Ottawa or Odawa is a dialect of the Ojibwe language spoken by the Odawa people in southern Ontario in Canada, and northern Michigan in the United States. Descendants of migrant Ottawa speakers live in Kansas and Oklahoma . The first recorded meeting of Ottawa speakers and Europeans occurred in 1615 when a party of Ottawas encountered explorer Samuel de Champlain on the north shore of Georgian Bay . Ottawa is written in an alphabetic system using Latin letters , and is known to its speakers as Nishnaabemwin 'speaking the native language' or Daawaamwin 'speaking Ottawa'.
168-888: Ottawa is one of the Ojibwe dialects that has undergone the most language change , although it shares many features with other dialects. The most distinctive change is a pervasive pattern of vowel syncope that deletes short vowels in many words, resulting in significant changes in their pronunciation . This and other innovations in pronunciation, in addition to changes in word structure and vocabulary , differentiate Ottawa from other dialects of Ojibwe. Like other Ojibwe dialects, Ottawa grammar includes animate and inanimate noun gender , subclasses of verbs that are dependent upon gender, combinations of prefixes and suffixes that are connected with particular verb subclasses, and complex patterns of word formation . Ottawa distinguishes two types of third person in sentences: proximate , indicating
336-451: A noun phrase that is emphasized in the discourse, and obviative , indicating a less prominent noun phrase. Ottawa has a relatively flexible word order compared with languages such as English. Ottawa speakers are concerned that their language is endangered as the use of English increases and the number of fluent speakers declines. Language revitalization efforts include second language learning in primary and secondary schools. Ottawa
504-676: A Patriote, George-Étienne Cartier entered politics in the Province of Canada, becoming one of the co-premiers and advocate for the union of the British North American provinces. He became a leading figure at the Quebec Conference, which produced the Quebec Resolutions , the foundation for Canadian Confederation. Recognized as a Father of Confederation , he successfully argued for the establishment of
672-428: A call' and refrigeratoring 'in the refrigerator'. Loan words that have recently been borrowed from English are typically written in standard English orthography . The letter h is used for the glottal stop [ʔ] , which is represented in the broader Ojibwe version with the apostrophe. In Ottawa the apostrophe is reserved for a separate function noted below. In a few primarily expressive words, orthographic h has
840-1148: A central role in Ottawa grammar. Noun inflection and verb inflection indicate grammatical information through prefixes and suffixes that are added to word stems. Notable grammatical characteristics marked with inflectional prefixes and suffixes include: Prefixes mark grammatical person on verbs, including first person, second person, and third person. Nouns use combinations of prefixes and suffixes to indicate possession . Suffixes on nouns mark gender , location , diminutive , pejorative , and other categories. Significant agreement patterns between nouns and verbs involve gender, singular and plural number, as well as obviation. Ottawa derivational morphology forms basic word stems with combinations of word roots (also called initials ), and affixes referred to as medials and finals to create words to which inflectional prefixes and suffixes are added. Word stems are combined with other word stems to create compound words. Innovations in Ottawa morphology contribute to differentiating Ottawa from other dialects of Ojibwe. These differences include:
1008-493: A crowd of more than 100,000, making a speech ending with the exclamation: "Long live free Quebec". This declaration had a profound effect on Quebec by bolstering the burgeoning modern Quebec sovereignty movement and resulting in a political crisis between France and Canada. Following this, various civilian groups developed, sometimes confronting public authority, for example in the October Crisis of 1970. The meetings of
1176-400: A degradation in the quality of a language, especially when the change originates from human error or is a prescriptively discouraged usage. Modern linguistics rejects this concept, since from a scientific point of view such innovations cannot be judged in terms of good or bad. John Lyons notes that "any standard of evaluation applied to language-change must be based upon a recognition of
1344-583: A diversity of plant (1000) and vertebrates (350) species, despite relatively cool temperatures. The ecozone mixed forest is characteristic of the Laurentians , the Appalachians and the eastern lowland forests. The third most northern forest area is characterized by deciduous forests . Because of its climate, this area has the greatest diversity of species, including more than 1600 vascular plants and 440 vertebrates. The total forest area of Quebec
1512-734: A greater extent than in English (which has few inflections, and relies mainly on word order). Preferred word orders in a simple transitive sentence are verb-initial, such as verb–object–subject (VOS) and VSO . While verb-final orders are avoided, all logically possible orders are attested. Ottawa word order displays considerably more freedom than is found in languages such as English, and word order frequently reflects discourse -based distinctions such as topic and focus . Verbs are marked for grammatical information in three distinct sets of inflectional paradigms, called Verb orders . Each order corresponds generally to one of three main sentence types:
1680-685: A head in 1849, when English Canadian rioters set fire to the Parliament Building in Montreal following the enactment of the Rebellion Losses Bill , a law that compensated French Canadians whose properties were destroyed during the rebellions of 1837–1838. This bill, resulting from the Baldwin - La Fontaine coalition and Lord Elgin's advice, was important as it established the notion of responsible government . In 1854,
1848-625: A history of his people in English; an appended grammatical description of Ottawa and the Southwestern Ojibwe (Chippewa) dialect also contains vocabulary lists, short phrases, and translations of the Ten Commandments and the Lord's Prayer . Accurate transcriptions of Ottawa date from linguist Leonard Bloomfield's research with Ottawa speakers in the late 1930s and early 1940s. A tradition of indigenous literacy in Ottawa arose in
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#17327657615702016-411: A hundred years' time, when the original meaning of 'wicked' has all but been forgotten, people may wonder how it was ever possible for a word meaning 'evil' to change its sense to 'wonderful' so quickly." Sound change —i.e., change in the pronunciation of phonemes —can lead to phonological change (i.e., change in the relationships between phonemes within the structure of a language). For instance, if
2184-467: A language' + suffix -win 'nominalizer', with regular deletion of short vowels) 'speaking Ottawa' is also reported in some sources. The name of the Canadian capital Ottawa is a loanword that comes through French from odaawaa , the self-designation of the Ottawa people. The earliest recorded form is Outaouan , in a French source from 1641. Ottawa is a dialect of the Ojibwe language, which
2352-609: A mixed pronoun set. The terms maaba 'this (animate)', gonda 'these (animate)', and nonda 'these (inanimate)' are unique to Ottawa. Ottawa interrogative pronouns and adverbs frequently have the emphatic pronoun dash fused with them to form a single word. In this table the emphatic pronoun is written as -sh immediately following the main word. A small number of vocabulary items are characteristically Ottawa. Although these items are robustly attested in Ottawa, they have also been reported in some other communities. Written representation of Ojibwe dialects, including Ottawa,
