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115-480: Despite its ignoble beginnings, initial testing and later repairs were undertaken in the 1880s following the British Occupation of Egypt . These repairs and their continued maintenance would largely provide the barrages' original intent. The overall effects were largely unexpected and startling. In addition to a great reduction in costs of lifting water to irrigate fields, and labor savings needed to unclog

230-593: A condominium in which sovereignty would be shared between Egypt and the United Kingdom . Once established, the condominium witnessed ever-decreasing Egyptian control, and would for most of its existence be governed in practice by the United Kingdom through the Governor-General in Khartoum. For the remainder of his reign, this would be one of the flashpoints between the nationalist Khedive Abbas II and

345-483: A Western-sponsored counter-revolution, domestic religious extremism, potential communist infiltration, and the conflict with the State of Israel were all cited as reasons compelling severe and longstanding restrictions on political opposition, and the prohibition of a multi-party system. These restrictions on political activity would remain in place until the presidency of Anwar Sadat from 1970 onwards, during which many of

460-582: A civilian government. The first issue was regarding the 1923 constitution. Ali Maher's argument that "immediate return of constitutional procedure" would "leave the country saddled with a defective constitution, an unsuitable electoral system, and an inefficient, party-ridden administration" was understood by the junta. A three-man regency was created to oversee palace affairs consisting of Prince Muhammad Abdel Moneim , Wafdist Bahey El Din Barakat Pasha and Colonel Rashad Mehanna . The six principles of

575-714: A constitution, followed an abortive attempt to promulgate a constitution in 1879 . The document was limited in scope and was effectively more of an organic law of the Consultative Council to the khedive than an actual constitution. In 1906, the Denshawai incident provoked questioning of British rule in Egypt. This was exploited in turn by the German Empire which began re-organising, funding, and expanding anti-British revolutionary nationalist movements. For

690-538: A dramatic election in the officers club, opposition candidates were elected to the Officers Club governing board. In mid-July, Farouk responded by annulling the election and appointing his own men to the board. With a crisis brewing, Sirri offered the War Ministry to General Muhammad Naguib , who was elected club president. When he refused, Sirri resigned on July 20, after failing to persuade Farouk to adopt

805-572: A final agreement with Britain were the pressing issues of the day. A faction known as the 'Wafdist Vanguards', attempted to push reform. A new law limited landowning to 50 feddans , but was not applicable to retroactive land gains and retained ministerial immunity. Wafd politician Fuad Sirageddin Pasha told the U.S. ambassador "I own 8000 feddans. Do you think I want Egypt to go communist ?". The CIA attempted to pressure King Farouk to adopt reforms suitable to American interests, but failed. Reformers in

920-520: A list of nominees to appoint for cabinet positions, which Maher refused. Maher, a landowner himself, instead believed that land redistribution would damage the economy by lowering productivity and discouraging foreign investment. He proposed a revised progressive tax structure on land and a 500 feddan limit, whereby excess land would be taxed at 80%. The landowners suggested a 1,000 feddan limit, with additional exemptions of 100 feddans per wife and son and 50 feddans per daughter. A 2024 study found that in

1035-596: A major cash crop in Egypt. Under Isma'il the Magnificent , Egypt went through massive modernization programmes and campaigns of military expansion in Sudan and East Africa. Isma'il greatly accelerated the enfranchisement of the Egyptian peasantry and middle class, who had been politically and economically marginalized by the wealthy elites of Egyptian society. It was during this time that an Egyptian intelligentsia

1150-407: A mandate to further his reforms. The 'illegal-gains' legislation was to be expanded to root out corruption, and 'purge-committees' were created to 'purify' the parties. Maher refused to recall parliament or announce new elections; instead favoring martial law for at least half a year. However, Maher came into conflict with the officers. The junta was skeptical of traditional politicians, and gave Maher

1265-426: A more conciliatory pose toward the army. al-Hilali returned as prime minister on July 22, with the promise of total freedom to select a cabinet. However, when Farouk nominated his own brother-in-law war minister, al-Hilali resigned the next day. The modern Egyptian army was established as a result of the 1936 Anglo-Egyptian treaty, which allowed the Egyptian army to expand from 398 officers to 982. Nasser applied at

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1380-443: A new Egypt beyond petty party politics and street violence. The earliest reforms were populist but symbolic of a new era: the elimination of the government's summer recess to Alexandria, ending the subsidization of private automobiles for cabinet ministers, and the abolition of the honorific titles bey and pasha . Others were more economic, such as tax reforms, pay raises for the military and decreases in rent. The pressing issue of

1495-564: A party program. Anyone facing corruption charges was automatically ineligible for membership. The RCC refused to accept the Wafd's certification so long as Nahhas, who had refused to meet with Naguib so long as Sergeddin remained in prison, was listed as party president and founder. The Egyptian lawyer Sulayman Hafez summed up the RCC's feelings on Nahhas when he called him a "tumor in the body politic". The September prisoners were released on December 6,

1610-500: A perception heightened by his repressive policies. Discontent with Tewfik's rule ignited the Urabi Revolt of 1881, led by nationalist soldiers under Ahmed Urabi . Urabi came from a peasant family, and his rise through the ranks of the military in spite of his humble background had been made possible by the reforms of Isma'il—reforms which he saw as being under attack by Tewfik. The prospect of revolutionary instability in Egypt, and

