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206-676: Its original name was officially the Neue Preußische Zeitung ( New Prussian Newspaper ), although because of the Iron Cross as its emblem in the title, it was simply called the ‘ Kreuzzeitung ’ ( Cross Newspaper ) in both general and official usage. In 1911 it was renamed the Neue Preußische (Kreuz)-Zeitung and then after 1929 the Neue Preußische Kreuz-Zeitung . Between 1932 and 1939

412-463: A Kreuzzeitung article. In it he proclaimed that the forces opposing "this corrupted revolutionary government are gaining ground daily” and concluded with the battle cry, "We or the others. That is our motto!" The new Reich government then filed a criminal complaint. Foertsch received a fine of 300 marks for defamation. In mitigation, the court took into account "that the Kreuzzeitung represented

618-680: A cross pattée . When the Quadriga of the Goddess of Peace was retrieved from Paris at Napoleon's fall, it was re-established atop Berlin's Brandenburg Gate . An Iron Cross was inserted into Peace's laurel wreath , making her into a Goddess of Victory . In 1821 Schinkel crowned the top of his design of the National Monument for the Liberation Wars with an Iron Cross, becoming name-giving as Kreuzberg (cross mountain) for

824-552: A platinum frame that he was wearing at the time of his surrender to the allies in 1945. The Star of the Grand Cross of the Iron Cross (also called Iron Cross with Golden Rays) was pinned to the left breast, above the Iron Cross 1st Class. Like the Grand Cross of the Iron Cross, it was for bestowal upon successful general officers. The Star of the Grand Cross was awarded only twice, both to Field Marshals who already held

1030-474: A German decoration (rather than Prussian), and continued the tradition of issuing it in various classes. Legally, it is based on the "Enactment for the re-introduction of the Iron Cross" ( Verordnung über die Erneuerung des Eisernen Kreuzes ) of 1 September 1939. The Iron Cross of World War II was divided into three main series of decorations: the Iron Cross (the lowest), the Knight's Cross (intermediate), and

1236-409: A German monarch. There was also the "1957" issue, a replacement medal for holders of the 1939 series which substituted an oak-leaf cluster for the banned swastika. When the Iron Cross was reauthorized for World War I in 1914, it was possible for individuals who had previously been awarded one in 1870 to be subsequently granted another. These recipients were recognized with the award of a clasp featuring

1442-510: A banking and savings system that would provide credit to the working class, and to establish agricultural colonies similar to the kibbutzim later founded in Israel. This book was widely reprinted and circulated in France, and played an important part in his future electoral success. Louis Napoleon was busy in prison, but also unhappy and impatient. He was aware that the popularity of his uncle

1648-453: A broad popular mandate, so on 20–21 December a national plebiscite was held asking if voters agreed to the coup. Mayors in many regions threatened to publish the names of any electors who refused to vote. When asked if they agreed to the coup, 7,439,216 voters said yes, 641,737 voted no, and 1.7 million voters abstained. The fairness and legality of the referendum was immediately questioned by Louis Napoleon's critics, but Louis Napoleon

1854-497: A clear majority, enough to block any initiatives of Louis Napoleon. On 11 June 1849, the socialists and radical republicans made an attempt to seize power. Ledru-Rollin , from his headquarters in the Conservatory of Arts and Professions , declared that Louis Napoleon was no longer President and called for a general uprising. A few barricades appeared in the working-class neighborhoods of Paris. Louis Napoleon acted swiftly, and

2060-491: A compendium of his political ideas which was published in three editions and eventually translated into six languages. He based his doctrine upon two ideas: universal suffrage and the primacy of the national interest. He called for a "monarchy which procures the advantages of the Republic without the inconveniences", a regime "strong without despotism, free without anarchy, independent without conquest". He also intended to build

2266-642: A conflict." The article had no effect: on 7 August 1914, the Kreuzzeitung published Kaiser Wilhelm's famous speech "To the German People!" in which he said that "now the sword must decide". During the First World War not only did all political parties enter into the so-called Burgfrieden – the tabling of domestic political and economic disputes – but in principle all German newspapers did as well. This went so far that several conservative parties effectively ceased their activities. During this period

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2472-579: A contingent of about sixty armed men, hired a ship called the Edinburgh-Castle , and on 6 August 1840, sailed across the Channel to the port of Boulogne . The attempted coup turned into an even greater fiasco than the Strasbourg mutiny. The mutineers were stopped by the customs agents, the soldiers of the garrison refused to join, the mutineers were surrounded on the beach, one was killed and

2678-407: A five-member committee which had the right to audit the accounts but could not influence the newspaper's content or personnel. That this independence had distinct limits was clearly felt by the first editor-in-chief. After the newspaper continuously and openly criticized both the dictatorship of Napoleon III and him as a person, Bismarck called on the paper to exercise restraint. The editors ignored

2884-470: A gifted orator; he spoke slowly, in a monotone, with a slight German accent from his Swiss education. His opponents sometimes ridiculed him, one comparing him to "a turkey who believes he's an eagle". Louis Napoleon's campaign appealed to both the left and right. His election manifesto proclaimed his support for "religion, family, property, the eternal basis of all social order". But it also announced his intent "to give work to those unoccupied; to look out for

3090-586: A laborer carrying lumber, and walked out of the prison. His enemies later derisively called him "Badinguet", the name of the laborer whose identity he had assumed. A carriage was waiting to take him to the coast and then by boat to England. A month after his escape, his father Louis died, making Charles Napoleon the clear heir to the Bonaparte dynasty. Louis Napoleon quickly resumed his place in British society. He lived on King Street, St James's , London, went to

3296-472: A mandate to amend the constitution. Work began on the new document in 1852. It was officially prepared by a committee of eighty experts but was actually drafted by a small group of the Prince-President's inner circle. Under the new constitution, Louis Napoleon was automatically reelected as president. Under Article Two, the president could now serve an unlimited number of 10-year terms. He was given

3502-404: A miniaturized 1914 Iron Cross on a metal bar. The award was quite rare, since by this time there were few in service who held the 1870 Iron Cross. In World War II it was also possible for a holder of the 1914 Iron Cross to be awarded a second or higher grade of the 1939 Iron Cross. In such cases, a " 1939 Clasp " ( Spange ) would be worn on the original 1914 Iron Cross. For the 1st Class award,

3708-459: A number of state officials participated in wild speculations and made use of their official or political influence by personally participating in and founding joint-stock companies. Bismarck had to respond to the accusations in court and before the Reichstag . For him the conflict with the Kreuzzeitung was "now out in the open, and the bridges are burnt". Bismarck called publicly for a boycott of

3914-487: A paper supplier named Flinsch and proposed a deal, asking for 200,000 marks (equivalent to about 1.3 million euros today) and in return committing himself to buy all the paper for the Kreuzzeitung from Flinsch for the next ten years. The deal went through. Hammerstein greatly inflated the invoices issued and pocketed the difference. In order to do this, he forged the signatures of the corporate board members Georg Graf von Kanitz and Hans Graf Finck von Finckenstein, as well as

4120-450: A personal reprimand from the king for his high-handed action. Although Wagener had received royal backing, he was unnerved and resigned from his position at the Kreuzzeitung . Tuiscon Beutner became the new editor-in-chief in 1854. Frederick William IV advised him "that the newspaper should continue to appear undeterred and should not change anything in its policy, only that it should be cautious toward France”. Under Beutner's leadership too

4326-473: A pin which exhibited three Iron Crosses with an exaggerated swastika, thereby consolidating the awards. In some cases, Minox miniature cameras were given to people together with an Iron Cross. As modern German law prohibits the production and display of items containing Nazi insignia , the West German government authorized replacement Iron Crosses in 1957 with a trifoliate Oak Leaf Cluster in place of

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4532-609: A point of view fundamentally opposed to the Reich government and that the author had worked himself into an irritated mood against the Reich government through his thoughts and writing". The paper in particular bolstered the conservative Bavarian People's Party (BVP), which split from the Centre Party after what are now known as Erzberger's reforms, which gave the German federal government supreme authority to tax and spend and sought

4738-624: A president elected by popular vote through universal male suffrage, rather than chosen by the National Assembly. The elections were scheduled for 10–11 December 1848. Louis Napoleon promptly announced his candidacy. There were four other candidates for the post: General Cavaignac, who had led the suppression of the June uprisings in Paris; Lamartine, the poet-philosopher and leader of the provisional government; Alexandre Auguste Ledru-Rollin ,

4944-514: A pseudonym as independent contributors. Only in Vienna, Dresden, Munich and other capitals of the individual German states were correspondents permanently employed. For many years Bismarck himself supplied reports from Paris. Reporters obtained news from all other countries through diplomats in Berlin. The editorial staff enjoyed a relatively high degree of independence, although the paper's loyalty to

5150-552: A qualified test pilot and development engineer and decorated in August 1943. Other DRK female auxiliaries who received the Iron Cross for acts of bravery are Hanny Weber, Geolinde Münchge, Elfriede Gunia, Ruth Raabe, Ilse Daub, Greta Graffenkamp, Elfriede Muth, Ursula Kogel, Liselotte Schlotterbeck, Rohna von Ceuern, Anna Wohlschütz, and Dr. Elizabeth Potuz. Two non-German female auxiliaries of the German Red Cross were awarded

5356-455: A relatively wide latitude. As before, most of the newspaper consisted of scrupulously researched foreign news reported without commentary. Travel expenses were reimbursed, as were "cover invoices" for expenses such as undeclared payments or bribes. Through the Kreuzzeitung, employees gained access to the highest circles in Germany and abroad. Because of its connections to politics and business,

5562-643: A significant redistribution of the tax burden in favor of low to moderate income households. The BVP won more elections in Bavaria than any other party in all state elections until 1932. The BVP opposed republican centralism and initially called openly for secession from the German Reich. Journalistic support was provided by Erwein von Aretin, editor-in-chief of the Münchner Neuesten Nachrichten ( Munich’s Latest News ) who also sat on