2520-429: A more salient noun phrase, and obviative indicates a less prominent noun phrase. Selection and use of proximate or obviative forms is a distinctive aspect of Ottawa syntax that indicates the relative discourse prominence of noun phrases containing third persons; it does not have a direct analogue in English grammar. Few vocabulary items are considered unique to Ottawa. The influx of speakers of other Ojibwe dialects into
2688-587: A particular type of dog. On the other hand, the word "dog" itself has been broadened from its Old English root 'dogge', the name of a particular breed, to become the general term for all domestic canines. Syntactic change is the evolution of the syntactic structure of a natural language . Over time, syntactic change is the greatest modifier of a particular language. Massive changes – attributable either to creolization or to relexification – may occur both in syntax and in vocabulary. Syntactic change can also be purely language-internal, whether independent within
2856-561: A practical tool in all sorts of legal, judicial, administrative and economic affairs throughout the country. Altintas, Can, and Patton (2007) introduce a systematic approach to language change quantification by studying unconsciously used language features in time-separated parallel translations. For this purpose, they use objective style markers such as vocabulary richness and lengths of words, word stems and suffixes, and employ statistical methods to measure their changes over time. Languages perceived to be "higher status" stabilise or spread at
3024-529: A preliminary report underlining Quebec's distinct character, and promoted open federalism, a political attitude guaranteeing Quebec a minimum amount of consideration. To favour Quebec during its Quiet Revolution, Lester B. Pearson adopted a policy of open federalism. In 1966, the Union Nationale was re-elected and continued on with major reforms. In 1967, President of France Charles de Gaulle visited Quebec, to attend Expo 67 . There, he addressed
3192-687: A royal mandate to manage New France in 1627, introduced the Custom of Paris and the seigneurial system , and forbade settlement by anyone other than Catholics. In 1629, Quebec City surrendered , without battle, to English privateers during the Anglo-French War ; in 1632, the English king agreed to return it with the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye . Trois-Rivières was founded at de Champlain's request in 1634. Paul de Chomedey de Maisonneuve founded Ville-Marie (now Montreal) in 1642. In 1663,
3360-483: A sliding window approach, they show that, as time passes, words, in terms of both tokens (in text) and types (in vocabulary), have become longer. They indicate that the increase in word lengths with time can be attributed to the government-initiated language "reform" of the 20th century. This reform aimed at replacing foreign words used in Turkish, especially Arabic- and Persian-based words (since they were in majority when
3528-467: A two-seat majority, having campaigned with the slogan "It's time for things to change". This government made reforms in social policy, education, health and economic development. It created the Caisse de dépôt et placement du Québec , Labour Code, Ministry of Social Affairs , Ministry of Education , Office québécois de la langue française , Régie des rentes and Société générale de financement . In 1962,
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#17327657615703696-481: A vowel, but are devoiced in word-final position. The lenis consonants are subject to other phonological processes when adjacent to fortis consonants. Labialized stop consonants [ɡʷ] and [kʷ] , consisting of a consonant with noticeable lip rounding , occur in the speech of some speakers. Labialization is not normally indicated in writing, but a subscript dot is utilized in a widely used dictionary of Ottawa and Eastern Ojibwe to mark labialization: ɡ̣taaji 'he
3864-483: Is phonemic in nature, in that each letter or letter combination indicates its basic sound value, and does not reflect all the phonetic detail that occurs. Accurate pronunciation cannot be learned without consulting a fluent speaker. The Ottawa variant of this system uses the following consonant letters or digraphs : b, ch, d, f, g, h, j, k, l, m, n, p, r, s, sh, t, w, y, z, zh The letters f, l, and r are found in loan words, such as telephonewayshin 'give me
4032-462: Is a "descendant" of its "ancestor" Old English. When multiple languages are all descended from the same ancestor language, as the Romance languages are from Vulgar Latin , they are said to form a language family and be " genetically " related. According to Guy Deutscher , the tricky question is "Why are changes not brought up short and stopped in their tracks? At first sight, there seem to be all
4200-914: Is a member of the Algonquian language family . The varieties of Ojibwe form a dialect continuum , a series of adjacent dialects spoken primarily in the area surrounding the Great Lakes as well as in the Canadian provinces of Quebec , Manitoba , and Saskatchewan , with smaller outlying groups in North Dakota , Montana , Alberta , and British Columbia . Mutual intelligibility is the linguistic criterion used to distinguish languages from dialects. In straightforward cases, varieties of language that are mutually intelligible are classified as dialects, while varieties of speech that are not mutually intelligible are classified as separate languages. Linguistic and social factors may result in inconsistencies in how
4368-577: Is a minor adaptation of a very similar one used for other dialects of Ojibwe in Ontario and the United States, and widely employed in reference materials and text collections. Sometimes referred to as the Double Vowel system because it uses doubled vowel symbols to represent Ottawa long vowels that are paired with corresponding short vowels, it is an adaptation attributed to Charles Fiero of
4536-417: Is afraid' and aaḳzi 'he is sick'. Ottawa has seven oral vowels , four long and three short . There are four long nasal vowels whose status as either phonemes or allophones (predictable variants) is unclear. The long vowels /iː, oː, aː/ are paired with the short vowels /i, o, a/ , and are written with double symbols ⟨ii⟩ , ⟨oo⟩ , ⟨aa⟩ that correspond to
4704-520: Is also renowned for its culture ; the province produces literature , music , films , TV shows , festivals , and more. The name Québec comes from an Algonquin word meaning 'narrow passage' or 'strait'. The name originally referred to the area around Quebec City where the Saint Lawrence River narrows to a cliff-lined gap. Early variations in the spelling included Québecq and Kébec . French explorer Samuel de Champlain chose
4872-717: Is conventionally considered to be a single language with a series of adjacent dialects. Taking account of the low mutual intelligibility of the most strongly differentiated dialects, an alternative view is that Ojibwe "could be said to consist of several languages", forming a language complex. The Ottawa communities for which the most detailed linguistic information has been collected are in Ontario. Extensive research has been conducted with speakers from Walpole Island in southwestern Ontario near Detroit , and Wikwemikong on Manitoulin Island in Lake Huron . South of Manitoulin Island on