1725-539: A proud nationalist, citing his order to the Ismalia police not to surrender their weapons in 1951. In the end, he received a fifteen-year sentence, but was released in 1956. When political parties were banned, RCC formed the Liberation Rally , a movement that would subsume all of the preexisting political movements. While it was effective at rallies and speeches, it did not have the same institutional power as

1840-508: A republic, end the British occupation of the country, and secure the independence of Sudan (previously governed as a condominium of Egypt and the United Kingdom ). The revolutionary government adopted a staunchly nationalist , anti-imperialist agenda, which came to be expressed chiefly through Arab nationalism , and international non-alignment . The Revolution was faced with immediate threats from Western imperial powers, particularly

1955-604: A separate court system known as the Mixed Courts . Isma'il also established Egypt's first parliament. This period of intellectualism in Egypt, and the Arab world as a whole, later became known as the Nahda . Coupled with Isma’il's powerful espousal of Egyptian statehood, this contributed to the growth of Egyptian nationalism , particularly within the army. However, the war with Ethiopia ended in disaster, only further exasperating

2070-462: A small guerrilla war on the canal; 'liberation battalions' battled British forces. The government was rapidly losing control over the situation, as students on the Islamist right and socialist left ignited an inferno of non-violent strikes and violent battles. On January 25, 1952, seven thousand British troops ordered the Egyptian police at Ismalia to surrender their weapons. When the police refused,

2185-526: A three-man Regency Council was appointed. The former king's departure into exile came on 26 July 1952 and at 6 o'clock that evening he set sail for Italy with protection from the Egyptian army . The Revolution Command Council (RCC), made up of the previous nine-member command committee of the Free Officers in addition to five more members, chaired by Naguib, was formed. Ali Maher was asked to form

2300-477: A unity government with the Wafd, but they denied his offer of several cabinet positions. His dealings with the Wafd, such as advocating a unity government , alienated his allies to the right and motivated Farouk to deal with him as soon as possible. He was pressured to produce a report on the Cairo Fire that implicated the Wafd as responsible, but refused. The king adjourned parliament and two palace loyalists in

2415-532: Is known in Egypt as the 1919 Revolution . Almost daily demonstrations and unrest continued throughout Egypt for the remainder of the Spring. To the surprise of the British authorities, Egyptian women also demonstrated, led by Huda Sha'rawi (1879–1947), who would become the leading feminist voice in Egypt in the first half of the twentieth century. The first women's demonstration was held on Sunday, 16 March 1919, and

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2530-627: Is the guardian of success"]. With his British support network now neutralized, King Farouk sought the intervention of the United States, which was unresponsive. By the 25th, the army had occupied Alexandria , where the King was in residence at the Montaza Palace . Terrified, Farouk abandoned Montaza and fled to Ras Al Teen Palace on the waterfront. Naguib ordered the captain of Farouk's yacht, al-Mahrusa , not to sail without orders from

2645-551: The 1948 Arab-Israeli War , which proved to be disastrous for Egypt and its allies, furtherly increasing the unpopularity of the monarchy. The 1952 revolution overthrew Farouk and replaced him with his infant son Fuad II , effectively handing over control of the country to military strongmen Gamal Nasser and Mohamed Naguib . The monarchy was formerly abolished in 1953 and replaced by the autocratic and socialist Republic of Egypt . The last British troops left Egypt in June 1956 as per

2760-597: The 1952 Egyptian revolution , King Farouk was overthrown and, after a brief interregnum of his infant son Fuad II , the monarchy was abolished and replaced by the Republic of Egypt , under the leadership of Gamal Nasser and Mohamed Naguib . The British agreed with Nasser to withdraw their troops, and by June 1956 had done so. Britain went to war against Egypt over the Suez Canal in late 1956, alongside France and Israel , but with insufficient international support

2875-551: The 1952 coup d'état ( Arabic : انقلاب 1952 ) and 23 July Revolution , was a period of profound political, economic, and societal change in Egypt . On 23 July 1952 the revolution began with the toppling of King Farouk in a coup d'état by the Free Officers Movement . This group of army officers was led by Mohamed Naguib and Gamal Abdel Nasser . The Revolution ushered in a wave of revolutionary politics in

2990-594: The Arab World , and contributed to the escalation of decolonisation , and the development of Third World solidarity during the Cold War . Though initially focused on grievances against King Farouk, the movement had more wide-ranging political ambitions. In the first three years of the Revolution, the Free Officers moved to abolish the constitutional monarchy and aristocracy of Egypt and Sudan , establish

3105-789: The Empire of India , the British led an Anglo-Indian expeditionary force at both ends of the Suez Canal in August 1882. Simultaneously, French forces landed in Alexandria and the northern end of the canal. Both joined and maneuvered to meet the Egyptian army. The combined Anglo-French-Indian army easily defeated the Egyptian Army at Tel El Kebir in September and took control of the country putting Tawfiq back in control. The purpose of

3220-576: The French language was the language of international relations. Consequently, French attained an esteemed status in Egypt throughout the rule of the Muhammad Ali dynasty , emerging as a lingua franca in the country well into the second half of the 20th century. In addition to its use at the Khedival court, French was the formal language used among foreigners, and between foreigners and Egyptians. By

3335-567: The Naqab desert , a successful Israeli counter-offensive left Egypt with just the Gaza Strip . During the Faluja pocket , a young Egyptian officer called Gamal Abdel-Nasser made a name for himself as a hero for holding out until the 1949 armistice agreement . Anger over corruption in the war, such as rumors of gun-smuggling leading to Egyptian troops being underequipped for battle. Returning from