5768-462: A slight but noticeable German accent. His tutor at home was Philippe Le Bas , an ardent republican and the son of a revolutionary and close friend of Robespierre . Le Bas taught him French history and radical politics. When Louis Napoleon was 15, his mother Hortense moved to Rome , where the Bonapartes had a villa. He passed his time learning Italian , exploring the ancient ruins and learning

5974-562: A three-year residency requirement. This new law excluded 3.5 of 9 million French voters, the voters that the leader of the Party of Order, Adolphe Thiers, scornfully called "the vile multitude". This new election law was passed in May 1850 by a majority of 433 to 241, putting the National Assembly on a direct collision course with the Prince-President. Louis Napoleon broke with the Assembly and

6180-453: A variety of very crude anti-German propaganda versions of the Iron Cross were created by the Allies, and sold to raise money for the war effort and the relief of Belgian refugees . One was inscribed "FOR KULTUR" in raised letters, another "FOR BRUTALITY." Yet another showed the names of French and Belgian towns attacked or destroyed during the retreat from Mons on the ends of the upper arms of

6386-569: A way to produce an heir for the Emperor, who agreed, as Joséphine was by then infertile. Louis and Hortense had a difficult relationship and only lived together for brief periods. Their first son, Napoléon Charles Bonaparte , died in 1807 and—though separated and parents of a healthy second son, Napoléon Louis —they decided to have a third child. They resumed their marriage for a brief time in Toulouse starting from 12 August 1807 and Louis Napoleon

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6592-435: A wider European community of nations. "I believe", wrote Louis Napoleon, "that from time to time, men are created whom I call volunteers of providence, in whose hands are placed the destiny of their countries. I believe I am one of those men. If I am wrong, I can perish uselessly. If I am right, then providence will put me into a position to fulfill my mission." He had seen the popular enthusiasm for Napoleon Bonaparte when he

6798-490: A year later by Wilhelm II , who became emperor after the death of his father. Jews were in fact an integral part of the German Empire. The Kreuzzeitung had had Jewish writers working for it since its founding. By 1880 it employed 46 permanent correspondents who were Jewish and had several Jewish freelancers. Jewish deputies with large Jewish constituencies were represented in the conservative parties. The warning from

7004-569: A young woman from the town of Ham, who gave birth to two of his children. While in prison, Louis Napoleon wrote poems, political essays, and articles on diverse topics. He contributed articles to regional newspapers and magazines in towns all over France, becoming quite well known as a writer. His most famous book was L'extinction du pauperisme (1844), a study of the causes of poverty in the French industrial working class, with proposals to eliminate it. His conclusion: "The working class has nothing, it

7210-828: A youth he had joined in the patriotic uprising against the Austrians. The previous government had sent an expeditionary force, which had been tasked and funded by the National Assembly to support the republican forces in Italy against the Austrians and against the Pope. Instead the force was secretly ordered to do the opposite, namely to enter Rome to help restore the temporal authority of Pope Pius IX , who had been overthrown by Italian republicans including Mazzini and Garibaldi . The French troops came under fire from Garibaldi's soldiers. The Prince-President, without consulting his ministers, ordered his soldiers to fight if needed in support of

7416-475: Is here to keep anti-Semitism within limits”. The greatest damage to the respectability and credibility of the Kreuzzeitung was done by its editor-in-chief Hammerstein. He liked to portray himself as a "clean man" and always loudly promoted law and order but had relationships with women outside his marriage and lived in a grand style. On 4 July 1895 he was dismissed for dishonesty by the Kreuzzeitung committee. In his capacity as editor-in-chief he had approached

7622-460: Is in fact the only political newspaper he reads". The decline was not halted until Georg Foertsch took over as editor-in-chief in 1913. He kept the circulation constant at 7,200 copies until 1932. The retired major had previously worked as a press attaché to the imperial navy. He maintained neutrality and concentrated on the Kreuzzeitung's core competence, foreign reporting. Foertsch encouraged young journalists but hired only professionals. They had

7828-413: Is necessary to give them ownership. They have no other wealth than their own labor, it is necessary to give them work that will benefit all....they are without organization and without connections, without rights and without a future; it is necessary to give them rights and a future and to raise them in their own eyes by association, education, and discipline." He proposed various practical ideas for creating

8034-574: The Norddeutsche Allgemeine Zeitung was steadily evolving into "Bismarck's house postil ". Although the Kreuzzeitung predominantly represented the views of the arch-conservatives, i.e. the representatives of the king and later the emperor, it also always covered the interests of the liberal-conservative, Christian-conservative and social-conservative forces. In doing so, the paper presented facts or actions primarily as reports or news items, that is, without an assessment by

8240-525: The Vossische Zeitung as a theater critic. The newspaper was printed by the Heinicke printing house in Berlin from 1852 to 1908. The publisher, Ferdinand Heinicke, also assumed responsibility for the content of the paper as the so-called ‘sitting editor’ who was the sole person liable in legal disputes and lawsuits. This protected the Kreuzzeitung's editors from such entanglements. In 1861

8446-464: The 1932 German presidential election , a steel helmet ( Stahlhelm ) was depicted above the Iron Cross in the newspaper's header, but this was only a means to an electoral end. Editor-in-chief Foertsch repeatedly exposed the Nazi Party's campaign methods, contended that "Hitler was not free of socialist thinking and was therefore a danger to Germany" and ran headlines such as "May the day come when

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8652-828: The Imperial German Army , and the Reichswehr of the Weimar Republic , while the Balkenkreuz (bar cross) variant was used by the Wehrmacht . The Iron Cross is now the emblem of the Bundeswehr , the modern German armed forces. King Frederick William III of Prussia established the Iron Cross award on 17 March 1813 during the Napoleonic Wars (EK 1813). The award was backdated to

8858-410: The Kreuzzeitung and that Friedrich Julius Stahl's motto applied in the editorial office: "Gentlemen, let us not forget that even the most conservative paper is still more paper than conservative." What was meant by this was that the presentation of various opinions, which should on principle be passed on without any judgment by the author, was part of a newspaper's sales success. In 1870 Fontane moved to

9064-433: The Kreuzzeitung continued to be regarded among journalists as a training ground. The weekly Weltbühne , for which the opposition Kreuzzeitung embodied the old German ruling class through and through, acknowledged the "old royalist Kreuzzeitung’s useful foreign policy information" and gladly employed journalists such as Lothar Persius who had learned their trade at the Neue Preußische Zeitung . And even Vorwärts ,

9270-467: The Kreuzzeitung had permanent staff in all European capitals. Until then, reports from foreign newspapers were sometimes passed off as the paper's own work. What today violates copyright law was a widespread practice at the time, and not only among German newspaper writers. Even the Times of London translated complete articles from the Kreuzzeitung , unhesitatingly citing their "own Berlin correspondent" as

9476-420: The Kreuzzeitung provided very well-researched commentaries which are still one of the most important sources for historians on military as well as day-to-day political events of World War I. On 9 November 1918, the Kreuzzeitung ran the headline "The Emperor Abdicates!": "We lack the words to express what moves us in this hour. Under the force of events, the thirty-year reign of our Emperor, who always wanted

9682-443: The Kreuzzeitung was in principle independent of the crown and the government. Likewise, it was never a party newspaper or the mouthpiece of a particular party. Until its last issue in 1939, the paper had no party affiliation. Rather, the Kreuzzeitung represented the link between all conservative forces. After the foundation of the German Empire in 1871, the reputation of the newspaper changed permanently. The reasons for this were

9888-581: The Kreuzzeitung with breakfast all my life". The rest of the conversation did not proceed any better, as Hindenburg did not risk talking to Wolff, the most influential representative of the Mosse press, about either hunting or the military. For the Kreuzzeitung, Hindenburg remained to the last the bearer of hope. He showed little inclination to confer the chancellorship on Hitler until shortly before 30 January 1933. As late as 12 August 1932, he rejected to good public effect Hitler's demand that "the leadership of

10094-430: The Kreuzzeitung . The paper countered by publishing more than 100 names of declarants, nobles, members of parliament, and pastors who in letters to the newspaper expressed their approval of the publication of the research. Nothing could be proven against the chancellor, but in fact he had hoped that his economic policy would lead to a split among the liberals. Moreover, his policies did indeed contribute to fluctuations in

10300-648: The Muslim SS members to receive the award, SS Obersturmführer Imam Halim Malkoč was granted the Iron Cross (2nd Class) in October 1943 for his role in suppressing the Villefranche-de-Rouergue mutiny . He, together with several other Bosnian Muslims, was decorated with the EK II personally by Himmler in the days after the mutiny. Because of his Muslim faith, he wore only the ribbon, and not

10506-529: The National Assembly on 13–14 May 1849 , only a few months after Louis Napoleon had become president, and were largely won by a coalition of conservative republicans—which Catholics and monarchists called "The Party of Order "—led by Thiers. The socialists and "red" republicans, led by Ledru-Rollin and Raspail, also did well, winning two hundred seats. The moderate republicans, in the middle, did very badly, taking just 70–80 seats. The Party of Order had

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10712-594: The Prussian Military Merit Cross ), but is seen as a supplement of existing awards of the Bundeswehr . In the United States, the Iron Cross was adopted by outlaw motorcycle clubs in the 1960s, as a symbol of rebellion and probably for shock value . From biker subculture it spread to rock and heavy metal subcultures, becoming part of heavy metal fashion . Lemmy Kilmister of the influential band Motörhead often wore one. in