5040-652: Is estimated at 750,300 km (289,700 sq mi). From the Abitibi-Témiscamingue to the North Shore , the forest is composed primarily of conifers such as the Abies balsamea , the jack pine , the white spruce , the black spruce and the tamarack . The deciduous forest of the Great Lakes–St. Lawrence Lowlands is mostly composed of deciduous species such as the sugar maple , the red maple ,
5208-496: Is known to its speakers as Nishnaabemwin 'speaking the native language' (from Anishinaabe 'native person' + verb suffix -mo 'speak a language' + suffix -win ' nominalizer ', with regular deletion of short vowels); the same term is applied to the Eastern Ojibwe dialect. The corresponding term in other dialects is Anishinaabemowin . Daawaamwin (from Odaawaa 'Ottawa' + verb suffix -mo 'speak
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5376-452: Is mainly supported by its large service sector and varied industrial sector. For exports, it leans on the key industries of aeronautics , where it is the 6th largest worldwide seller, hydroelectricity , mining, pharmaceuticals , aluminum, wood, and paper. Quebec is well known for producing maple syrup , for its comedy , and for making hockey one of the most popular sports in Canada . It
5544-410: Is matched to a corresponding lenis consonant with the same place of articulation and manner of articulation . Ottawa fortis consonants are voiceless and phonetically long, and are aspirated in most positions: [pːʰ] , [tːʰ] , [kːʰ] , [tʃːʰ] . When following another consonant they are unaspirated or weakly articulated. The lenis consonants are typically voiced between vowels and word-initially before
5712-496: Is not available, in part because Canadian census data does not identify the Ottawa as a separate group. One report suggests a total of approximately 8,000 speakers of Ottawa in the northern United States and southern Ontario out of an estimated total population of 60,000. A field study conducted during the 1990s in Ottawa communities indicates that Ottawa is in decline, noting that "Today too few children are learning Nishnaabemwin as their first language, and in some communities where
5880-522: Is not universal. Prominent Ottawa author Basil Johnston has explicitly rejected it, preferring to use a form of folk spelling in which the correspondences between sounds and letters are less systematic. Similarly, a lexicon representing Ottawa as spoken in Michigan and another based on Ottawa in Oklahoma, use English-based folk spellings distinct from that employed by Johnson. The Ottawa writing system
6048-864: Is now called the Conscription Crisis of 1917 , which led to the Quebec riot [ fr ] . In 1919, the prohibition of spirits was enacted following a provincial referendum . But, prohibition was abolished in 1921 due to the Alcoholic Beverages Act which created the Commission des liqueurs du Québec . In 1927, the British Judicial Committee of the Privy Council drew a clear border between northeast Quebec and south Labrador . However,
6216-544: Is the largest province by area with an area of 1.5 million square kilometres (0.58 million square miles) and more than 12,000 km (7,500 mi) of borders, in North America , Quebec is located in Central Canada . The province shares land borders with the provinces of Ontario to the west, Newfoundland and Labrador to the northeast, New Brunswick to the southeast and a coastal border with
6384-551: Is the tundra, whose flora is limited to lichen with less than 50 growing days per year. Further south, the climate is conducive to the growth of the Canadian boreal forest , bounded on the north by the taiga. Not as arid as the tundra, the taiga is associated with the subarctic regions of the Canadian Shield and is characterized by a greater number of both plant (600) and animal (206) species. The taiga covers about 20% of
6552-445: Is to promote standardization of Ottawa writing so that language learners are able to read and write in a consistent way. By comparison, folk phonetic spelling approaches to writing Ottawa based on less systematic adaptations of written English or French are more variable and idiosyncratic, and do not always make consistent use of alphabetic letters. While the modern orthography is used in a number of prominent publications, its acceptance
6720-699: Is very different from one region to another due to the varying composition of the ground, the climate, and the proximity to water. More than 95% of Quebec's territory, including the Labrador Peninsula , lies within the Canadian Shield . It is generally a quite flat and exposed mountainous terrain interspersed with higher points such as the Laurentian Mountains in southern Quebec, the Otish Mountains in central Quebec and
6888-479: Is very sparsely populated. The most populous physiographic region is the Great Lakes–St. Lawrence Lowlands . The combination of rich soils and the lowlands' relatively warm climate makes this valley the most prolific agricultural area of Quebec. The rural part of the landscape is divided into narrow rectangular tracts of land that extend from the river and date back to the seigneurial system. Quebec's topography
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7056-653: The Battle of Saint-Denis . However, they were unorganized and badly equipped, leading to their loss against the British army in the Battle of Saint-Charles , and defeat in the Battle of Saint-Eustache . In response to the rebellions, Lord Durham was asked to undertake a study and prepare a report offering a solution to the British Parliament. Durham recommended that Canadiens be culturally assimilated , with English as their only official language. To do this,
7224-673: The Bloc Populaire emerged to fight conscription. The stark differences between the values of French and English Canada popularized the expression the " Two Solitudes ". In the wake of the conscription crisis, Maurice Duplessis of the Union Nationale ascended to power and implemented conservative policies known as the Grande Noirceur . He focused on defending provincial autonomy , Quebec's Catholic and francophone heritage, and laissez-faire liberalism instead of
7392-465: The Bruce Peninsula are Cape Croker and Saugeen , for which less information is available. The dialect affiliation of several communities east of Lake Huron remains uncertain. Although "the dialect spoken along the eastern shore of Georgian Bay" has been described as Eastern Ojibwe , studies do not clearly delimit the boundary between Ottawa and Eastern Ojibwe. Other Canadian communities in
7560-526: The Estates General of French Canada in 1967 marked a tipping point where relations between francophones of America , and especially francophones of Canada, ruptured. This breakdown affected Quebec society's evolution. In 1968, class conflicts and changes in mentalities intensified. Option Quebec sparked a constitutional debate on the political future of the province by pitting federalist and sovereignist doctrines against each other. In 1969,
7728-781: The Great Peace of Montreal , which not only confirmed the alliance between the Algonquian and New France, but definitively ended the Iroquois Wars. From 1688 onwards, the fierce competition between the French and British to control North America's interior and monopolize fur trade pitted New France and its Indigenous allies against the Iroquois and English in four successive wars called the French and Indian Wars by Americans, and
7896-495: The International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) as needed. The most prominent feature of Ottawa phonology is vowel syncope , in which short vowels are deleted, or in certain circumstances reduced to schwa [ ə ] , when they appear in metrically defined weak syllables. Notable effects of syncope are: The table of consonants uses symbols from the modern orthography with the corresponding symbol in