3450-627: The Oriental Crisis . As a result of these wars, Egypt was expelled from the Levant , but allowed to keep its Sudanese territory. After Muhammad Ali's death, his successors Abbas I and Sa'id attempted to modernize Egypt, such as starting construction of the Suez Canal . Due to conscription, taxes were raised on nobles in exchange for more land and peasants ( fellahin in Arabic). Peasants continued to lose access to their land as cotton became

3565-749: The Ottoman Sultan . Within a matter of decades, Muhammad Ali transformed Egypt from a neglected Ottoman province to a virtually independent state that temporarily rivalled the Ottoman Empire itself for dominance in the Eastern Mediterranean, and the Mashreq . Muhammad Ali conquered the Sudan , invaded East Africa , and led Egypt during both the First Egyptian–Ottoman War and Second Egyptian-Ottoman War , triggering

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3680-671: The Paris Peace Conference of 1919 to demand Egypt's independence. In the aftermath of World War I, the large British Imperial Army in Egypt which was the centre of operations against the Ottoman Empire was quickly reduced with demobilisation and restructuring of garrisons. Free of the large British military presence, the incipient German backed revolutionary movements were able to more effectively launch their operations. Consequently, from March to April 1919, there were mass demonstrations that became uprisings. This

3795-533: The United Kingdom , which had occupied Egypt since 1882, and France , both of whom were wary of rising nationalist sentiment in territories under their control throughout Africa , and the Arab World . The ongoing state of war with Israel also posed a serious challenge, as the Free Officers increased Egypt's already strong support of the Palestinians . These two issues converged in the fifth year of

3910-471: The maintenance expenses required were of such magnitude, that the building of a new barrage was determined to be more feasible. A contract was awarded through public tender to the British firm of Messrs. McDonald Gibbs & Co. (Engineers). Construction of the new Mohammed Ali Barrage lasted from 1936 to 1939. The completed dam was inaugurated in December 1939. Due to technological advances, its foundation

4025-608: The 1954 Anglo-Egyptian Agreement. The UK , France and Israel invaded Egypt a few months later to restore their control over the Suez Canal, but the action was met with such international backlash that the three countries were forced to halt military operations and withdraw. The Egyptian authorities harassed British, French and Jewish communities and were affected by expulsions. From the beginning of his reign in 1805, Muhammad Ali Pasha set about modernising Egypt along Western European lines, being particularly influenced by France. In addition to French military and scientific prowess,

4140-462: The 19th and early 20th centuries was defined by the vastly different reigns of successive members of the Muhammad Ali dynasty and the gradually increasing intrusion into Egyptian affairs of the Great Powers , particularly the United Kingdom . From 1805, Egypt underwent a period of rapid modernisation under Muhammad Ali Pasha , who declared himself Khedive in defiance of his nominal suzerain,

4255-593: The 200 feddan limit. At first the Egyptian legal scholar Abd El-Razzak El-Sanhuri was considered to fill in Maher's shoes, but American concerns over Sanhuri's signature in the Stockholm appeal of 1951 led to Naguib's appointment as prime minister. Rashad al-Barawi was also considered, but the American ambassador Jefferson Caffery rejected this idea, calling al-Barawi a 'commie'. The junta pressed for party reform,

4370-608: The Anglo-Egyptian agreement of 1954. The first period of British rule (1882–1914) is often called the "veiled protectorate ". During this time the Khedivate of Egypt remained an autonomous province of the Ottoman Empire , and the British occupation had no legal basis but constituted a de facto protectorate over the country. Egypt was thus not part of the British Empire. This state of affairs lasted until 1914 when

4485-601: The British Foreign Secretary , recommending that the protectorate should be replaced by a treaty of alliance. As a result, Curzon agreed to receive an Egyptian mission headed by Zaghlul and Adli Pasha to discuss the proposals. The mission arrived in London in June 1920 and the agreement was concluded in August 1920. In February 1921, the British Parliament approved the agreement and Egypt

4600-745: The British authorities in Cairo imposed martial law and once again deported Zaghlul. Demonstrations again led to violence. In deference to the growing nationalism and at the suggestion of the High Commissioner , Lord Allenby , the UK unilaterally declared Egyptian independence on 28 February 1922, abolishing the protectorate and establishing an independent Kingdom of Egypt . Sarwat Pasha became prime minister . British influence continued to dominate Egypt's political life and fostered fiscal, administrative, and governmental reforms. Britain retained control of

4715-560: The British government issued the Unilateral Declaration of Egyptian Independence on 28 February 1922. Shortly afterwards, Sultan Fuad I declared himself King of Egypt , but the British occupation continued, in accordance with several reserve clauses in the declaration of independence. The situation was normalised in the Anglo-Egyptian treaty of 1936 , which granted Britain the right to station troops in Egypt for

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4830-553: The British high representative in Cairo exercising more power than the Khedive himself. In 1888, at the Convention of Constantinople, the United Kingdom won the right to protect the Suez Canal with military force, giving Britain a permanent base from which to dominate Egyptian politics. In 1899, the United Kingdom forced Tewfik's successor as Khedive, the nationalist Abbas II , to transform Sudan from an integral part of Egypt into

4945-602: The Canal Zone, Sudan and Egypt's external protection; protection of foreigners and separate courts for foreigners; the police forces, the army, the railways and the communications. British troops were stationed in cities and towns. King Fuad I died in 1936 and Farouk inherited the throne at the age of sixteen. Alarmed by Italy's recent invasion of Ethiopia, he signed the Anglo-Egyptian Treaty , requiring Britain to withdraw all troops from Egypt, except at