10918-702: The Sudetenland and the Memel region ). After post-war German armed forces began seeing active service, first in Kosovo and then in Afghanistan , a campaign began to revive the Iron Cross and other military medals, since Germany had no awards specifically for active military service. In 2007, a petition to the German parliament to revive the Iron Cross decoration was initiated, quickly receiving over 5,000 signatures. On 13 December 2007 parliament decided to let

11124-517: The Swiss Army , trained to become an officer, and wrote a manual of artillery (his uncle Napoleon had become famous as an artillery officer). Louis Napoleon also began writing about his political philosophy—for as the early twentieth century English historian H. A. L. Fisher suggested, "the programme of the Empire was not the improvisation of a vulgar adventurer" but the result of deep reflection on

11330-779: The Treaty of Turin as its deferred reward. At the same time, his forces defended the Papal States against annexation by Italy. He was also favourable towards the 1859 union of the Danubian Principalities , which resulted in the establishment of the United Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia . Napoleon doubled the area of the French colonial empire with expansions in Asia, the Pacific, and Africa. On

11536-587: The camarilla around the Prussian king Frederick William IV were: The launch of the newspaper and the founding of the publishing house were carried out with military precision. The intent was for the paper to be characterized by good networking with the highest state institutions. Berlin was chosen both for the headquarters of the New Prussian Newspaper, Inc. and as the location for its printing. The calculated starting capital of 20,000 thalers

11742-603: The minister president of Prussia . Another bitter rival of the paper was the head of the Police Department in the Ministry of the Interior, Karl Ludwig Friedrich von Hinckeldey. Hinckeldey did not hesitate to take the editor-in-chief of the Neue Preußische Zeitung into custody for several days when he refused to give the names of all writers, including anonymous authors, to police authorities. Hinckeldey received

11948-635: The Élysée Palace at the end of December 1848 and immediately hung a portrait of his mother in the boudoir and a portrait of Napoleon I, in his coronation robes, in the grand salon. Adolphe Thiers recommended that he wear clothing of "democratic simplicity", but following the model of his uncle, he chose instead the uniform of the General-in-Chief of the National Guard , and chose the title of "Prince-President". Louis Napoleon also made his first venture into foreign policy, in Italy, where as

12154-593: The 1870 Iron Cross who were still in service in 1895 were authorized to purchase and wear above the cross a Jubiläumsspange ("Jubilee clip"), a 25-year clasp consisting of the numerals "25" on three oak leaves. William Manley is possibly the only recipient of both the Iron Cross and the Victoria Cross . He was awarded the Iron Cross for service with an ambulance unit in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–71. Emperor Wilhelm II reauthorized

12360-457: The 1870, 1914 and 1939 series of Iron Crosses have the year "1813" appearing on the lower arm, symbolizing the year the award was created. The 1813 decoration also has the initials "FW" for King Friedrich Wilhelm III , while the next two have a "W" for the respective kaisers, Wilhelm I and Wilhelm II . The final version shows a swastika representing the Nazi Party instead of a letter for

12566-405: The 1990s, this other use of the Iron Cross had spread from bikers to skateboarders and many extreme sports enthusiasts and became part of the logo of several related clothing companies. The Anti-Defamation League states that the version of the symbol with a swastika has been commonly used by neo-Nazis and other white supremacists as a hate symbol since it was discontinued following World War II, but

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12772-699: The 2nd Class version was as a ribbon through one of the button holes in the recipient's tunic. The Grand Cross was intended for senior generals of the Prussian or (later) the German Army. An even higher decoration, the Star of the Grand Cross of the Iron Cross (also called the Blücher Star ), was awarded only twice, to Generalfeldmarschall Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher in 1813 and to Generalfeldmarschall Paul von Hindenburg in 1918. A third award

12978-609: The Black Cross was featured on the Prussian war flag alongside the Black Eagle. It was designed by neoclassical architect Karl Friedrich Schinkel , based on Friedrich Wilhelm III. The design is ultimately derivative of the black cross used by the Teutonic Order . This heraldic cross took various forms throughout the order's history, including a Latin cross , a cross potent , cross fleury , and occasionally also

13184-438: The Bonaparte family, Jérôme Napoléon Bonaparte , Pierre Napoléon Bonaparte , and Lucien Murat were elected; the name Bonaparte still had political power. In the next elections, on 4 June, where candidates could run in multiple departments, he was elected in four different departments; in Paris, he was among the top five candidates, just after the conservative leader Adolphe Thiers and Victor Hugo . His followers were mostly on

13390-543: The Bonaparte legend and increased his publicity. King Louis Philippe had demanded that the Swiss government return Louis Napoleon to France, but the Swiss pointed out that he was a Swiss soldier and citizen and refused to hand him over. The King responded by sending an army to the Swiss border. Louis Napoleon thanked his Swiss hosts, and voluntarily left the country. The other mutineers were put on trial in Alsace , and were all acquitted. Louis Napoleon traveled first to London, then to Brazil , and then to New York City. He met

13596-530: The Catholic Centre politician Matthias Erzberger as a "corrupter of the country" and a "fulfillment politician" – in favor of fulfilling the obligations of the Versailles Treaty in order to show that it was impossible to do so – just as it did the Catholic Centre deputies Heinrich Brauns and Joseph Wirth , all of whom had explicitly identified with the wartime Burgfrieden policy of Reich Chancellor Theobald von Bethmann Hollweg . On 17 November 1919 Georg Foertsch "massively attacked republican Reich ministers" in

13802-415: The Eastern Front, Magda Darchniger, decorated in 1942, Marga Droste, who remained at her post in the Wilhelmshaven hospital despite her own wounds during a bombing in 1942, Ilse Schulz and Grete Fock, who served in the African campaign, Liselotte Hensel and Miss Holzmann, who were both decorated in 1943 for bravery during a bombing of Hamburg, and the countess Melitta Schenk Gräfin von Stauffenberg , acting as

14008-484: The French and founded the Second Empire , reigning until the defeat of the French Army and his capture by Prussia and its allies at the Battle of Sedan in 1870. Napoleon III was a popular monarch who oversaw the modernization of the French economy and filled Paris with new boulevards and parks. He expanded the French colonial empire , made the French merchant navy the second largest in the world, and personally engaged in two wars. Maintaining leadership for 22 years, he

14214-404: The French border. Hortense and Louis Napoleon traveled incognito to Paris, where the old regime of King Charles X had just fallen and been replaced by the more liberal regime of Louis Philippe I , the sole monarch of the July Monarchy . They arrived in Paris on 23 April 1831, and took up residence under the name "Hamilton" in the Hotel du Holland on Place Vendôme . Hortense wrote an appeal to

14420-435: The German embassy and had him arrested upon his arrival in Brindisi, Italy. In April 1896 Hammerstein was sentenced to three years imprisonment. In the wake of these events, the Neue Preußische Zeitung lost about 2,000 readers. Circulation fell steadily. Even Wilhelm II, who did not want to abandon the paper, could do nothing, although he had it publicly announced that "The Emperor reads the Kreuzzeitung now as before; it

14626-407: The Golden Oak Leaves, Swords, and Diamonds ( Oberst Hans-Ulrich Rudel ). Like the Knight's Cross, the Grand Cross ( Großkreuz ) was worn suspended from the collar. It was reserved for general officers for "the most outstanding strategic decisions affecting the course of the war". The only recipient during the Second World War was Reichsmarschall Hermann Göring , who was awarded

14832-532: The Grand Cross (the highest). The Knight's Cross replaced the Prussian Pour le Mérite or "Blue Max". Hitler did not care for the Pour le Mérite , as it was a Prussian order that could be awarded only to officers. The ribbon of the medal (2nd class and Knight's Cross) was different from the earlier Iron Crosses as the color red was used in addition to the traditional black and white (black and white were

15038-796: The Grand Cross: in 1815 to Gebhard von Blücher for his part in the Battle of Waterloo , and in March 1918 to Paul von Hindenburg for his conduct of the 1918 Spring Offensive on the Western Front . It is often called the Blücher Star ( Blücherstern ) , after its first recipient. A Star of the Grand Cross of the Iron Cross was manufactured in World War II, but never formally instituted or awarded. The only known example, based on

15244-551: The Iron Cross ( Ritterkreuz des Eisernen Kreuzes , often simply Ritterkreuz ) recognized military valour or successful leadership. The Knight's Cross was divided into five degrees: In total, 7,313 awards of the Knight's Cross were made. Only 883 received the Oak Leaves; 160 both the Oak Leaves and Swords (including Japanese Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto (posthumously)); 27 with Oak Leaves, Swords and Diamonds; and one with

15450-524: The Iron Cross on 5 August 1914, at the start of World War I . During these three periods, the Iron Cross was an award of the Kingdom of Prussia, although—given Prussia's pre-eminent place in the German Empire formed in 1871—it tended to be treated as a generic German decoration. The 1813, 1870, and 1914 Iron Crosses had three grades: Although the obverse of the medals of each class was identical,

15656-457: The Iron Cross were given entitlements and often wore signifying articles, such as an Iron Cross signet ring or cloth Iron Cross which could be affixed to clothing. Also, during the Nazi period, those attaining more than one award, for example, an officer who had attained an Iron Cross 2nd Class, an Iron Cross 1st Class, and the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with the Oak Leaves, were entitled to wear

15862-735: The Iron Cross: Norwegian nurse Anne Gunhild Moxnes in April 1944, and an unknown Belgian nurse in 1942. A young member of the female youth organisation of the Third Reich, Ottilie Stephan, was also awarded the Iron Cross in February 1945 under unknown circumstances. At least two Iron Cross, 1st class, recipients were women, test pilot ( Flugkapitän ) Hanna Reitsch and in January 1945 German Red Cross sister Else Grossmann. One of

16068-554: The Iron Crosses 1st Class were stitched in ribbon to the left uniform breast. By order of 1 June 1813, the 2nd form was created in cast iron with silver borders, and 8 loops on the reverse, to be fixed to the left uniform breast. In 1817 a total of 670 chevaliers had received the Iron Cross 1st Class. King Wilhelm I of Prussia authorized further awards on 19 July 1870, during the Franco-Prussian War . Recipients of