8064-666: The Legislative Assembly of the Province of Canada , which created representation problems. In the beginning, Canada East was underrepresented because of its superior population size. Over time, however, massive immigration from the British Isles to Canada West occurred. Since the two regions continued to have equal representation, this meant it was now Canada West that was under-represented. The representation issues were called into question by debates on "Representation by Population" . The British population began to use
8232-554: The Lower Canada Rebellion began in 1837. In 1837, Louis-Joseph Papineau and Robert Nelson led residents of Lower Canada to form an armed group called the Patriotes . They made a Declaration of Independence in 1838, guaranteeing rights and equality for all citizens without discrimination. Their actions resulted in rebellions in both Lower and Upper Canada . The Patriotes were victorious in their first battle,
8400-672: The Lower Canada Rebellion . It was confederated with Ontario, Nova Scotia , and New Brunswick in 1867. Until the early 1960s , the Catholic Church played a large role in the social and cultural institutions in Quebec. However, the Quiet Revolution of the 1960s to 1980s increased the role of the Government of Quebec in l'État québécois (the public authority of Quebec). The Government of Quebec functions within
8568-586: The Lower Peninsula of Michigan has also been a central area for Ottawa speakers since the arrival of Europeans. Since the arrival of Europeans, the population movements of Ottawa speakers have been complex, with extensive migrations and contact with other Ojibwe groups. Many Ottawa speakers in southern Ontario are descended from speakers of the Southwestern Ojibwe dialect (also known as "Chippewa") who moved into Ottawa-speaking areas during
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#17327657615708736-727: The North-West Rebellion , the Manitoba Schools Question and Ontario's Regulation 17 turned the promotion and defence of the rights of French Canadians into an important concern. Under the aegis of the Catholic Church and the political action of Henri Bourassa , symbols of national pride were developed, like the Flag of Carillon , and " O Canada " – a patriotic song composed for Saint-Jean-Baptiste Day . Many organizations went on to consecrate
8904-657: The Ohio Valley , as authorities in New France became more aggressive in efforts to expel British traders and colonists. In 1754, George Washington launched a surprise attack on a group of sleeping Canadien soldiers, known as the Battle of Jumonville Glen , the first battle of the war. In 1755, Governor Charles Lawrence and Officer Robert Monckton ordered the forceful explusion of the Acadians . In 1758, on Île-Royale, British General James Wolfe besieged and captured
9072-642: The Parti Québécois was brought to power in the 1976 Quebec general election . The Charter of the French Language came into force the following year, which increased the use of French. Between 1966-69, the Estates General of French Canada confirmed the state of Quebec to be the nation's fundamental political milieu and for it to have the right to self-determination . In the 1980 referendum on sovereignty, 60% were against. After
9240-814: The Saint Lawrence Seaway has provided a navigable link between the Atlantic Ocean and the Great Lakes. The public lands of Quebec cover approximately 92% of its territory, including almost all of the bodies of water. Protected areas can be classified into about twenty different legal designations (ex. exceptional forest ecosystem, protected marine environment, national park , biodiversity reserve , wildlife reserve, zone d'exploitation contrôlée (ZEC), etc.). More than 2,500 sites in Quebec today are protected areas. As of 2013, protected areas comprise 9.14% of Quebec's territory. In general,
9408-678: The Torngat Mountains near Ungava Bay . While low and medium altitude peaks extend from western Quebec to the far north, high altitudes mountains emerge in the Capitale-Nationale region to the extreme east. Quebec's highest point at 1,652 metres (5,420 ft) is Mont d'Iberville, known in English as Mount Caubvick . In the Labrador Peninsula portion of the Shield, the far northern region of Nunavik includes
9576-678: The federal elections of 1911 . In 1912, the Canadian Parliament enacted the Quebec Boundaries Extension Act, 1912 , which gave Quebec another part of Rupert's Land: the District of Ungava . This extended the borders of Quebec northward to the Hudson Strait . When World War I broke out, Canada was automatically involved and many English Canadians volunteered. However, because they did not feel
9744-401: The fur trade reignited French interest; New France became a colonial trading post . In 1603, Samuel de Champlain travelled to the Saint Lawrence River and, on Pointe Saint-Mathieu, established a defence pact with the Innu, Maliseet and Micmacs, that would be "a decisive factor in the maintenance of a French colonial enterprise in America despite an enormous numerical disadvantage vis-à-vis
9912-441: The grammatical object , and intransitive verbs encode the gender of the grammatical subject , creating a set of four verb subclasses. The distinction between the two genders also affects verbs through agreement patterns for number and gender. Similarly, demonstrative pronouns agree in gender with the noun they refer to. Ottawa has complex systems of both inflectional and derivational morphology. Inflectional morphology has
10080-435: The muskellunge , the Atlantic cod , the Arctic char , the brook trout , the Microgadus tomcod (tomcod), the Atlantic salmon , and the rainbow trout . Among the birds commonly seen in the southern part of Quebec are the American robin , the house sparrow , the red-winged blackbird , the mallard , the common grackle , the blue jay , the American crow , the black-capped chickadee , some warblers and swallows ,
10248-401: The provincial general elections . Between 2020-21, Quebec took measures against the COVID-19 pandemic . In 2022, Coalition Avenir Québec, led by Quebec's premier François Legault , increased its parliamentary majority in the provincial general elections. Located in the eastern part of Canada, Quebec occupies a territory nearly three times the size of France or Texas . Most of Quebec
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#173276576157010416-399: The white ash , the American beech , the butternut (white walnut) , the American elm , the basswood , the bitternut hickory and the northern red oak as well as some conifers such as the eastern white pine and the northern whitecedar . The distribution areas of the paper birch , the trembling aspen and the mountain ash cover more than half of Quebec's territory. Biodiversity of
10584-407: The 1950s and the pronunciation of today. The greater acceptance and fashionability of regional accents in media may also reflect a more democratic, less formal society — compare the widespread adoption of language policies . Can and Patton (2010) provide a quantitative analysis of twentieth-century Turkish literature using forty novels of forty authors. Using weighted least squares regression and
10752-456: The 1980s and 1990s found that the differences between Ottawa, the Severn Ojibwe dialect spoken in northwestern Ontario and northern Manitoba, and the Algonquin dialect spoken in western Quebec result in low levels of mutual intelligibility. These three dialects "show many distinct features, which suggest periods of relative isolation from other varieties of Ojibwe." Because the dialects of Ojibwe are at least partly mutually intelligible, Ojibwe