5060-772: The Egyptian elites. Despite efforts from British legal personnel, English was never adopted as a language of the Egyptian civil courts during the period of British influence. Foreigners tried for civil offenses attended mixed Egyptian-foreigner courts ; these courts used the French language as the medium of proceedings. Courts operated by embassies and consulates tried their respective citizens in regards to criminal matters. 1952 Egyptian revolution Coup successful President (1956–1970) Prime Minister (1954–(March)1954,(April)1954–1962,1967–1970) Deputy prime minister (1953–1954) [REDACTED] The Egyptian revolution of 1952 (Arabic: ثورة 23 يوليو ), also known as

5175-630: The Egyptian treasury. The Caisse de la Dette Publique (Public Debt Commission) was founded as a way for Egypt to pay its debts. Isma'il's grand policies were ruinously expensive, and financial pressure eventually compelled him to sell Egypt's shares in the Universal Company of the Maritime Canal of Suez , the company that owned the 99-year lease to manage the Suez Canal . The sale of the Canal mere years after it had been constructed at

5290-662: The Europeans retreated to specially designed quarters suited for defense or heavily European-settled cities such as Alexandria. Consequently, in April 1882, France and Great Britain sent warships to Alexandria to bolster the Khedive amidst a turbulent climate and protect European lives and property. In turn, Egyptian nationalists spread fear of invasion throughout the country to bolster Islamic and Arabian revolutionary action. Tawfiq moved to Alexandria for fear of his own safety as army officers led by Ahmed Urabi began to take control of

5405-629: The Obassia Military College, Egypt's leading cadet school, in 1937. Anwar Sadat graduated from the Egyptian Military Academy in 1938. Sadat had been trying to form an anti-British uprising since the 1940s, but was arrested after meeting with two Nazi spies in 1942. The humiliating 1942 British coup and the disaster in Palestine motivated the creation of a secret cell of revolutionary Egyptian officers. After

5520-562: The Ottoman Empire in 1517, was re-established with Hussein Kamal as Sultan . Despite the restoration of the nominal sultanate, British power in Egypt and Sudan was undiminished, as the United Kingdom declared Egypt to be a formal protectorate of the United Kingdom. Whilst Egypt was not annexed to the British Empire, with the British King never becoming sovereign of Egypt, Egypt's status as a protectorate precluded any actual independence for

5635-580: The Ottoman Empire joined World War I on the side of the Central Powers and Britain declared a protectorate over Egypt. The ruling khedive, Abbas II , was deposed and his successor, Hussein Kamel , compelled to declare himself Sultan of Egypt independent of the Ottomans in December 1914. The formal protectorate over Egypt outlasted the war for only a short period. It was brought to an end when

5750-414: The RCC as dedicated to "the struggle against imperialism and the Egyptian traitors who served it cause". Traitors were spreading rumors intending to destabilize the economy and cause hatred towards the army, especially through the universities. While he did not name anyone directly, a mocking imitation of a party leader kissing the King's hand was unmistakably evoking al-Nahhas. Salim's speech best exemplifies

5865-405: The RCC were: The officers did not want to simply remove the king and then retreat into a civilian government. The RCC believed that the entire Egyptian system needed to be overhauled, to remove 'reactionary' elements and restore stability. The RCC were not Marxists, but were receptive to the socialist critique of the traditional system. The officers moved to purge their opponents in Egypt to create

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5980-638: The RCC's mentality that student protesters and workers strikes were a part of a counter-revolutionary conspiracy. Within a week of the speech, the government arrested eleven politicians, and placed Nahhas and his wife under house arrest. The trial of former prime minister and Sa'adist leader Ibrahim Abdel Hady over corruption and the murder of Hasan al-Banna lasted only a week before the court sentenced him to death, later commuted to life imprisonment three day later. Most defendants either received 10–15 year sentences, were stripped of property, or were fined. The most severe sentences were for British collaborators in

6095-421: The Revolution when Egypt was invaded by the United Kingdom, France, and Israel in the Suez Crisis of 1956 (known in Egypt as the Tripartite Aggression ). Despite enormous military losses, the war was seen as a political victory for Egypt, especially as it left the Suez Canal in uncontested Egyptian control for the first time since 1875, erasing what was seen as a mark of national humiliation. This strengthened

6210-402: The Suez Canal (which would be re-examined after 20 years). Britain maintained significant unofficial influence upon the Egyptian monarchy. During World War II , British troops used Egypt as a base for Allied operations throughout the region. British troops were withdrawn to the Suez Canal area in 1947, but nationalist, anti-British feelings continued to grow after the war. Egypt took part in

6325-435: The Suez insurgency – of the thirteen tried, eleven were convicted, four were hanged, one got a life sentence and the others were sentenced to 10–15 years. The trial of Fouad Serageddin was more than just the charges – a £EP 5,000 bribe, arms racketeering during the 1948 war, allowing the king to transfer funds outside the country, illegally benefiting from road paving as transport minister in 1945, and conspiring to monopolize

6440-502: The United Kingdom to recognise Egyptian independence in 1922 as the Kingdom of Egypt . However, Britain still retained the rights over the Sudan, its empire in Egypt and foreigners: The leading party after the revolution was the Wafd Party , led by Sa'ad Zaghoul and his successor Mostafa al-Nahhas . The resulting 1923 Egyptian constitution created a proper – albeit flawed – constitutional monarchy. Universal male suffrage allowed Egyptians to vote in parliamentary elections, however