16274-533: The Jewish bankers, however, went too far for Wilhelm I, who favored integration of the Jews. He had signed a pan-German law in 1871 granting equal rights to the Jews, and in particular in 1872 had elevated Gerson Bleichröder to the hereditary nobility, the first Jew to be accorded the honor. The consequence was that Franz Perrot and Philipp von Nathusius-Ludom had to leave the Kreuzzeitung . Benno von Niebelschütz became

16480-710: The King, asking to stay in France, and Louis Napoleon offered to volunteer as an ordinary soldier in the French Army . The new king agreed to meet secretly with Hortense; Louis Napoleon had a fever and did not join them. The King finally agreed that Hortense and Louis Napoleon could stay in Paris as long as their stay was brief and incognito. Louis-Napoleon was told that he could join the French Army if he would simply change his name, something he indignantly refused to do. Hortense and Louis Napoleon remained in Paris until 5 May,

16686-481: The Ministry of Defence decide the matter. On 6 March 2008, President Horst Köhler approved a proposal by Minister of Defense Franz Josef Jung to institute a new award for bravery. The Ehrenzeichen der Bundeswehr (Badge of Honor of the German Armed Forces) series was instituted on 10 October 2008. However, it does not have the traditional form of the Iron Cross (instead more closely resembling

16892-666: The Napoleonic political philosophy and on how to adjust it to the changed domestic and international scenes. As early as 1832 he presented a reconciliation between Bonapartism and republicanism through the principle of popular sovereignty. He believed a strong emperor existed to execute the will of the people. He published his Rêveries politiques or "political dreams" in 1833 at the age of 25, followed in 1834 by Considérations politiques et militaires sur la Suisse ("Political and military considerations about Switzerland"), followed in 1839 by Les Idées napoléoniennes ("Napoleonic Ideas"),

17098-418: The National Assembly were arrested in their homes. When about 220 deputies of the moderate right gathered at the city hall of the 10th arrondissement , they were also arrested. On 3 December, writer Victor Hugo and a few other republicans tried to organize an opposition to the coup. A few barricades appeared, and about 1,000 insurgents came out in the streets, but the army moved in force with 30,000 troops and

17304-426: The National Assembly, where Cavaignac was certain to win. The elections were held on 10–11 December. Results were announced on 20 December. Louis Napoleon was widely expected to win, but the size of his victory surprised almost everyone. He won 5,572,834 votes, or 74.2 percent of votes cast, compared with 1,469,156 for Cavaignac. The socialist Ledru-Rollin received 376,834; the extreme left candidate Raspail 37,106, and

17510-591: The National Assembly. In seven months, he had gone from a political exile in London to a highly visible place in the National Assembly, as the government finished the new constitution and prepared for the first election ever of a president of the French Republic. The new constitution of the Second Republic , drafted by a commission including Alexis de Tocqueville , called for a strong executive and

17716-751: The Pope. This was very popular with French Catholics, but infuriated the republicans, who supported the Roman Republic . To please the radical republicans, he asked the Pope to introduce liberal reforms and the Code Napoleon to the Papal States . To gain support from the Catholics, he approved the Loi Falloux in 1851, which restored a greater role for the Catholic Church in the French educational system. Elections were held for

17922-576: The Prussian military archives were destroyed during World War II. The multitude of awards reduced the status and reputation of the decoration. Among the holders of the 1914 Iron Cross, 2nd class, and 1st Class was Adolf Hitler , who served as an Austrian citizen in the Bavarian Army with the rank of Gefreiter (lance-corporal), he received these medals for showing bravery on the field of battle. Most photographs of Hitler show him wearing his EKI in standard fashion on his left breast. In 1914,

18128-799: The Prussian upper class. As a reaction to the March Revolution of 1848 , the Bundestag repealed the Carlsbad Decrees on 2 April 1848. The middle class in particular, but also radical left-wing forces, took advantage of the newly won freedom of the press and founded numerous newspapers, among them the bourgeois-liberal National-Zeitung and the Neue Rheinische Zeitung ( New Rhenish Newspaper ) with radical-communist content. Monarchical-conservative circles sped up their push to found their own newspaper to represent

18334-415: The Reich government and all state power be conferred in full on me". The Kreuzzeitung praised Hindenburg's attitude toward Hitler as "understandable and well-founded". Granting Hitler's demands, the paper said, would have meant degrading the Reich president to a "puppet to be staged at ceremonial events dressed in a state robe". With this assessment, the Kreuzzeitung foreshadowed precisely the scenario that

18540-518: The Second Republic had been declared, led by a Provisional Government headed by a Commission led by Alphonse de Lamartine , and that different factions of republicans, from conservatives to those on the far left, were competing for power. He wrote to Lamartine announcing his arrival, saying that he "was without any other ambition than that of serving my country". Lamartine wrote back politely but firmly, asking Louis-Napoleon to leave Paris "until

18746-473: The Spange appears as an eagle with the date "1939". This was pinned to the uniform above the original medal. Although they were two separate awards in some cases the holders soldered them together. A cross has been the symbol of Germany's armed forces (now the Bundeswehr ) since 1871. On 17 March 1813 King Frederick William III of Prussia, who had fled to non-occupied Breslau (today Wrocław ), established

18952-615: The World War I version but with the 1939 Iron Cross centerpiece, was found by Allied forces at the end of the war, and it is now in the museum at West Point . It is likely that Reichsmarschall Göring was the intended eventual recipient. He was the only holder of the World War II Iron Cross Grand Cross, and both the previous recipients of the Star had already received the Grand Cross. Officers awarded

19158-527: The absolute authority to declare war, sign treaties, form alliances and initiate laws. The Constitution re-established universal male suffrage , and also retained a National Assembly, albeit one with reduced authority. Louis Napoleon's government imposed new authoritarian measures to control dissent and reduce the power of the opposition. One of his first acts was to settle scores with his old enemy, King Louis Philippe, who had sent him to prison for life and who had died in 1850. A decree on 23 January 1852 forbade

19364-713: The advice. As a consequence, in April 1852 the Kreuzzeitung was banned in France, and several editions were confiscated in Berlin. The next strains followed when the editorial board openly spoke out against the repeal of the Basic Rights of the German People as drafted by the Frankfurt Parliament and thus against the Lesser Germany solution. A wide variety of power interests and spheres of influence clashed here. The paper's position repeatedly met with opposition from Otto Theodor von Manteuffel , then

19570-627: The age of seven, Louis Napoleon visited his uncle at the Tuileries Palace in Paris. Napoleon held him up to the window to see the soldiers parading in the Place du Carrousel below. Louis Napoleon last saw his uncle with the family at the Château de Malmaison , shortly before Napoleon departed for the Battle of Waterloo . All members of the Bonaparte dynasty were forced into exile after

19776-584: The arts of seduction and romantic affairs, which he used often in his later life. He became friends with the French Ambassador, François-René, Vicomte de Chateaubriand , the father of romanticism in French literature , with whom he remained in contact for many years. He was reunited with his older brother Napoléon-Louis; together they became involved with the Carbonari , secret revolutionary societies fighting Austria's domination of Northern Italy. In

19982-447: The attention of Wilhelm II. This developed into a friendly relationship through which Schiemann was able to exert political influence as an advisor, especially on eastern European issues. On the eve of World War I, Schiemann foresaw a two-front war and wrote in the Kreuzzeitung on 27 May 1914: "The German Empire must consider the fact that it will find England on the side of its future adversaries, and should not carelessly bring about such

20188-410: The attitude of the editors and thus the basic political direction of the Kreuzzeitung differently, especially during the Weimar Republic . Depending on the author's ideological view, the spectrum ranges from "stock Protestant", "feudal", "German national", "ultraconservative", "agrarian", " East Elbian ” and " Junker conservative" to "anti-modern”. More recent research uses "monarchist-conservative" as

20394-485: The author. But the very fact that it published different positions without commenting on them brought it regularly under criticism. The German Question and the relations of the German states with the major European powers developed into perennial topics of dispute. The Kreuzzeitung received most of its information from younger diplomats. The first foreign correspondents it was able to attract were George Hesekiel in Paris and, from 1851, Theodor Fontane in London. Later

20600-407: The award was presented. It was worn with a 57 mm (2.2 in) wide ribbon bearing the same colors as the Knight's Cross and 2nd Class ribbons. The award case was in red leather with the eagle and the swastika outlined in gold. The original Grand Cross presented to Göring (personally by Hitler) was destroyed during an air raid on his Berlin home. Göring had extra copies made, one of them with

20806-483: The banking system. Napoleon promoted the building of the Suez Canal and established modern agriculture, which ended famines in France and made the country an agricultural exporter. He negotiated the 1860 Cobden–Chevalier Free Trade Agreement with Britain and similar agreements with France's other European trading partners. Social reforms included giving French workers the right to strike, the right to organize, and

21012-431: The best connections to diplomats, politicians and industrialists both at home and abroad, with the result that the Kreuzzeitung was able to publish numerous reports exclusively and/or be the first to cover them. In domestic politics, Foertsch maintained personal contacts with the imperial treasury, from which he regularly received comprehensive information about the current financial and economic state of affairs, as well as

21218-439: The best for his people, has come to an end. The heart of every monarchist is convulsed at this event." Deep grief, apathy, escapism and hopelessness, as well as fears of what was to come that reached the point of panic reactions, characterized the prevailing mood of the old elites after the collapse of the empire. For the monarchist Kreuzzeitung , a world had irrevocably collapsed. Defunct Defunct Writers have interpreted