10920-855: The 19th century, as speakers of Ottawa on Manitoulin Island became literate in their own language. Manitoulin Island Ottawas who were Catholic learned to write from French Catholic missionaries using a French-influenced orthography, while Methodist and Anglican converts used English-based orthographies. Documents written in Ottawa by Ottawa speakers on Manitoulin Island between 1823 and 1910 include official letters and petitions, personal documents, official Indian band regulations, an official proclamation, and census statements prepared by individuals. Ottawa speakers from Manitoulin Island contributed articles to Anishinabe Enamiad ('the Praying Indian'), an Ojibwe newspaper started by Franciscan missionaries and published in Harbor Springs , Michigan between 1896 and 1902. It has been suggested that Ottawa speakers were among
11088-435: The Americans in the Saratoga campaign of 1777. When the British recognized the independence of the rebel colonies at the signing of the Treaty of Paris of 1783, it conceded Illinois and the Ohio Valley to the newly formed United States and denoted the 45th parallel as its border, drastically reducing Quebec's size. Some United Empire Loyalists from the US migrated to Quebec and populated various regions. Dissatisfied with
11256-444: The Anglo-American conglomerates that dominated the economy and natural resources, announced a collective will for freedom of the French-Canadian people. As a result of confrontations between the lower clergy and the laity , state institutions began to deliver services without the assistance of the church, and many parts of civil society began to be more secular. In 1965, the Royal Commission on Bilingualism and Biculturalism wrote
11424-416: The Bloc Québécois in favour of the previously minor New Democratic Party (NDP). As the NDP's logo is orange, this was called the "orange wave". After three subsequent Liberal governments, the Parti Québécois regained power in 2012 and its leader, Pauline Marois , became the first female premier of Quebec. The Liberal Party of Quebec then returned to power in 2014. In 2018, the Coalition Avenir Québec won
11592-420: The British acquired Canada in 1763, the British government established a constitution for the newly acquired territory, under the Royal Proclamation . The Canadiens were subordinated to the government of the British Empire and circumscribed to a region of the St. Lawrence Valley and Anticosti Island called the Province of Quebec . With unrest growing in their southern colonies, the British were worried that
11760-470: The British passed the Act of Union 1840 , which merged Upper Canada and Lower Canada into a single colony: the Province of Canada . Lower Canada became the francophone and densely populated Canada East , and Upper Canada became the anglophone and sparsely populated Canada West . This union, unsurprisingly, was the main source of political instability until 1867. Despite their population gap, Canada East and Canada West obtained an identical number of seats in
11928-423: The British". Thus also began French military support to the Algonquian and Huron peoples against Iroquois attacks; these became known as the Iroquois Wars and lasted from the early 1600s to the early 1700s. In 1608, Samuel de Champlain returned to the region as head of an exploration party. On July 3, 1608, with the support of King Henry IV , he founded the Habitation de Québec (now Quebec City) and made it
12096-626: The Canadian Parliament enacted the Quebec Boundary Extension Act, 1898 , which gave Quebec part of Rupert's Land, which Canada had bought from the Hudson's Bay Company in 1870. This act expanded the boundaries of Quebec northward. In 1909, the government passed a law obligating wood and pulp to be transformed in Quebec, which helped slow the Grande Hémorragie by allowing Quebec to export its finished products to
12264-619: The Canadian constitution and made modifications to it. The 1982 amendments apply to Quebec despite Quebec never having consented to it. Between 1982-92, the Quebec government's attitude changed to prioritize reforming the federation. Attempts at constitutional amendments by the Mulroney and Bourassa governments ended in failure with the Meech Lake Accord of 1987 and the Charlottetown Accord of 1992, resulting in
12432-644: The Canadiens might support what would become the American Revolution . To secure allegiance to the British crown, Governor James Murray and later Governor Guy Carleton promoted the need for accommodations, resulting in the enactment of the Quebec Act of 1774. This act allowed Canadiens to regain their civil customs , return to the seigneural system, regain certain rights including use of French, and reappropriate their old territories: Labrador,
12600-551: The Company of New France ceded Canada to King Louis XIV , who made New France into a royal province of France. New France was now a true colony administered by the Sovereign Council of New France from Quebec City. A governor-general , governed Canada and its administrative dependencies: Acadia, Louisiana and Plaisance. The French settlers were mostly farmers and known as " Canadiens " or " Habitants ". Though there
12768-606: The European explorations of the 1500s, there were eleven Indigenous peoples : the Inuit and ten First Nations – the Abenakis , Algonquins (or Anichinabés), Atikamekw , Cree , Huron-Wyandot , Maliseet , Miꞌkmaqs , Iroquois , Innu and Naskapis . Algonquians organized into seven political entities and lived nomadic lives based on hunting, gathering, and fishing. Inuit fished and hunted whales and seals along
12936-716: The Fortress of Louisbourg. This allowed him to control access to the Gulf of St. Lawrence through the Cabot Strait . In 1759, he besieged Quebec for three months from Île d'Orléans . Then, Wolfe stormed Quebec and fought against Montcalm for control of the city in the Battle of the Plains of Abraham . After a British victory, the king's lieutenant and Lord of Ramezay concluded the Articles of Capitulation of Quebec . During
13104-459: The French Language , and the Civil Code of Quebec . Furthermore, unlike elsewhere in Canada, law in Quebec is mixed: private law is exercised under a civil-law system, while public law is exercised under a common-law system. Quebec's official language is French; Québécois French is the regional variety . Quebec is the only Francophone -majority province. The economy of Quebec
13272-606: The Great Lakes, the Ohio Valley, Illinois Country and the Indian Territory . As early as 1774, the Continental Congress of the separatist Thirteen Colonies attempted to rally the Canadiens to its cause. However, its military troops failed to defeat the British counteroffensive during its Invasion of Quebec in 1775. Most Canadiens remained neutral, though some regiments allied themselves with
13440-706: The Independent order is used in main clauses , the Conjunct order in subordinate clauses , and the Imperative order in commands . Ottawa distinguishes yes–no questions , which use a verb form in the Independent order, from content questions formed with the Ottawa equivalents of what , where , when , who and others, which require verbs inflected in the Conjunct order. Ottawa distinguishes two types of grammatical third person in sentences, marked on both verbs and animate nouns. The proximate form indicates
13608-676: The Intercolonial Wars in Quebec. The first three were King William's War (1688–1697), Queen Anne's War (1702–1713), and King George's War (1744–1748). In 1713, following the Peace of Utrecht , the Duke of Orléans ceded Acadia and Plaisance Bay to Great Britain, but retained Île Saint-Jean , and Île-Royale where the Fortress of Louisbourg was subsequently erected. These losses were significant since Plaisance Bay