6555-437: The United Kingdom, with Abbas seeking to arrest and reverse the process of increasing British control in Egypt and Sudan. Egyptians nationalism was brewing under the harsh economic policies of the British. Nationalist activists such as Mostafa Kamil Pasha , Abdullah an-Nadeem and Yaqub Sanu fought for greater autonomy for Egypt. The phrase "Egypt for the Egyptians" was a popular rallying cry among nationalists in protest to

6670-458: The Wafd Party was invited and promised full independence in the years ahead. British occupation ended nominally with the UK's 1922 declaration of Egyptian independence, but British military domination of Egypt lasted until 1936. During British occupation and later control, Egypt developed into a regional commercial and trading destination. Entrepreneurs including Greeks , Jews , and Armenians began to flow into Egypt. The number of foreigners in

6785-406: The aftermath of the coup, officials that were senior and had connections with the deposed monarch were more likely to be purged, while experienced bureaucrats and those with university education were more likely to be retained as part of the government. On September 7, Ali Maher was dismissed, and 64 other politicians, including Foaud Sergeddin, were arrested. The following day the government decreed

6900-406: The appeal of the revolution in other Arab countries. Wholesale agrarian reform , and huge industrialisation programmes were initiated in the first decade and half of the Revolution, leading to an unprecedented period of infrastructure building, and urbanisation . By the 1960s, Arab socialism had become a dominant theme, transforming Egypt into a centrally planned economy . Official fear of

7015-434: The army, we will not deal harshly with them, but will release them at the appropriate time. I assure the Egyptian people that the entire army today has become capable of operating in the national interest and under the rule of the constitution apart from any interests of its own. I take this opportunity to request that the people never permit any traitors to take refuge in deeds of destruction or violence because these are not in

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7130-420: The army. Debate broke out among the Free Officers concerning the fate of the deposed king. While some (including Gen. Naguib and Nasser) thought that the best course of action was to send him into exile , others argued that he should be put on trial or executed. Finally, the order came for Farouk to abdicate in favour of his son, Crown Prince Ahmed Fuad – who was acceded to the throne as King Fuad II – and

7245-489: The army. They appointed a commander who is either ignorant or corrupt. Egypt has reached the point, therefore, of having no army to defend it. Accordingly, we have undertaken to clean ourselves up and have appointed to command us men from within the army whom we trust in their ability, their character, and their patriotism. It is certain that all Egypt will meet this news with enthusiasm and will welcome it. As for those whose arrest we saw fit from among men formerly associated with

7360-410: The basis of the modern Egyptian legal system (which would in turn become the basis for the legal systems of numerous other Arab states). The privileged position of the French language in Egypt, second only to Arabic, persisted even during the decades of the United Kingdom's occupation of the country, with French rather than English being the foreign language of choice of both the Egyptian government, and

7475-488: The cabinet resigned. The British ambassador refused to meet with Maher, forcing his resignation. Nagib al-Hilali succeeded Maher, taking a much more active approach. He decreed new anti-corruption laws and created 'purge-committees' to overhaul the bureaucracy. Hilai ordered Fuad Sirageddin under house arrest. A week later, he dissolved parliament, announcing new elections in May. By April, they were postponed indefinitely. The Egyptian journalist Ihsan Abdel Quddous criticized

7590-403: The canals from deposited silt, the cotton crop was doubled, and the costs needed to raise crops in general was cut in half. These combined factors would stimulate demand for agricultural land which saw a doubling in price and an immediate demand which could not be satisfied. In the 1930s, when the idea for a larger, higher and stronger barrage was put forward, the old barrage was leaking again and

7705-432: The closing weeks of the war, however, its territory became a battlefield between the Allies and Axis Powers. In 1942, the refusal of Egypt's young King Farouk to appoint al-Nahhas prime minister led by the Abdeen Palace Incident , where the British military surrounded Farouk's palace, and ordered him at gunpoint to appoint al-Nahhas. Though nationalist army officers, including Mohamed Naguib , appealed to Farouk to resist,

7820-404: The cost of some 80,000 Egyptian lives was seen as a national humiliation, particularly as it effectively granted the purchaser, the United Kingdom , a basis for interfering in Egyptian affairs. Shortly thereafter, the United Kingdom, along with the other Great Powers, deposed Isma'il in favour of his son, Tewfik Pasha . Tewfik was seen as a puppet of the foreign powers who had deposed his father,

7935-505: The cotton industry – the entire Wafd institution was effectively on trial. The prosecution focused mostly on Serageddin's rise to power within the Wafd and his personal failings in the 1950 government. Serageddin's rivals, the who's who of Egypt's liberal government, took the stand to air out personal grievances. Witnesses included former prime ministers ( Naguib al-Hilali , Hussein Sirri , Ali Maher ), Mohammed Hussein Heikal , and Makram Ebeid . In his defence, Serageddin positioned himself as

8050-419: The country rose from 10,000 in the 1840s to around 90,000 in the 1880s, and more than 1.5 million by the 1930s. In 1914 as a result of the declaration of war with the Ottoman Empire, of which Egypt was nominally a part, Britain declared a Protectorate over Egypt and deposed the Khedive, replacing him with a family member who was made Sultan of Egypt by the British. A group known as the Wafd Delegation attended