21424-602: The birthday (10 March) of his late wife, Queen Louise , who was the first person to receive it (posthumously). The Iron Cross was also awarded during the Franco-Prussian War (EK 1870), World War I (EK 1914), and World War II (EK 1939). During World War II, the Nazi regime made their own version by superimposing a swastika on the medal. The Iron Cross was usually a military decoration only, though some were awarded to civilians for performing military roles, including Hanna Reitsch and Melitta Schenk Gräfin von Stauffenberg for being civilian test pilots during World War II. Since

21630-428: The black and white colors on the ribbon were reversed. The ribbon color for the 1939 EKII was black/white/red/white/black. Since the Iron Cross was issued over several different periods of German history, it was annotated with the year indicating the era in which it was issued. For example, an Iron Cross from World War I bears the year "1914", while the same decoration from World War II is annotated "1939". The reverse of

21836-465: The black-white-red flag flies again on government buildings" – referring to the flag of the German Empire used from 1871 to 1918. The Stahlhelm had over 500,000 members and the DNVP almost one million. Both groups had their own party newspapers. Their members were never part of the target group of the Kreuzzeitung , whose circulation remained constant at 7,200 until 1932. At no time did the paper come under

22042-406: The cause of the stock market crash of 1873 , accused the bankers of self-serving speculation and alleged all but openly that Bismarck was involved in corruption. The articles triggered a scandal. Perrot revealed that bankers, mediatized princes, and members of parliament were able to gain advantages on the stock exchange not just through the help of diplomatic channels. It came to light as well that

22248-451: The circulation was 7,100 and increased to around 9,500 by 1874. Despite its relatively small circulation, it stood at the intersection of politics and journalism and was at the height of its power. Almost all newspapers in Germany and abroad regularly used introductory sentences such as "According to the Kreuzzeitung ...", "Well-informed Kreuzzeitung sources have learned ...", "As the Kreuzzeitung reports ...", etc. After 1868 Bismarck used

22454-435: The city is more calm, and not before the elections for the National Assembly ". His close advisors urged him to stay and try to take power, but he wanted to show his prudence and loyalty to the Republic; while his advisors remained in Paris, he returned to London on 2 March 1848 and watched events from there. Louis Napoleon did not run in the first elections for the National Assembly , held in April 1848, but three members of

22660-478: The colors of Prussia, while black, white, and red were the colors of Nazi Germany). Hitler also created the War Merit Cross as a replacement for the non-combatant version of the Iron Cross. It also appeared on certain Nazi flags in the upper left corner. The sides of the cross were curved, like most original iron crosses. The standard 1939 Iron Cross was issued in the following two grades: The Iron Cross

22866-501: The conservative ministers opposing his projects in favour of the dispossessed. He secured the support of the army, toured the country making populist speeches that condemned the Assembly, and presented himself as the protector of universal male suffrage. He demanded that the law be changed, but his proposal was defeated in the Assembly by a vote of 355 to 348. According to the Constitution of 1848, Louis Napoleon had to step down at

23072-564: The conservative upper class. This included the members of the German Gentlemen's Club. All of the Kreuzzeitung's corporate board belonged to it, as did Georg Foertsch as editor-in-chief. Many of the Gentlemen's Club's approximately 5,000 members were readers of the Kreuzzeitung . They also provided the paper with information and gave it financial aid during the period of hyperinflation . Reich President Paul von Hindenburg , who

23278-439: The controversy was fueled by various supporters and opponents from every conceivable point of view. Even among Jewish associations, conflicting directions emerged, some advocating a turn towards modern society and strong assimilation, and others seeking to preserve the traditions of the faith. With Theodor Herzl , who publicly and effectively sought the establishment of a Jewish state, the debate took on foreign policy dimensions. In

23484-536: The corporate board of the Kreuzzeitung . He belonged to the senior leadership of the monarchists in Bavaria and openly advocated separation of the Free State of Bavaria from the Reich along with proclamation of a monarchy. The Kreuzzeitung in the same way supported the monarchist wing of the German National People's Party (DNVP), which was led by Kuno von Westarp . For a time it was seen as

23690-576: The corporate board of the Kreuzzeitung . Specifically, they rejected in principle the exaggerated portrayal of Germanness by the German Nationalists as well as by National Socialism itself. The Kreuzzeitung openly rebuked the "Ur-Germanic fantasies" and the "neo-Communist terrorist actions of the National Socialist Party". It not only accused the Nazi Party of "betraying the idea of the nation"; it repeatedly described

23896-430: The country. Strict press censorship was enacted by a decree from 17 February 1852. No newspaper dealing with political or social questions could be published without the permission of the government, fines were increased, and the list of press offenses was expanded. After three warnings, a newspaper or journal could be suspended or even permanently closed. Louis Napoleon wished to demonstrate that his new government had

24102-497: The coup. On the night of 1–2 December, Saint Arnaud's soldiers quietly occupied the national printing office, the Palais Bourbon , newspaper offices, and the strategic points in the city. In the morning, Parisians found posters around the city announcing the dissolution of the National Assembly, the restoration of universal suffrage, new elections, and a state of siege in Paris and the surrounding departments. Sixteen members of

24308-766: The cross. Three Finnish Jews were awarded the Iron Cross: Major Leo Skurnik and Captain Salomon Klass of the Finnish Army and nurse Dina Poljakoff from the Lotta Svärd organization. All three refused the award. The Spanish double-agent Juan Pujol García , known to the Germans as Arabel and the British as Garbo received the 2nd Class Iron Cross, and an MBE from King George VI four months later. The Knight's Cross of

24514-406: The cross; these included Rheims , Louvain and Amiens on one side, and Antwerp , Dinant and Ghent on the other, with the date 1914 on the lower arm, and a central W for Kaiser Wilhelm as on the original. Another commemorated the raid on Scarborough, Hartlepool and Whitby , showing the names of these "war atrocities" on the arms of the cross. Adolf Hitler restored the Iron Cross in 1939 as

24720-479: The decoration on 19 July 1940 for his command of the Luftwaffe , after the Battle of France in 1940. The medal is a larger version of the Knight's Cross, measuring 63 mm (2.5 in) wide as opposed to about 44 mm (1.7 in) for the Iron Cross and 48.5 mm (1.9 in) for the Knight's Cross. It was originally intended to have outer edges lined in gold, but this was changed to silver before

24926-576: The defeat of Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo and the Bourbon Restoration of monarchy in France. Hortense and Louis Napoleon moved from Aix to Bern to Baden , and finally to a lakeside house at Arenenberg in the Swiss canton of Thurgau . He received some of his education in Germany at the gymnasium school at Augsburg , Bavaria . As a result, for the rest of his life, his French had

25132-643: The economy of Britain. He strolled in Hyde Park , which he later used as a model when he created the Bois de Boulogne in Paris. He spent the winter of 1838-39 in Royal Leamington Spa in Warwickshire . Living in the comfort of London, he had not given up the dream of returning to France to seize power. In the summer of 1840 he bought weapons and uniforms and had proclamations printed, gathered

25338-468: The editor-in-chief in 1876. With him, according to the emperor, the newspaper "not only lost all journalistic bite, but in part even its readability". He was succeeded in 1884 by Wilhelm Joachim Baron von Hammerstein . Under his leadership, the paper treated the so-called Jewish question as a standalone topic. From today's perspective the Kreuzzeitung at times came close to being anti-Semitic. The term ‘anti-Semitic’ did not exist in Germany before 1879, and

25544-531: The editors stunned. The Centre Party , for example, had transformed itself from a Catholic-conservative party into a Christian-democratic people's party and until the end of the Weimar Republic was in a position to form coalitions with all political groupings. From that point on, the Kreuzzeitung primarily disparaged not communists or socialists, but politicians of the Centre Party. Their denomination played no fundamental role in this. The paper referred to

25750-494: The elite of New York society and the writer Washington Irving . While he was traveling to see more of the United States, he received word that his mother was very ill. He hurried as quickly as he could back to Switzerland. He reached Arenenberg in time to be with his mother on 5 August 1837, when she died. She was finally buried in Rueil , in France, next to her mother, on 11 January 1838, but Louis Napoleon could not attend, because he

25956-617: The emperor had its effect. In 1890 the Kreuzzeitung did not take part in the media controversy over the Vering-Salomon duel, in which the Jewish Salomon was killed by his fellow student Vering from the Albert Ludwig University , but treated the ensuing disputes objectively. The paper pursued an internally developed "taming concept", which it outlined in the summer of 1892 with the words, "The Kreuzzeitung

26162-451: The end of his term. He sought a constitutional amendment to allow him to succeed himself, arguing that four years were not enough to fully implement his political and economic program. He toured the country and gained support from many of the regional governments and many within the Assembly. The vote in July 1851 was 446 to 278 in favor of changing the law and allowing him to run again, but this

26368-439: The first president of France from 1848 to 1852, and the last monarch of France as the second Emperor of the French from 1852 until he was deposed on 4 September 1870. Prior to his reign, Napoleon III was known as Louis Napoleon Bonaparte . He was born in Paris as the son of Louis Bonaparte , King of Holland (r. 1806–1810), and Hortense de Beauharnais . Napoleon I was Louis Napoleon's paternal uncle, and one of his cousins

26574-444: The fortress Ham for 7 October 1840 contained a concise description of the new prisoner: "Age: thirty-two years. Height: one meter sixty-six. Hair and eyebrows: chestnut. Eyes: Gray and small. Nose: large. Mouth: ordinary. Beard: brown. Moustache: blond. Chin: pointed. Face: oval. Complexion: pale. Head: sunken in his shoulders, and large shoulders. Back: bent. Lips: thick." He had a mistress named Eléonore Vergeot  [ fr ] ,

26780-524: The founding of the Boden-Credit-Bank and had personally signed its foundation charter and articles of association, thus giving it a privileged position among German mortgage banks. The Iron Chancellor never forgave the Kreuzzeitung for the Era articles. Even in his late work Gedanken und Erinnerungen ( Thoughts and Reminiscences ), he spoke of "poison-mixing" and the "vulgar Kreuzzeitung ". It