13776-613: The International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) following where the two vary, or to draw attention to a particular property of the sound in question. The plosive , fricative , and affricate consonants are divided into two sets, referred to as fortis and lenis . Fortis (or "strong") consonants are typically distinguished from lenis (or "weak") consonants by features such as greater duration or length , are voiceless where lenis consonants are typically voiced , and may be aspirated . In Ottawa, each fortis consonant
13944-751: The National Assembly voted unanimously to affirm "that the people of Québec form a nation". On November 27, 2006, the House of Commons passed a symbolic motion declaring "that this House recognize that the Québécois form a nation within a united Canada." In 2007, the Parti Québécois was pushed back to official opposition in the National Assembly, with the Liberal party leading. During the 2011 Canadian federal elections , Quebec voters rejected
14112-453: The Ottawa area has resulted in mixing of historically distinct dialects. Given that vocabulary spreads readily from one dialect to another, the presence of a particular vocabulary item in a given dialect is not a guarantee of the item's original source. Two groups of function words are characteristically Ottawa: the sets of demonstrative pronouns and interrogative adverbs are both distinctive relative to other dialects of Ojibwe. Although some of
14280-614: The Ottawa-speaking area extend from Sault Ste Marie , Ontario along the north shore of Lake Huron: Garden River , Thessalon , Mississauga (Mississagi River 8 Reserve, Serpent River, Whitefish River, Mattagami , and Whitefish Lake . In addition to Wikwemikong, Ottawa communities on Manitoulin Island are, west to east: Cockburn Island , Sheshegwaning, West Bay , Sucker Creek, and Sheguiandah. Other Ottawa communities in southwestern Ontario in addition to Walpole Island are: Sarnia , Stoney and Kettle Point , and Caradoc (Chippewas of
14448-488: The Potawatomi migrants. As a result of the migrations, Ottawa came to include Potawatomi and Ojibwe loanwords. Two subdialects of Ottawa arise from these population movements and the subsequent language shift. The subdialects are associated with the ancestry of significant increments of the populations in particular communities and differences in the way the language is named in those locations. On Manitoulin Island, where
14616-421: The Province of Canada, and used the old borders of Lower Canada for Quebec, and Upper Canada for Ontario. On July 15, 1867, Pierre-Joseph-Olivier Chauveau became Quebec's first premier . From Confederation until World War I, the Catholic Church was at its peak. The objective of clerico-nationalists was promoting the values of traditional society: family, French, the Catholic Church and rural life. Events such as
14784-793: The Quebec government did not recognize the ruling of the Judicial Committee, resulting in a boundary dispute which remains ongoing . The Statute of Westminster 1931 was enacted, and confirmed the autonomy of the Dominions – including Canada and its provinces – from the UK, as well as their free association in the Commonwealth . In the 1930s, Quebec's economy was affected by the Great Depression because it greatly reduced US demand for Quebec exports. Between 1929-32
14952-528: The Thames) , near London , Ontario. Communities in Michigan where Ottawa linguistic data has been collected include Peshawbestown , Harbor Springs, Grand Rapids , Mount Pleasant , Bay City , and Cross Village . The descendants of migrant Ottawas live in Kansas and Oklahoma; available information indicates only three elderly speakers in Oklahoma as of 2006. Reliable data on the total number of Ottawa speakers
15120-523: The US instead of its labour force. In 1910, Armand Lavergne passed the Lavergne Law , the first language legislation in Quebec. It required use of French alongside English on tickets, documents, bills and contracts issued by transportation and public utility companies. At this time, companies rarely recognized the majority language of Quebec. Clerico-nationalists eventually started to fall out of favour in
15288-691: The Ungava Peninsula and consists of flat Arctic tundra inhabited mostly by the Inuit. Further south is the Eastern Canadian Shield taiga ecoregion and the Central Canadian Shield forests . The Appalachian region has a narrow strip of ancient mountains along the southeastern border of Quebec. Quebec has one of the world's largest reserves of fresh water , occupying 12% of its surface and representing 3% of
15456-449: The abduction of British women by Vikings to Iceland ) causes immigration of at least some males, and perceived status change. Then, in mixed-language marriages with these males, prehistoric women would often have chosen to transmit the "higher-status" spouse's language to their children, yielding the language/Y-chromosome correlation seen today. Quebec Quebec is one of the thirteen provinces and territories of Canada . It
15624-657: The affirmation of the French-Canadian people, including the caisses populaires Desjardins in 1900, the Club de hockey Canadien in 1909, Le Devoir in 1910, the Congress on the French language in Canada in 1912, and L'Action nationale in 1917. In 1885, liberal and conservative MPs formed the Parti national out of anger with the previous government for not having interceded in the execution of Louis Riel . In 1898,
15792-469: The capital of New France and its regions. The settlement was built as a permanent fur trading outpost, where First Nations traded furs for French goods, such as metal objects, guns, alcohol, and clothing. Missionary groups arrived in New France after the founding of Quebec City. Coureurs des bois and Catholic missionaries used river canoes to explore the interior and establish fur trading forts. The Compagnie des Cent-Associés , which had been granted
15960-418: The climate of Quebec is cold and humid, with variations determined by latitude, maritime and elevation influences. Because of the influence of both storm systems from the core of North America and the Atlantic Ocean, precipitation is abundant throughout the year, with most areas receiving more than 1,000 mm (39 in) of precipitation, including over 300 cm (120 in) of snow in many areas. During
16128-523: The coasts of Hudson and Ungava Bays. In the 15th century, the Byzantine Empire fell , prompting Western Europeans to search for new sea routes to the Far East . Around 1522–23, Giovanni da Verrazzano persuaded King Francis I of France to commission an expedition to find a western route to Cathay (China) via a Northwest Passage . Though this expedition was unsuccessful, it established
16296-400: The colony. In 1666, intendant Jean Talon organized the first census and counted 3,215 Habitants. Talon enacted policies to diversify agriculture and encourage births, which, in 1672, had increased the population to 6,700. New France's territory grew to extend from Hudson Bay to the Gulf of Mexico , and would encompass the Great Lakes . In the early 1700s, Governor Callières concluded
16464-514: The context of a Westminster system and is both a liberal democracy and a constitutional monarchy . The Premier of Quebec acts as head of government . Independence debates have played a large role in Quebec politics . Quebec society's cohesion and specificity is based on three of its unique statutory documents: the Quebec Charter of Human Rights and Freedoms , the Charter of
16632-773: The creation of the Bloc Québécois . In 1995, Jacques Parizeau called a referendum on Quebec's independence from Canada. This consultation ended in failure for sovereignists, though the outcome was very close: 50.6% "no" and 49.4% "yes". In 1998, following the Supreme Court of Canada 's decision on the Reference Re Secession of Quebec , the Parliaments of Canada and Quebec defined the legal frameworks within which their respective governments would act in another referendum. On October 30, 2003,