8165-412: The day was land reform . A ceiling on landholding of 200 feddans was agreed, to lower the price of land and therefore decrease rents. However, the junta butted heads with Ali Maher. Maher believed, like most in the political climate of Egypt, that a complete overhaul of the state was needed. By this time, many Egyptians believed that the 1923 system needed to be completely rebuilt. Maher assumed office with

8280-566: The defence of the Suez Canal , its link with India. Britain also continued to control the training of the Egyptian Army . During World War II (1939–1945), Egypt came under attack from Italian Libya on account of the British presence there, although Egypt itself remained neutral until late in the war. After the war Egypt sought to modify the treaty, but it was abrogated in its entirety by an anti-British government in October 1951. After

8395-476: The deployment of British tanks and artillery outside the Royal palace forced the King to concede. This incident permanently damaged the prestige of both King Farouk's conservative clique and al-Nahhas' Wafd. The surrender to British convinced many Egyptian nationalists that only the removal of the entire 1923 system could bring an end to the United Kingdom's occupation of Egypt. The historian Selma Botman describes

8510-450: The first communiqué of the coup d'état in the name of Gen. Naguib to the Egyptian people. It attempted to justify the coup , which was also known as the "Blessed Movement". The person reading the message was Free Officer and future president of Egypt Anwar Sadat . The coup was conducted by less than a hundred officers   —   almost all of which were drawn from junior ranks   —   and prompted scenes of celebration in

8625-476: The first quarter of the 20th century, Britain's main goal in Egypt was penetrating these groups, neutralising them, and attempting to form more pro-British nationalist groups with which to hand further control. However, after the end of World War I , British colonial authorities attempted to legitimise their less radical opponents with entrance into the League of Nations including the peace treaty of Versailles. Thus,

8740-411: The governing board of the Officers Club dissolved, causing the officers to fear their arrest was imminent. On the 23rd, infantry united seized general headquarters and blocked roads leading to Cairo. Nasser and Abdel Hakim Amr , as the higher level leaders, took a car ride to visit every unit in Cairo. After arresting his commanding officer, Muhammad Abu al-Fadl al-Gizawi answered several phone calls as

8855-459: The government, writing "Corruption does not mean corruption of the Wafd government alone". Rumors that the King Farouk was going to sack al-Hilali led him to resign on July 2. Huseinn Sirri moved as prime minister to lift Sirageddin's house arrest, though he did not promise new elections or to lift martial law. However, events in the military soon were spiraling out of control. In January, in

8970-482: The government. By June, Egypt was in the hands of nationalists as opposed to European domination of the country and the new revolutionary government began nationalizing all assets in Egypt. Anti-European violence broke out in Alexandria, prompting a British naval bombardment of the city . Fearing the intervention of outside powers or the seizure of the canal by the Egyptians, in conjunction with an Islamic revolution in

9085-504: The inferred danger to the Suez Canal, prompted the United Kingdom to intervene militarily in support of Tewfik. After the Anglo-Egyptian War , the United Kingdom was left in de facto control over the country, a state of affairs that became known as the veiled protectorate . In the years that followed, the United Kingdom would cement its political and military position in Egypt, and subsequently in Egypt's domains in Sudan, with

9200-474: The interest of Egypt. Should anyone behave in such ways, he will be dealt with forcefully in a manner such as has not been seen before and his deeds will meet immediately the reward for treason. The army will take charge with the assistance of the police. I assure our foreign brothers that their interests, their personal safety [lit. "their souls"], and their property are safe, and that the army considers itself responsible for them. May God grant us success [lit. "God

9315-423: The invasion had been to restore political stability to Egypt under a government of the Khedive and international controls that were in place to streamline Egyptian financing since 1876. It is unlikely that the British expected a long-term occupation from the outset; however, Lord Cromer , Britain's Chief Representative in Egypt at the time, viewed Egypt's financial reforms as part of a long-term objective. Cromer took

9430-412: The king had the power to dismiss cabinets, dissolve parliament and appoint prime ministers. Politics in Egypt were divided between the liberal Wafdists versus the conservative monarchical establishment. The Wafd had little to offer outside of defending the liberal framework and negotiating for greater autonomy; Wafdist elites were still wealthy land-owning capitalists who did not offer a radical program in

9545-479: The last day they could be held without charge. The case over the recertification of the Wafd went to the State Council on January 10, 1953. On the 17th, the junta announced the abolition of all political parties, where Naguib would rule in a three-year transitional period. The junta justified its decree because of the resistance to 'purification' and the opposition to land reform. The officers had underestimated

9660-458: The loans. Eventually, the country teetered toward economic dissolution and implosion. In turn, a European commission led by Britain and France took control of the treasury of Egypt, forgave debt in return for taking control of the Suez Canal , and reoriented economic development toward capital gain. However, by 1882, Islamic and Arab nationalist opposition to European influence led to growing tension amongst notable natives, especially in Egypt which

9775-507: The man he just arrested to assure high command that everything was calm. By 3:00   a.m, Muhammad Naguib arrived at headquarters in Cairo. By 7:00   p.m, Sadat   —   who was at the movies during the coup   —   announced on the radio that the Free Officers had taken over; Egypt was now governed by the Revolutionary Command Council . At 7:30 a.m., a broadcasting station issued

9890-480: The mess and chaos in Egypt. The three governments of Ali Maher (January 27 – March 1), Ahmad Nagib al-Hilali (March 2 – July 2) and Hussein Sirri Pasha (July 2 – July 20) each failed to solve the situation. Maher moved quickly to restore order and calm the economic situation. He created a ministry of rural affairs to study proposals for land reform and lifted curfew restrictions by February. He tried to create

