1842) and Second Opium Wars (1856–1860), student activism has played a significant role in
14933-455: The public demonstrated outside government headquarters, and some began to occupy several major city intersections. The Assam Movement (or Assam Agitation ) (1979–1985) was a popular movement against illegal immigrants in Assam . The movement, led by All Assam Students Union (AASU) and the 'All Assam Gana Sangram Parishad' (AAGSP), developed a program of protests and demonstration to compel
15070-543: The reputation of the Chinese Communist Party as it moved towards a more repressive approach to speech and dissent. Jan Palach and Jan Zajíc 's protests against the end of the Prague Spring used self-immolation. Student activism played an important, yet understudied, role in Congo's crisis of decolonisation. Throughout the 1960s, students denounced the unfinished decolonisation of higher education and
15207-801: The revolutions in the German states in 1848 . The White Rose society in Nazi Germany lasted from 1942–1943, during which students mailed anti-nazi leaflets around the country until the leaders were caught and executed. In the 1960s, the worldwide upswing in student and youth radicalism manifested itself through the German student movement and organisations such as the German Socialist Student Union . The movement in Germany shared many concerns of similar groups elsewhere, such as
15344-539: The role of working class and 'Old Left'. Members moved to the CYC or became active leaders in CUS (Canadian Union of Students), leading the CUS to assume the mantle of New Left student agitation. In 1968, SDU (Students for a Democratic University) was formed at McGill and Simon Fraser Universities. SFU SDU, originally former SUPA members and New Democratic Youth, absorbed members from the campus Liberal Club and Young Socialists. SDU
15481-708: The royal refusal to approve his Minister of War and resigned in protest. The National Front took to the streets in protest. Fearing a loss of control, the military pulled its troops back five days later, and Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi gave in to Mosaddegh's demands. Mosaddegh quickly replaced military leaders loyal to the Shah with those loyal to him, giving him personal control over the military. Given six months of emergency powers, Mosaddegh unilaterally passed legislation. When that six months expired, his powers were extended for another year. In 1953, Mossadegh dismissed parliament and assumed dictatorial powers. This power grab triggered
15618-688: The side of the Allies . In 1964, UNE was outlawed after elected leader João Goulart was disposed of power by a military coup . The military regime terrorized students in an effort to make them subservient. In 1966, students began protesting anyway despite the reality of further terror. All the protests led up to the March of the One Hundred Thousand in June 1968. Organized by the UNE, this protest
15755-409: The situation to be "hopeless," and that, after touring the CIA's Far East operations, the CIA's ability to gather intelligence in the far east was "almost negligible". He then resigned. Air Force Colonel James Kallis stated that CIA director Allen Dulles continued to praise the CIA's Korean force, despite knowing that they were under enemy control. When China entered the war in 1950, the CIA attempted
15892-460: The social sciences played a role in the 1991 fall of the following government, the Derg , and in the implementation of the rule of Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front during the following three decades. In France , student activists have been influential in shaping public debate. In May 1968 the University of Paris at Nanterre was closed due to problems between the students and
16029-453: The student groups that had brought down his predecessor. When that failed, he sent a combined force of police and gangsters to evict protesters occupying a government building by force. The ensuing carnage left two students dead and 181 injured. Central Intelligence Agency The Central Intelligence Agency ( CIA / ˌ s iː . aɪ ˈ eɪ / ), known informally as the Agency , metonymously as Langley and historically as
16166-585: The student protests caused authorities to respond with violence. In Spain , student demonstrations against Franco's dictatorship led to clashes with police. A student demonstration in Mexico City ended in a storm of bullets on the night of October 2, 1968, an event known as the Tlatelolco massacre . Even in Pakistan , students took to the streets to protest changes in education policy, and on November 7 two college students died after police opened fire on
16303-429: The students. Indonesia is often believed to have hosted "some of the most important acts of student resistance in the world's history". University student groups have repeatedly been the first groups to stage street demonstrations calling for governmental change at key points in the nation's history, and other organizations from across the political spectrum have sought to align themselves with student groups. In 1928,
16440-476: The technical and human-based operations of the CIA. Before the establishment of the new digital directorate, offensive cyber operations were undertaken by the CIA's Information Operations Center. Little is known about how the office specifically functions or if it deploys offensive cyber capabilities. The directorate had been covertly operating since approximately March 2015 but formally began operations on October 1, 2015. According to classified budget documents,
16577-464: The tuition hike. Canadian universities have been active sites for debate and mobilization, with student groups advocating on both sides of the conflict. This activism has led to significant polarization on campuses, with heated debates, protests, and resolutions at institutions like McGill University and York University . The discussions often involve broader issues of academic freedom and concerns over rising antisemitism and Islamophobia . As
16714-579: The unrealised promises of national independence. The two issues crossed in the demonstration of June 4, 1969. Student activism continues and women such as Aline Mukovi Neema, winner of 100 Women BBC award, continue to campaign for political change in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. During communist rule, students in Eastern Europe were the force behind several of the best-known instances of protest. The chain of events leading to