26986-403: The general term and regards other descriptions as one-sided at best and some of them even as false. On 12 November 1918, the Kreuzzeitung ran the headline: "Germany is facing an upheaval such as history has not yet seen" and, following Aristotle's constitutional theory , described democracy as a "degenerate" form of government, saying that "only a tyranny is worse". The goal of the paper remained

27192-446: The hill it stands on and, 100 years later, for the homonymous quarter adjacent to it. The Black Cross was used on the naval and combat flags of the German Empire . The Black Cross was used as the German Army symbol until 1915 when a simpler Balkenkreuz replaced it. The Reichswehr of the Weimar Republic (1921–35), the Wehrmacht of Nazi Germany (1935–45), and the Bundeswehr (1 October 1956 to present) also inherited

27398-495: The interview, took up, according to his own statements, "for the first time in his life one of those deadly world papers" and said in a defiant tone to his press chief: "But I will continue to read only the Kreuzzeitung ." Accordingly, the interview with Theodor Wolff proceeded haltingly. Right at the beginning, when asked if he was familiar with the Berliner Tageblatt , Hindenburg replied, "I have been used to reading

27604-643: The last two decades of the 19th century, the issue was so prominent that no newspaper could avoid it. Hammerstein worked closely with the court chaplain Adolf Stoecker , with whom he maintained a personal friendship. Stoecker demanded, including in articles in the Kreuzzeitung , an unconditional assimilation of the Jews through baptism and a limitation of the 1871 constitutional act giving them equal status. He also accused several individuals of abusing Jewish emancipation to secure positions of economic and political power. Hammerstein and Stoecker completely ignored

27810-599: The late 20th century, the symbol has also been adopted into the outlaw motorcycle subculture and heavy metal fashion . The Black Cross ( Schwarzes Kreuz ) is the emblem used by the Prussian Army and Germany's army from 1871 to the present. It was designed on the occasion of the German Campaign of 1813 , when Friedrich Wilhelm III of Prussia commissioned the Iron Cross as the first military decoration open to all ranks, including enlisted men. From this time,

28016-424: The late king's family to own property in France and annulled the inheritance he had given to his children before he became king. The National Guard, whose members had sometimes joined anti-government demonstrations, was re-organized and largely used only in parades. Government officials were required to wear uniforms at official formal occasions. The Minister of Education was given the power to dismiss professors at

28222-456: The leader of the army, first withdrew his soldiers from Paris to allow the insurgents to deploy their barricades, and then returned with overwhelming force to crush the uprising; from 24 to 26 June, there were battles in the streets of the working class districts of Paris. An estimated five thousand insurgents were killed at the barricades, fifteen thousand were arrested, and four thousand deported. Louis Napoleon's absence from Paris meant that he

28428-452: The leader of the socialists; and Raspail , the leader of the far left wing of the socialists. Louis Napoleon established his campaign headquarters and residence at the Hôtel du Rhin on Place Vendôme . He was accompanied by his companion, Harriet Howard, who gave him a large loan to help finance his campaign. He rarely went to the sessions of the National Assembly and rarely voted. He was not

28634-428: The left, from the peasantry and working class. His pamphlet on "The Extinction of Pauperism" was widely circulated in Paris, and his name was cheered with those of the socialist candidates Barbès and Louis Blanc . The Moderate Republican leaders of the provisional government, Lamartine and Cavaignac , considered arresting Louis Napoleon as a dangerous revolutionary, but once again he outmaneuvered them. He wrote to

28840-408: The manner in which each was worn differed. The Iron Cross, 1st class, employed a pin or screw posts on the back of the medal, and was worn on the left side of the recipient's uniform, like the original 1813 version. The Iron Cross 2nd Class, and the larger Grand Cross, were suspended from different ribbons: the Grand Cross from a neck ribbon, the 2nd Class from a ribbon on the chest. The usual display of

29046-468: The military decoration of the Iron Cross, backdated to 10 March (the late Queen Louise 's birthday). The Iron Cross was awarded to soldiers during the Wars of Liberation against Napoleon. Before a soldier could be awarded with the Iron Cross 1st Class, he needed to have been decorated with the Iron Cross 2nd Class. It was first awarded to Karl August Ferdinand von Borcke on 21 April 1813. The first form of

29252-558: The moment came, he could return to France. In February 1848, Louis Napoleon learned that the French Revolution of 1848 had broken out; Louis Philippe, faced with opposition within his government and army, abdicated. Believing that his time had finally come, he set out for Paris on 27 February, departing England on the same day that Louis-Philippe left France for his own exile in England. When he arrived in Paris, he found that

29458-442: The monarchy was never questioned. Until the end of 1849 the paper was not self-supporting. Frederick William IV is said to have personally supported the Kreuzzeitung financially at this time. Nevertheless, the editors were soon in a position to buy back most of the shares from the paper's backers. The chairmanship of the joint stock company was henceforth assumed by the current editor-in-chief. The shareholders were represented only on

29664-418: The most easily controlled; Thiers called him "of all the candidates, the least bad". He won the backing of L'Evenement , the newspaper of Victor Hugo, which declared, "We have confidence in him; he carries a great name." His chief opponent, General Cavaignac, expected that Louis Napoleon would come in first, but that he would receive less than fifty percent of the vote, which would mean the election would go to

29870-505: The new paper, the Prussian Conservative Party was called the “ Kreuzzeitung Party” or simply the "Cross Party”. In the same way, the use of the colloquial terms "black" or having "black views" to refer to members and voters of Christian conservative parties can be traced to the Kreuzzeitung , because the paper was printed in jet black until its end. The Kreuzzeitung was controversial from the beginning, even among

30076-413: The notorious Reptile Fund – money diverted for political purposes from elsewhere in the budget or to pay bribes – in order to influence the press and implement his policies. Evidence shows that the Neue Preußische Zeitung did not receive any funds from these "black coffers". The editors even dared to question such propaganda methods in two articles. As an economically self-supporting joint-stock company,

30282-404: The official title was simply the Kreuzzeitung . From its first issue to its last, the newspaper used the German motto from the Wars of Liberation "Forward with God for King and Fatherland" as its subtitle. It had editorial offices in various cities in Germany and abroad. Its headquarters was in Berlin . The National Socialists took over the Kreuzzeitung on 29 August 1937, and the last issue

30488-427: The old age of the workers; to introduce in industrial laws those improvements which do not ruin the rich, but which bring about the well-being of each and the prosperity of all". Louis Napoleon's campaign agents, many of them veterans from Napoleon Bonaparte's army, raised support for him around the country. Louis Napoleon won the grudging endorsement of the conservative leader Adolphe Thiers , who believed he could be

30694-561: The old one: defense of the monarchy. That meant that the Kreuzzeitung's stance was anti-Weimar Republic, but also anti-dictatorship. Politically, most of the Kreuzzeitung's staff did not feel at home anywhere after the November Revolution . Few of its editors turned their backs on the paper; almost all were monarchists. They received some of the highest wages in the industry, and above all they were paid on time. The Kreuzzeitung had no party affiliation, so correspondents had

30900-460: The opposite side; this became the Kreuzzeitung . Originally it was to be called Das Eiserne Kreuz ( The Iron Cross ), but some of the founders found the name too militaristic. They agreed on the more noncommittal Neue Preußische Zeitung with an image of the iron cross in the logo. The newspaper was nevertheless called the Kreuzzeitung by its authors, creators and readers from the first issue. The main founders, almost all of them belonging to

31106-477: The other hand, the intervention in Mexico , which aimed to create a Second Mexican Empire under French protection, ended in total failure. From 1866, Napoleon had to face the mounting power of Prussia as its minister president Otto von Bismarck sought German unification under Prussian leadership. In July 1870, Napoleon reluctantly declared war on Prussia after pressure from the general public. The French Army

31312-476: The others arrested. Both the British and French press heaped ridicule on Louis-Napoleon and his plot. The newspaper Le Journal des Débats wrote, "this surpasses comedy. One doesn't kill crazy people, one just locks them up." He was put on trial, where, despite an eloquent defense of his cause, he was sentenced to life in prison in the fortress of Ham in the Somme department of Northern France. The register of

31518-535: The ownership of the Stahlhelm or the DNVP. Franz Seldte , the national leader of the Stahlhelm, owned Frundsberg Publishers in Berlin, through which he distributed several publications for the Stahlhelm. Alfred Hugenberg owned more than 1,600 German newspapers, so that he too did not at any time need the Kreuzzeitung as a megaphone or party newspaper, although he would gladly have taken it over for reasons of prestige. The Kreuzzeitung's target group always remained

31724-531: The paper for an additional 1.25 marks (today around 8 euros) per week, with twice-daily postal delivery. In the German protectorates as well as in Austria-Hungary and Luxembourg, the delivery charges by mail were also 1.25 marks per week. A single issue cost 10 pfennigs. One of Foertsch's best foreign experts was Theodor Schiemann. Through his books and political articles in the Kreuzzeitung he attracted

31930-522: The paper populist - in today's parlance - and to stir up controversy. His efforts did not end well. In June and July 1875 the journalist Franz Perrot, writing under a pseudonym, published a series of five articles in the Kreuzzeitung called "The Era of Bleichröder -Delbrück- Camphausen and the New German Economic Policy”. In them he indirectly attacked Bismarck in the person of his banker Gerson von Bleichröder. The articles, which were heavily edited by Nathusius-Ludom, described Bismarck's economic policy as

32136-452: The paper was not immune to impoundments. Entire editions that had already been printed were repeatedly confiscated. The reason for this was the differing views within the Conservative Party, which ultimately led to several splits from 1857 onward. In addition, the relationship between the Kreuzzeitung and Bismarck worsened. Even though he regularly had articles written for the Kreuzzeitung through his press assistant Moritz Busch until 1871,