16800-618: The east (Franco-Catholic). Lower Canada's lands consisted of the coasts of the Saint Lawrence River, Labrador and Anticosti Island, with the territory extending north to Rupert's Land , and south, east and west to the borders with the US, New Brunswick, and Upper Canada. The creation of Upper and Lower Canada allowed Loyalists to live under British laws and institutions, while Canadiens could maintain their French civil law and Catholic religion. Governor Haldimand drew Loyalists away from Quebec City and Montreal by offering free land on
16968-470: The emerging welfare state . However, as early as 1948, French Canadian society began to develop new ideologies and desires in response to societal changes such as the television, the baby boom , workers' conflicts , electrification of the countryside, emergence of a middle class , the rural exodus and urbanization , expansion of universities and bureaucracies, creation of motorways , renaissance of literature and poetry, and others. The Quiet Revolution
17136-571: The eponymous provincial capital of Quebec . Between 1534 and 1763, what is now Quebec was the French colony of Canada and was the most developed colony in New France . Following the Seven Years' War , Canada became a British colony , first as the Province of Quebec (1763–1791), then Lower Canada (1791–1841), and lastly part of the Province of Canada (1841–1867) as a result of
17304-514: The estuary and gulf of Saint Lawrence River includes aquatic mammal wildlife, such as the blue whale , the beluga , the minke whale and the harp seal (earless seal). The Nordic marine animals include the walrus and the narwhal . Inland waters are populated by small to large freshwater fish, such as the largemouth bass , the American pickerel , the walleye , the Acipenser oxyrinchus ,
17472-606: The expense of other languages perceived by their own speakers to be "lower-status". Historical examples are the early Welsh and Lutheran Bible translations, leading to the liturgical languages Welsh and High German thriving today, unlike other Celtic or German variants. For prehistory, Forster and Renfrew (2011) argue that in some cases there is a correlation of language change with intrusive male Y chromosomes but not with female mtDNA. They then speculate that technological innovation (transition from hunting-gathering to agriculture, or from stone to metal tools) or military prowess (as in
17640-785: The federal Official Languages Act was passed to introduce a linguistic context conducive to Quebec's development. In 1973, the liberal government of Robert Bourassa initiated the James Bay Project on La Grande River . In 1974, it enacted the Official Language Act , which made French the official language of Quebec. In 1975, it established the Charter of Human Rights and Freedoms and the James Bay and Northern Quebec Agreement . Quebec's first modern sovereignist government, led by René Lévesque , materialized when
17808-449: The federal government pledged not to conscript soldiers for overseas service. As the war went on, more and more English Canadians voiced support for conscription, despite firm opposition from French Canada. Following a 1942 poll that showed 73% of Quebec's residents were against conscription, while 80% or more were for conscription in every other province, the federal government passed Bill 80 for overseas service. Protests exploded and
17976-449: The government of Quebec dismantled the financial syndicates of Saint Jacques Street . Quebec began to nationalize its electricity . In order to buy out all the private electric companies and build new Hydro-Québec dams, Quebec was lent $ 300 million by the US in 1962, and $ 100 million by British Columbia in 1964. The Quiet Revolution was particularly characterized by the 1962 Liberal Party's slogan "Masters in our own house", which, to
18144-539: The groups that used the Great Lakes Algonquian syllabary , a syllabic writing system derived from a European-based alphabetic orthography, but supporting evidence is weak. Although there is no standard or official writing system for Ottawa, a widely accepted system is used in a recent dictionary of Ottawa and Eastern Ojibwe, a collection of texts, and a descriptive grammar. The same system is taught in programs for Ojibwe language teachers. One of its goals
18312-588: The higher elevations. The northern regions of Quebec have an arctic climate (Köppen ET ), with very cold winters and short, much cooler summers. The primary influences in this region are the Arctic Ocean currents (such as the Labrador Current ) and continental air masses from the High Arctic . The all-time record high temperature was 40.0 °C (104.0 °F) and the all-time record low
18480-781: The language has increased in the context of second-language learning, where mastery of written language is viewed as a component of the language-learning process. Although there has never been a generally accepted standard written form of Ottawa, interest in standardization has increased with the publication of a widely used dictionary in 1985 and reference grammar in 2001, which provide models for spelling conventions. A conference held in 1996 brought together speakers of all dialects of Ojibwe to review existing writing systems and make proposals for standardization. 19th-century missionary authors who wrote in Ottawa include Catholic missionary Frederic Baraga and Anglican Frederick O'Meara (illustration, this section). Ottawa speaker Andrew Blackbird wrote
18648-470: The language was traditionally spoken, the number of speakers is very small." Formal second-language classes attempt to reduce the impact of declining first-language acquisition of Ottawa. At the time of first contact with Europeans in the early 17th century, Ottawa speakers resided on Manitoulin Island, the Bruce Peninsula, and probably the north and east shores of Georgian Bay. The northern area of
18816-457: The latter sound is converted to [ʔ] or deleted. A study of the Southwestern Ojibwe (Chippewa) dialect spoken in Minnesota describes the status of the analogous vowels as unclear, noting that while the distribution of the long nasal vowels is restricted, there is a minimal pair distinguished only by the nasality of the vowel: giiwe [ɡiːweː] 'he goes home' and giiwenh [ɡiːwẽː] 'so
18984-611: The legal rights under the French seigneurial régime which applied in Quebec, and wanting to use the British legal system to which they were accustomed, the Loyalists protested to British authorities until the Constitutional Act of 1791 was enacted, dividing the Province of Quebec into two distinct colonies starting from the Ottawa River : Upper Canada to the west (predominantly Anglo-Protestant) and Lower Canada to
19152-575: The legend of the Kingdom of Saguenay to the King, inspiring him to order a third expedition, this time led by Jean-François de La Rocque de Roberval ; it was unsuccessful in its goal of finding the kingdom. After these expeditions, France mostly abandoned North America for 50 years because of its financial crisis; France was involved in the Italian Wars and religious wars. Around 1580, the rise of
19320-463: The linguistically oriented system found in publications such as Leonard Bloomfield's Eastern Ojibwa. Letters of the English alphabet substitute for specialized phonetic symbols , in conjunction with orthographic conventions unique to Ottawa. The system embodies two basic principles: (1) alphabetic letters from the English alphabet are used to write Ottawa, but with Ottawa sound values; (2) the system
19488-449: The long vowel is followed by word-final ⟨nh⟩ to indicate that the vowel is nasal; while n is a common indicator of nasality in many languages such as French, the use of ⟨h⟩ is an orthographic convention and does not correspond to an independent sound. One analysis treats the long nasal vowels as phonemic , while another treats them as derived from sequences of long vowel followed by /n/ and underlying /h/ ;