16851-903: The use of democratic elections in 1990, only a few months after the first protest. Another example of this was the Serbian Otpor! ("Resistance!" in Serbian ), formed in October 1998 as a response to repressive university and media laws that were introduced that year. In the presidential campaign in September 2000, the organisation engineered the "Gotov je" ("He's finished") campaign that galvanized Serbian discontent with Slobodan Milošević , ultimately resulting in his defeat. Otpor has inspired other youth movements in Eastern Europe , such as Kmara in Georgia , which played an important role in
16988-530: The use of federal funds. The act also exempted the CIA from having to disclose its "organization, functions, officials, titles, salaries, or numbers of personnel employed," and created the program "PL-110" to handle defectors and other "essential aliens" who fell outside normal immigration procedures. At the outset of the Korean War , the CIA still only had a few thousand employees, around one thousand of whom worked in analysis. Intelligence primarily came from
17125-421: The view that such an Army would be racially imbalanced in enlisted ranks. Jim Graham , Washington, D.C. city councilman, was an NSA Vice President during this time. In 1971, Margery Tabankin was elected the first woman president of the NSA. In 1971, a California-based faction of the organization, dissatisfied with what they perceived as the NSA's limited emphasis on real legislative efforts, split off to form
17262-410: Was US$ 26.6 billion (inflation-adjusted US$ 50.5 billion in 2024). There have been accidental disclosures; for instance, Mary Margaret Graham , a former CIA official and deputy director of national intelligence for collection in 2005, said that the annual intelligence budget was $ 44 billion, and in 1994 Congress accidentally published a budget of $ 43.4 billion (in 2012 dollars) in 1994 for
17399-610: Was also American host for student Eurail and air passes, and for many years served as American students' representative to IATA, the International Air Transport Association . In the early 1960s, the NSA housed the United States Student Press Association and its news agency , Collegiate Press Service . Both groups spun away as independent groups but eventually shut down as student-run organizations. From
17536-484: Was controlled by the "far left." A few years later, a group of mostly Southern schools left the NSA because of its stand on civil rights, forming the Association of Student Governments (ASG). (The ASG folded in 1971.) In c. 1962, the NSA formed the United States Student Press Association (USSPA), a national organization of campus newspapers and editors. The USSPA in turn formed Collegiate Press Service (CPS),
17673-592: Was created by high school students David Shepherd, and Travis Price of Berwick, Nova Scotia, and is now celebrated annually across Canada. In 2012, the Quebec Student Movement arose due to an increase of tuition of 75%; that took students out of class and into the streets because that increase did not allow students to comfortably extend their education, because of fear of debt or not having money at all. Following elections that year, premier Jean Charest promised to repeal anti-assembly laws and cancel
17810-412: Was frequently repeated in the subsequent years. At the beginning of the Korean War , CIA officer Hans Tofte claimed to have turned a thousand North Korean expatriates into a guerrilla force tasked with infiltration, guerrilla warfare, and pilot rescue. In 1952 the CIA sent 1,500 more expatriate agents north. Seoul station chief Albert Haney would openly celebrate the capabilities of those agents and
17947-562: Was involved in many regime changes and carrying out terrorist attacks and planned assassinations of foreign leaders. Since 2004, the CIA is organized under the Office of the Director of National Intelligence (ODNI). Despite having had some of its powers transferred to the DNI, the CIA has grown in size following the September 11 attacks . In 2013, The Washington Post reported that in
18084-595: Was known as the Central Intelligence Group (CIG), which was the direct predecessor of the CIA. The Central Intelligence Agency was created on July 26, 1947, when President Truman signed the National Security Act into law. A major impetus for the creation of the agency was growing tensions with the USSR following the end of World War II . Lawrence Houston, head counsel of the SSU , CIG, and, later CIA,
18221-522: Was principal draftsman of the National Security Act of 1947 , which dissolved the NIA and the CIG, and established both the National Security Council and the Central Intelligence Agency. In 1949, Houston helped to draft the Central Intelligence Agency Act ( Pub. L. 81–110 ), which authorized the agency to use confidential fiscal and administrative procedures, and exempted it from most limitations on
18358-610: Was prominent in an Administration occupation in 1968, and a student strike in 1969. After the failure of the student strike, SDU broke up. Some members joined the IWW and Yippies (Youth International Party). Other members helped form the Vancouver Liberation Front in 1970. The FLQ (Quebec Liberation Front) was considered a terrorist organization, causing the use of the War Measures Act after 95 bombings in
18495-707: Was recruited on the spot by Alan Haber for new, rival, campus organization Students for a Democratic Society (SDS), into which she was followed by other NSA delegates, including Tom Hayden , editor of the University of Michigan newspaper. Many founding members of SDS began their involvement in national activism through NSA, and numerous students were introduced to civil rights and antiwar movements through NSA events. Despite criticism from SNCC and SDS about NSA's moderate leadership, both organizations relied on NSA for support. NSA faced increasing criticism, however, from conservative factions. In 1961, Young Americans for Freedom (YAF) attempted to seize control of NSA, claiming it
18632-481: Was that of a simple information gathering entity that would function more as a global news service rather than a spy network. His vision starkly contrasted with Donovan's, which focused on avoiding the creation of an American version of the Gestapo . On September 20, 1945, shortly after the end of World War II, Truman signed an executive order dissolving the OSS. By October 1945 its functions had been divided between
18769-542: Was the largest yet. A few months later the government passed Institutional Act Number Five which officially banned students from any further protest. In Canada , New Left student organizations from the late 1950s and 1960s became mainly two: SUPA ( Student Union for Peace Action ) and CYC (Company of Young Canadians). SUPA grew out of the CUCND (Combined Universities Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament) in December 1964, at
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