32342-406: The party best suited for implementing the Kreuzzeitung's own beliefs. Those included rejecting the Republic as constituted, the Treaty of Versailles , and the reparation demands of the victorious powers. A fundamentally Christian attitude admittedly always played a decisive role. Alfred Hugenberg's policy of rapprochement with the Nazi Party met with criticism from the editor-in-chief as well as

32548-409: The party paper of the Social Democrats , apparently had no qualms about a hiring a person like Hans Leuss, who had to leave the Kreuzzeitung because of his anti-Jewish agitation. Jewish editors continued to work at the Kreuzzeitung . The paper consciously set itself apart from the "ruckus anti-Semitism" of the Hugenberg press. While the paper cannot be described as in principle pro-Jewish, neither

32754-431: The penal colony in Cayenne . 9,530 followers were sent to French Algeria , 1,500 were expelled from France, and another 3,000 were given forced residence away from their homes. Soon afterwards, a commission of revision freed 3,500 of those sentenced. In 1859, the remaining 1,800 prisoners and exiles were amnestied, with the exception of the republican leader Ledru-Rollin, who was released from prison but required to leave

32960-495: The plans of the German Reich. The new editor-in-chief reorganized finances and subsumed the buildings and editorial offices that the newspaper had acquired in recent decades in Germany and abroad under a wholly owned subsidiary, Kreuzzeitung Real Estate Inc. He also raised the subscriber price to 9 marks (today about 55 euros) per quarter. The readership apparently had no problem with this. Aristocratic landowners, politicians and high-ranking civil servants in particular subscribed to

33166-418: The poet Lamartine only 17,000 votes. Louis Napoleon won the support of all segments of the population: the peasants unhappy with rising prices and high taxes; unemployed workers; small businessmen who wanted prosperity and order; and intellectuals such as Victor Hugo. He won the votes of 55.6 percent of all registered voters, and won in all but four of France's departments. Louis Napoleon moved his residence to

33372-426: The postal surcharge. The paper was printed initially by the Brandis Company in Berlin, and three sample issues were sent out in mid-June 1848. Following this, a large number of subscriptions was immediately able to be sold to aristocrats, district councils and senior civil servants. Hermann Wagener became editor-in-chief, and issue Number 1 of the Neue Preußische Zeitung appeared on 30 June 1848. In connection to

33578-443: The president of the provisional government: "I believe I should wait to return to the heart of my country, so that my presence in France will not serve as a pretext to the enemies of the Republic." In June 1848, the June Days Uprising broke out in Paris, led by the far left, against the conservative majority in the National Assembly. Hundreds of barricades appeared in the working-class neighborhoods. General Louis-Eugène Cavaignac ,

33784-662: The rank of the recipient. For example, Bavarian officers received various grades of that Kingdom's Military Merit Order ( Militär-Verdienstorden ), while enlisted men received various grades of the Military Merit Cross ( Militär-Verdienstkreuz ). Prussia did have other orders and medals which it awarded on the basis of rank, and even though the Iron Cross was intended to be awarded without regard to rank, officers and NCOs were more likely to receive it than junior enlisted soldiers. During World War I, approximately 218,000 EKIs, 5,196,000 EKIIs and 13,000 non-combatant EKIIs were awarded. Exact numbers of awards are not known, since

33990-451: The regiment to his side. The prefecture was seized, and the prefect arrested. Unfortunately for Louis-Napoleon, the general commanding the garrison escaped and called in a loyal regiment, which surrounded the mutineers. The mutineers surrendered and Louis-Napoleon fled back to Switzerland. Louis Napoleon was widely popular in exile and his popularity in France continuously grew after his failed coup in 1836 as it established him as heir to

34196-415: The right for women to be admitted to a French university. In foreign policy, Napoleon III aimed to reassert French influence in Europe and around the world. In Europe, he allied with Britain and defeated Russia in the Crimean War (1853–1856). His regime assisted Italian unification by defeating the Austrian Empire in the Second Italian War of Independence and later annexed Savoy and Nice through

34402-445: The seal and signature of a police superintendent. The affair was discovered. When it came to light that Hammerstein had exhausted a pension fund set up by the Kreuzzeitung , he resigned his seats in the national and state parliaments in the summer of 1895 and fled with the 200,000 marks to Greece via Tyrol and Naples. The scandal created enormous waves and was debated repeatedly in the Reichstag. The Kreuzzeitung's competition – and it

34608-465: The so-called "Era articles”, the "Hammerstein affair”, and above all the dissolution of the Prussian Conservative Party. This split into, among others, the Free Conservative Party , German Progress Party , National Liberal Party , German Center Party , Christian Social Party and German Conservative Party . In the fall of 1872 Philipp von Nathusius-Ludom took over as editor-in-chief. He had no journalistic qualifications and strove passionately to make

34814-495: The source. Fontane worked in London not just for the Neue Preußische Zeitung . He sometimes reported directly to the German ambassador Albrecht von Bernstorff and released press reports in support of Prussian foreign policy to English and German newspapers. At the same time he traveled to Copenhagen and wrote regular articles for the Kreuzzeitung about the German-Danish War . In his biography Fontane maintained that he "found no Byzantinism or cowardly hypocrisy whatsoever" at

35020-400: The spring of 1831, when Louis Napoleon was 23, the Austrian and Papal governments launched an offensive against the Carbonari. The two brothers, wanted by the police, were forced to flee. During their flight, Napoléon-Louis contracted measles . He died in his brother's arms on 17 March 1831. Hortense joined Louis Napoleon and together they evaded the police and Austrian army and finally reached

35226-429: The stock market that had serious consequences. He bought up private railroads either himself or through intermediaries in order to establish a kind of state railroad system, thus putting considerable pressure on the railroad corporations and their steel suppliers. Perrot's accusations of corruption also later proved to be true. It emerged from documents that were uncovered that Bismarck had participated with his own funds in

35432-419: The swastika, similar to the Iron Crosses of 1813, 1870, and 1914, which could be worn by World War II Iron Cross recipients. The 1957 law also authorized de-Nazified versions of most other World War II-era decorations (except those specifically associated with Nazi Party organizations, such as SS Long Service medals, or with the expansion of the German Reich , such as the medals for the annexation of Austria,

35638-399: The tenth anniversary of the death of Napoleon. The presence of Hortense and Louis Napoleon in the hotel had become known, and a public demonstration of mourning for the Emperor took place on Place Vendôme in front of their hotel. The same day, Hortense and Louis Napoleon were ordered to leave Paris. During their brief stay in Paris Louis Napoleon had become convinced that Bonapartist sentiment

35844-603: The theatre and hunted, renewed his acquaintance with Benjamin Disraeli, and met Charles Dickens . He went back to his studies at the British Museum . He had an affair with the actress Rachel , the most famous French actress of the period, during her tours to Britain. More important for his future career, he had an affair with the wealthy heiress Harriet Howard (1823–1865). They met in 1846, soon after his return to Britain. They began to live together, she took in his two illegitimate children and raised them with her own son, and she provided financing for his political plans so that, when

36050-472: The uprising was short-lived. Paris was declared in a state of siege, the headquarters of the uprising was surrounded, and the leaders arrested. Ledru-Rollin fled to England, Raspail was arrested and sent to prison, the republican clubs were closed, and their newspapers closed down. The National Assembly, now without the left republicans and determined to keep them out forever, proposed a new election law that placed restrictions on universal male suffrage, imposing

36256-506: The uprisings were swiftly crushed, with the killing of an estimated 300 to 400 opponents of the coup. There were also small uprisings in the more militant red republican towns in the south and center of France, but these were all put down by 10 December. Louis Napoleon followed the self-coup by a period of repression of his opponents, aimed mostly at the red republicans. About 26,000 people were arrested, including 4,000 in Paris alone. The 239 inmates who were judged most severely were sent to

36462-415: The use of the emblem in various forms. The traditional design in black is used on armored vehicles and aircraft, while after German reunification , a new creation in blue and silver was introduced for use in other contexts. The ribbon for the 1813, 1870 and 1914 Iron Cross (2nd Class) was black with two thin white bands, the colors of Prussia. The non-combatant version of this award had the same medal, but

36668-431: The various groups of conservatives. Particularly at the beginning of the post-1848 reactionary era, part of the upper nobility "categorically rejected such democratic means in the struggle to form opinions”. Very quickly, however, Wagener was able to win the trust of the founders. With the support of Friedrich Julius Stahl , he quickly built up a dense network of authors and informants. The majority wrote their articles under

36874-411: The warnings of the crown prince, who a short time later became Emperor Frederick III . He repeatedly described hostility toward Jews as the "disgrace of the century". The imperial house was determined to put an end to Stoecker's activities. In the spring of 1889, the Crown Council officially informed him that he was to cease his agitations. Since Stoecker continued to make trouble, he was forced to resign

37080-512: The way "millions of Germans are falling for the brown pied-pipery". Finally, in a major article on 5 December 1929, the editor-in-chief emphasized that the Kreuzzeitung was not the “megaphone of the DNVP" and "not in any way a German nationalist party organ". The Kreuzzeitung also supported the paramilitary Stahlhelm , but only conditionally in the person of Theodor Duesterberg , whom the National Socialists had discredited because of his "not purely Aryan origin". During Duesterberg's candidacy in

37286-399: The wider use of the Iron Cross in various subcultures means determining its use as a hate symbol relies on context: "an Iron Cross in isolation (i.e., without a superimposed swastika or without other accompanying hate symbols) cannot be determined to be a hate symbol". Napoleon III Napoleon III (Charles-Louis Napoléon Bonaparte; 20 April 1808 – 9 January 1873) was