10005-550: The need for politicians to negotiate full independence. These protests very quickly took an antisemitic turn, evolving into a prolonged pogrom of Alexandria's and Cairo's Jewish communities , often accompanied with chants of " death to the Jews " and antisemitic conspiracy theories that Jews were receiving beneficial treatment over " real Egyptians ." Prime Minister Ismail Sidky and British secretary of foreign affairs Ernest Bevin entered negotiations. However, issues over

10120-416: The officers at this time, though the historian Said Aburish argues that America did not know about the coup until two days beforehand but did not move to stop it after verifying it was not communist. By the spring of 1952, the Free Officers began plotting their coup. They had planned to overthrow the monarchy in early August, but events soon made them accelerate their plans. On July 16, King Farouk ordered

10235-599: The party passed reformist legislation between 1942 and 1944 or 1950 and 1952, it could no longer convince the majority of the population that it held the country's best interests in mind. Instead, in these years of growing politicization of the people, many believed that the Wafd harbored the fear that the nationalist movement would become too radical and go beyond the existing framework of acceptable political and economic discourse. After decades of pseudo-independence, elitist infighting and deteriorating economic conditions, more radical politics consumed Egypt. The Muslim Brotherhood

10350-455: The party were not strong enough of pass the legislation needed to avoid a total revolution. Stubbornness and corruption made the Wafd incapable of delivering to the Egyptian people. The strategic value of the Suez Canal was too valuable for Britain in the Cold War to completely surrender. In a dramatic move, the Wafd abrogated the 1936 treaty in 1951. Anti-British demonstrations morphed into

10465-514: The policies of the Revolution were scaled back or reversed. The early successes of the Revolution encouraged numerous other nationalist movements in other countries, such as Algeria , where there were anti-imperialist and anti-colonial rebellions against European empires. It also inspired the toppling of existing pro-Western monarchies and governments in the MENA region. The Revolution is commemorated each year on 23 July. The history of Egypt during

10580-566: The pre-existing opposition. Members took a vow of secrecy with one hand on the Koran and the other on a revolver, and published anonymous leaflets and articles criticizing the higher command and the government as a whole for corruption. By 1952, it grew so large that few members knew the identities of the leaders of the conspiracy: Colonel Nasser and General Naguib. The founder of the CIA , Miles Copeland Jr. , claimed to have established contacts with

10695-555: The privileges of foreigners. It was during this time that the five major points of contentions among nationalists were crystallized: Following the Ottoman Empire's entry in to the First World War as a member of the Central Powers in 1914, the United Kingdom deposed Abbas II in favour of his pro-British uncle, Hussein Kamal . The legal fiction of Ottoman sovereignty was terminated, and the Sultanate of Egypt , destroyed by

10810-506: The reign of Muhammad Ali's grandson, Isma'il the Magnificent , all government decrees, publications, or other documents (such as passports) in the Arabic language that required a foreign language version would also be issued in French, and French appeared alongside Arabic on road signs, train timetables, taxi stands, and other every day signage, such as "Entrance" and "Exit" signs in public buildings. The French civil law legal system also became

10925-451: The removal of traditional corrupt elements within establishment parties. The Wafd hastily formed a "purge committee", expelling fourteen members, only one of which had any significant power. Old-guard Wafdists resisted the call for purification, while the younger elements supported the removal of the old-guard. On September 9, all parties were dissolved and had to apply for recertification with a list of founding members, financial statements and

11040-412: The resistance by the liberal establishment, and sought to end the 'reactionary mentality' of the old system. On February 21, Naguib created the constitutional committee of fifty. Ali Maher served as president, who then divided the committee into five subcommittees and appointed a five-man executive committee. By March they had approved the creation of a Republic, ending the regency. However, the committee

11155-399: The resulting Battle of Ismalia left 56 Egyptians and 13 British dead. The next day, a series of riots engulfed Cairo. The Egyptian masses torched 750 foreign-owned stores, causing around 40-50 million Egyptian Pounds worth of damage. Black Saturday was the end for the Wafd; al-Nahhas was dismissed on the next day. After al-Nahhas, three independent politicians were appointed to clean up

11270-405: The state of the late Wafd: In contrast to the ideologically defined programs of the nonestablishment parties, the Wafd never developed a comprehensive plan to remedy the deep social and economic problems that troubled the country. As this became increasingly apparent, the population began to lose faith in the party, especially as conditions for consumers deteriorated during wartime. Thus, even when

11385-477: The status of Sudan and British troops ended hopes for a successful discussion. The ire of the nationalists concentrated on two issues, Sudan and the Suez. By flaming the fires of nationalism, the Egyptian elites forced themselves to intervene in the civil war in Palestine . During the 1948 Arab-Israeli war , Egyptian troops fought in the southern front against Israel . Though Egypt quickly gained controlled over

11500-536: The streets by cheering mobs. Egypt has passed through a critical period in her recent history characterized by bribery, mischief, and the absence of governmental stability. All of these were factors that had a large influence on the army. Those who accepted bribes and were thus influenced caused our defeat in the Palestine War [1948]. As for the period following the war, the mischief-making elements have been assisting one another, and traitors have been commanding

11615-485: The sultanate. For all intents and purposes, the Sultanate of Egypt was as much controlled by the United Kingdom as the Khedivate of Egypt had been. After World War I , Egyptian nationalists tried to send a delegation (Arabic: Wafd) to the Paris Peace Conference to renegotiate for Egyptian independence. When Britain refused, nationalist anger at British control erupted into the Egyptian revolution of 1919 , prompting