37492-402: The younger brother of Napoleon Bonaparte , who made Louis the king of Holland from 1806 until 1810. His mother was Hortense de Beauharnais , the only daughter of Napoleon's wife Joséphine by her first marriage to Alexandre de Beauharnais . He was the first Bonaparte prince born after the proclamation of the empire . As empress, Joséphine had proposed the marriage of Louis and Hortense as

37698-407: Was a military decoration in the Kingdom of Prussia , and later in the German Empire (1871–1918) and Nazi Germany (1933–1945). The design, a black cross pattée with a white or silver outline, was derived from the insignia of the medieval Teutonic Order and borne by its knights from the 13th century. As well as being a military medal, it has also been used as an emblem by the Prussian Army ,

37904-431: Was a progressive award, with the second class having to be earned before the first class and so on for the higher degrees. It is estimated that some four and a half million 2nd Class Iron Crosses were awarded during World War II, and 300,000 of the 1st Class. Thirty-nine women, chiefly female nurses from the German Red Cross were granted the Iron Cross 2nd Class. Example of such women are Elfriede Wnuk, wounded in 1942 on

38110-554: Was also a member of the Gentlemen's Club and publisher of the Deutsche Tageszeitung ( German Daily Newspaper ). They founded the Berlin Central Printers Ltd. which printed the Kreuzzeitung and the Deutsche Tageszeitung beginning in January 1927. Although some employees such as the journalist Joachim Nehring supplied articles for both papers, the editorial offices of the Kreuzzeitung and the Deutsche Tageszeitung remained independent. Iron Cross The Iron Cross (German: Eisernes Kreuz , listen , abbreviated EK)

38316-469: Was awarded for bravery in battle as well as other military contributions in a battlefield environment. The Iron Cross, 2nd class, came with a ribbon and the cross itself was worn in one of two different ways: Note that for everyday wear, only the ribbon was worn from the second buttonhole in the tunic. The Iron Cross, 1st class, was a pin-on medal with no ribbon and was worn centered on a uniform breast pocket, either on dress uniforms or everyday outfit. It

38522-539: Was born prematurely, (at least) three weeks short of nine months. Hortense was known to have lovers and Louis Napoleon's enemies, including Victor Hugo , spread the gossip that he was the child of a different man, but most historians agree today that he was the legitimate son of Louis Bonaparte. Louis Napoleon was baptized at the Palace of Fontainebleau on 5 November 1810, with Emperor Napoleon serving as his godfather and Empress Marie-Louise as his godmother. His father stayed away, once again separated from Hortense. At

38728-412: Was considerable – ran the story on the front pages and reported almost daily on the state of the investigation. In the search for the criminal editor-in-chief, the Reich office of justice finally sent a detective inspector named Wolff to southern Europe. He scoured several countries and found Baron von Hammerstein, alias "Dr. Heckert," in Athens on 27 December 1895. Wolff arranged for his deportation through

38934-502: Was convinced that he had been given a public mandate to rule. Following the returns, many challenged the validity of such an implausibly lopsided result. One such critic was Victor Hugo, who had originally supported Louis Napoleon but had been infuriated by the coup d'état, departed for Brussels on 11 December 1851. He became the most bitter critic of Louis Napoleon, rejected the amnesty offered to him, and did not return to France for twenty years. The 1851 referendum gave Louis Napoleon

39140-442: Was in Paris, and he was convinced that, if he marched to Paris, as Napoleon Bonaparte had done in 1815 during the Hundred Days , France would rise up and join him. He began to plan a coup against King Louis-Philippe . He planned for his uprising to begin in Strasbourg . The colonel of a regiment was brought over to the cause. On 29 October 1836, Louis Napoleon arrived in Strasbourg, in the uniform of an artillery officer; he rallied

39346-418: Was it anti-Semitic. The personalities of the editors shaped the paper's political leanings. Some authors almost as a matter of course used colloquial expressions of the time such as "traitor’s reward” ( Judaslohn ), "Judas kiss" or "Judas politics". But non-Jewish politicians were also defamed as "Judas", since he was considered to be symbolic for a traitor. The repositioning of some conservative parties left

39552-477: Was living in virtual imprisonment at the court of Vienna under the title Duke of Reichstadt. Next in line was Louis Napoleon's eldest uncle, Joseph Bonaparte , followed by Louis Bonaparte, but neither Joseph nor Louis had any interest in re-entering public life. When the Duke of Reichstadt died in 1832, Louis Napoleon became the de facto heir of the dynasty and the leader of the Bonapartist cause. In exile with his mother in Switzerland, Louis Napoleon enrolled in

39758-421: Was never possible to find out who Perrot's source was. There was speculation as to whether Wilhelm I had wanted to give his Reich chancellor a personal warning. The emperor did not comment openly on the accusations of corruption, but he disliked the anti-Jewish polemic that was present in the five articles. Their goal was not primarily to defame the Jews but explicitly to "exasperate Bismarck". The proxy attacks on

39964-430: Was not allowed into France. Louis Napoleon returned to London for a new period of exile in October 1838. He had inherited a large fortune from his mother and took a house with 17 servants and several of his old friends and fellow conspirators. He was received by London society and met the political and scientific leaders of the day, including Benjamin Disraeli and Michael Faraday . He also did considerable research into

40170-451: Was not connected either with the uprising, or with the brutal repression that had followed. He was still in London on 17–18 September, when the elections for the National Assembly were held, but he was a candidate in thirteen departments. He was elected in five departments; in Paris, he received 110,000 votes of the 247,000 cast, the highest number of votes of any candidate. He returned to Paris on 24 September, and this time he took his place in

40376-544: Was planned for the most successful German general during World War II, but was not made after the defeat of Germany in 1945. The Iron Cross, 1st class, and the Iron Cross, 2nd class, were awarded without regard to rank. One had to possess the 2nd Class already in order to receive the 1st Class (though in some cases both could be awarded simultaneously). The egalitarian nature of this award contrasted with those of most other German states (and indeed of many other European monarchies), where military decorations were awarded based on

40582-421: Was printed on 31 January 1939. In the Kingdom of Prussia, the Allgemeine Preußische Staatszeitung ( General Prussian State Newspaper ) was published from 1819 as a newspaper for official announcements. It later developed into the Deutsche Reichsanzeiger ( German Imperial Gazette ) and today's Bundesanzeiger ( Federal Gazette ). There was no other newspaper that represented the particular interests of

40788-417: Was raised by selling shares of 100 thalers each. A total of 80 people subscribed, including Otto von Bismarck , who for many years personally wrote articles for the Kreuzzeitung . The largest shareholder, with shares worth 2,000 thalers, was Carl von Voß-Buch, a lawyer and civil adjutant to William IV. The subscription price was set at 1.5 thalers per quarter; outside Berlin, subscriptions cost 2 thalers due to

40994-406: Was rapidly defeated, and Napoleon was captured at Sedan . He was swiftly dethroned and the Third Republic was proclaimed in Paris. After he was released from German custody, he went into exile in England, where he died in 1873. Charles-Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, later known as Louis Napoleon and then Napoleon III, was born in Paris on the night of 19–20 April 1808. His father was Louis Bonaparte ,

41200-469: Was seen as the guarantor of the monarchy and the sole figure with the stature to restore it, received unlimited support from the Kreuzzeitung . Hindenburg also occasionally leaked internal information to the paper and wrote short articles for it himself, which he had published via Kuno von Westarp. He had a legendary interview with the liberal Berliner Tageblatt which came about at the request of Hindenburg's press department. Hindenburg reluctantly agreed to

41406-434: Was short of the two-thirds majority needed to amend the constitution. Louis Napoleon believed that he was supported by the people and he chose to retain power by other means. His half-brother Charles, duc de Morny , and a few close advisors quietly began to organize a coup d'état . They included minister of war Jacques Leroy de Saint Arnaud and officers from the French Army in North Africa to provide military backing for

41612-428: Was steadily increasing in France; Napoleon I was the subject of heroic poems, books and plays. Huge crowds had gathered in Paris on 15 December 1840 when the remains of Napoleon were returned with great ceremony to Paris and handed over to King Louis Philippe, while Louis Napoleon could only read about it in prison. On 25 May 1846, with the assistance of his doctor and other friends on the outside, he disguised himself as

41818-462: Was still strong among the French people and the army. They went to Britain briefly, and then back into exile in Switzerland. Ever since the fall of Napoleon in 1815, a Bonapartist movement had existed in France, hoping to return a Bonaparte to the throne. According to the law of succession established by Napoleon I, the claim passed first to his own son, declared "King of Rome" at birth by his father. This heir, known by Bonapartists as Napoleon II ,

42024-507: Was the disputed Napoleon II . It would only be two months following his birth that he, in accordance to Napoleon I's dynastic naming policy, would be bestowed the name of Charles-Louis Napoleon, however, shortly after, Charles was very quick to be removed from his name. Louis Napoleon Bonaparte was the first and only president of the French Second Republic , elected in 1848 . He seized power by force in 1851 when he could not constitutionally be re-elected. He later proclaimed himself Emperor of

42230-423: Was the longest-reigning French head of state since the fall of the Ancien Régime , although his reign would ultimately end upon his surrender to Otto Von Bismarck and Wilhelm I on 2 September 1870. Napoleon III commissioned a grand reconstruction of Paris carried out by prefect of the Seine, Baron Georges-Eugène Haussmann . He expanded and consolidated the railway system throughout the nation and modernized

42436-467: Was to come about after Hitler seized power. During the hyperinflation of 1922/23, the Kreuzzeitung fell into existential difficulties financially. Its reserves continuously fell and it lost all of its real estate. Foertsch managed to keep the business going by means of private donations from members of the Gentlemen's Club. In order to prevent a takeover by the Hugenberg Group, he agreed in September 1926 to form an association with Helmut Rauschenbusch, who

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