11730-437: The traditional economic structure of peasants and landlords. While the Wafd enjoyed genuine popularity among the masses, the degrading economic conditions of Egypt beginning the 1930s combined with the failure of the 1923 regime to adequately address these issues sparked the rise of socialist and labor movements. The Wafd believed that through gradual negotiations, it would be able to secure complete Egyptian independence. Egypt

11845-637: The view that political stability needed financial stability and embarked on a programme of long-term investment in Egypt's agricultural revenue sources, the largest of which was cotton. To accomplish this, Cromer worked to improve the Nile's irrigation system through multiple large projects, such as the construction of the Aswan Dam, the Nile Barrage, and an increase in canals available to agriculturally focused lands. Egyptian Fundamental Ordinance of 1882,

11960-420: The war, an Egyptian commander commented: "The real battle is in Egypt." In 1950, the Wafd formed a government for the last time. After years of martial law and political chaos, the Wafd decisively won the 1950 elections on a mandate of continuing its historic political fight against Britain. al-Nahhas, who was now 70 years old, was no longer the national hero he was in 1919. Genuine economic reforms as well as

12075-534: The witnessing the 1949 Syrian coup , when Syrian military overthrew the government, whispers of a revolt spread throughout the corps. While an exact date is not known, by 1949 meetings and discussions in the homes of the officers started the beginning of the 'Free Officers' movement. While officers met with communists in the DMNL and Islamists in the Muslim Brotherhood , it was an organization independent of

12190-591: Was asked to send another mission to London with full powers to conclude a definitive treaty. Adli Pasha led this mission, which arrived in June 1921. However, the Dominion delegates at the 1921 Imperial Conference had stressed the importance of maintaining control over the Suez Canal Zone and Curzon could not persuade his Cabinet colleagues to agree to any terms that Adli Pasha was prepared to accept. The mission returned to Egypt in disgust. In December 1921,

12305-473: Was built in steel piling and concrete cement encrusted several meters below the sandy base. Granite from Aswan was also used for part of the body. The project works were a great success, entailing a work force of twelve thousand and cost 2.75 million pounds. The old Delta Barrage was then abandoned, although it has been retained as a historic monument and is still used as a road bridge. American diplomat Edwin de Leon reported that Muhammad Ali 's grandson Abbas

12420-542: Was followed by yet another one on Thursday, 20 March 1919. Egyptian women would continue to play an important and increasingly public nationalist role throughout the spring and summer of 1919 and beyond. The anticolonial riots and British suppression of them led to the death of some 800 people. In November 1919, the Milner Commission was sent to Egypt by the British to attempt to resolve the situation. In 1920, Lord Milner submitted his report to Lord Curzon ,

12535-417: Was forced to back down. Throughout the 19th century, the ruling dynasty of Egypt had borrowed and spent vast sums of money on its own luxury and on the infrastructural development of Egypt. The dynasty's economic development was almost wholly oriented toward military dual-use goals. Consequently, despite vast sums of European capital, actual economic production and resulting revenues were insufficient to repay

12650-566: Was formed; a social class of educated Egyptians well-read in politics and culture known as the Effendi . Under the education minister Ali Pasha Mubarak , the public education system in Egypt grew the field of educated nationalist effendiyya. It was during this time that Italians , Greeks , French, Armenians , Jews , and other groups immigrated to Egypt, establishing a small but wealthy and politically powerful cosmopolitan community. Foreigners were not subject to Egyptian laws, but went through

12765-582: Was founded in 1928, pushing for an Islamic-revival against colonialism and modernity. Leftist movements like the Egyptian Communist Party , Iskra , and the Democratic Movement for National Liberation rallied growing numbers of striking workers, especially as King Farouk's extravagant lifestyle continued to insult the millions of Egyptians living in poverty. The 1945 riots in Egypt and the 1946 student protests demonstrated

12880-582: Was not a substitute for parliament; it was not taken seriously by the officers, who announced Egypt was a republic and Naguib was selected as president on June 18, without approval from the committee. By September, the Revolutionary Tribunal was formed, composed solely of three officers as judges, Abdel Baghdadi , Anwar Sadat and Hasan Ibrahim . In a speech in at Tahrir Square , Salah Salim described how colonialism in Egypt did not rule with soldiers or arms, but "traitors". Salim described

12995-763: Was successful in abolishing the Mixed courts in 1937, repealing the Public Debt Commission in 1940 , and negotiating the 1936 Anglo-Egyptian treaty . This treaty limited the extent of British troops in Egypt (except with regards to the Suez canal and the Sudan), and the creation of a proper Egyptian military. During the Second World War , Egypt was a major Allied base for the North African campaign . Egypt remained officially neutral under

13110-481: Was then the most powerful, populous, and influential of Arab countries. The most dangerous opposition during this period came from the Egyptian army, which saw the reorientation of economic development away from their control as a threat to their privileges. The Urabi revolt , a large military demonstration in September 1881, forced the Khedive Tewfiq to dismiss his Prime Minister and rule by decree. Many of

13225-561: Was willing to sacrifice one of the pyramids in order to complete the poorly financed dam, but this was avoided by the high estimated cost, provided by the engineer. History of Egypt under the British The history of Egypt under the British lasted from 1882, when it was occupied by British forces during the Anglo-Egyptian War , until 1956 after the Suez Crisis , when the last British forces withdrew in accordance with

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