19656-509: The main (indirect) evidence of how language sounds have changed over the centuries. Poetic devices such as rhyme and rhythm can also provide clues to earlier phonetic and phonological patterns. A principal axiom of historical linguistics, established by the linguists of the Neogrammarian school of thought in the 19th century, is that sound change is said to be "regular"—i.e., a given sound change simultaneously affects all words in which
19824-418: The meanings of existing words. Basic types of semantic change include: After a word enters a language, its meaning can change as through a shift in the valence of its connotations. As an example, when "villain" entered English it meant 'peasant' or 'farmhand', but acquired the connotation 'low-born' or 'scoundrel', and today only the negative use survives. Thus 'villain' has undergone pejoration . Conversely,
19992-430: The mid-19th century. Ottawa today is sometimes referred to as Chippewa or Ojibwe by speakers in these areas. As part of a series of population displacements during the same period, an estimated two thousand American Potawatomi speakers from Wisconsin, Michigan and Indiana moved into Ottawa communities in southwestern Ontario. The non-Ottawa-speaking Ojibwes who moved to these areas shifted to speaking Ottawa, as did
20160-704: The name New France for northeast North America. In his first expedition ordered from the Kingdom of France, Jacques Cartier became the first European explorer to discover and map Quebec when he landed in Gaspé on July 24, 1534. In the second expedition, in 1535, Cartier explored the lands of Stadacona and named the village and its surrounding territories Canada (from kanata , 'village' in Iroquois ). Cartier returned to France with about 10 St. Lawrence Iroquoians , including Chief Donnacona . In 1540, Donnacona told
20328-488: The name Québec in 1608 for the colonial outpost he would use as the administrative seat for New France . The Paleo-Indians , theorized to have migrated from Asia to America between 20,000 and 14,000 years ago, were the first people to establish themselves on the lands of Quebec, arriving after the Laurentide Ice Sheet melted roughly 11,000 years ago. From them, many ethnocultural groups emerged. By
20496-591: The next hundred years. This phenomenon is known as the Grande Hémorragie and threatened the survival of the Canadien nation. The massive British immigration ordered from London that followed the failed rebellion, compounded this. To combat it, the Church adopted the revenge of the cradle policy. In 1844, the capital of the Province of Canada was moved from Kingston to Montreal. Political unrest came to
20664-459: The norm." The sociolinguist William Labov recorded the change in pronunciation in a relatively short period in the American resort of Martha's Vineyard and showed how this resulted from social tensions and processes. Even in the relatively short time that broadcast media have recorded their work, one can observe the difference between the pronunciation of the newsreaders of the 1940s and
20832-665: The north shore of Lake Ontario to anyone willing to swear allegiance to George III. During the War of 1812 , Charles-Michel de Salaberry became a hero by leading the Canadian troops to victory at the Battle of the Chateauguay . This loss caused the Americans to abandon the Saint Lawrence Campaign, their major strategic effort to conquer Canada. Gradually, the Legislative Assembly of Lower Canada , who represented
21000-421: The orthographic symbol and the primary phonetic values for each vowel. The long nasal vowels are iinh ( [ĩː] ), enh ( [ẽː] ), aanh ( [ãː] ), and oonh ( [õː] ). They most commonly occur in the final syllable of nouns with diminutive suffixes or words with a diminutive connotation, as well as in the suffix (y)aanh ([- (j)ãː] ) 'first person (Conjunct) Animate Intransitive'. Orthographically
21168-584: The people, came into conflict with the superior authority of the Crown and its appointed representatives . Starting in 1791, the government of Lower Canada was criticized and contested by the Parti canadien . In 1834, the Parti canadien presented its 92 resolutions , political demands which expressed loss of confidence in the British monarchy . Discontentment intensified throughout the public meetings of 1837, and
21336-448: The phonetic value [h] : aa haaw 'OK'. Language change Language change is the process of alteration in the features of a single language , or of languages in general, across a period of time. It is studied in several subfields of linguistics : historical linguistics , sociolinguistics , and evolutionary linguistics . Traditional theories of historical linguistics identify three main types of change: systematic change in
21504-425: The population is predominantly of Ottawa origin, the language is called Ottawa , and has features that set it off from other communities that have significant populations of Southwestern Ojibwe (Chippewa) and Potawatomi descent. In the latter communities, the language is called Chippewa but is still clearly Ottawa. Dialect features found in "Ottawa Ottawa" that distinguish it from "Chippewa Ottawa" include deletion of
21672-657: The pronunciation of phonemes , or sound change ; borrowing , in which features of a language or dialect are introduced or altered as a result of influence from another language or dialect; and analogical change , in which the shape or grammatical behavior of a word is altered to more closely resemble that of another word. Language change usually does not occur suddenly, but rather takes place via an extended period of variation , during which new and old linguistic features coexist. All living languages are continually undergoing change. Some commentators use derogatory labels such as "corruption" to suggest that language change constitutes
21840-516: The pronunciation of one phoneme changes to become identical to that of another phoneme, the two original phonemes can merge into a single phoneme, reducing the total number of phonemes the language contains. Determining the exact course of sound change in historical languages can pose difficulties, since the technology of sound recording dates only from the 19th century, and thus sound changes before that time must be inferred from written texts. The orthographical practices of historical writers provide
22008-413: The properties of earlier, un attested languages and hypothesize sound changes that may have taken place in them. The study of lexical changes forms the diachronic portion of the science of onomasiology . The ongoing influx of new words into the English language (for example) helps make it a rich field for investigation into language change, despite the difficulty of defining precisely and accurately
22176-498: The province of Quebec, initially composed of the historic heart of the territory of the French Canadian nation and where French Canadians would most likely retain majority status. Following the London Conference of 1866 , the Quebec Resolutions were implemented as the British North America Act, 1867 and brought into force on July 1, 1867, creating Canada. Canada was composed of four founding provinces: New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Ontario and Quebec. These last two came from splitting
22344-399: The reanalysis of person prefixes and word stems; the loss of final /-n/ in certain inflectional suffixes; a distinctive form for the verbal suffix indicating doubt; and a distinctive form for the verbal suffix indicating plurality on intransitive verbs with grammatically inanimate subjects. The most significant of the morphological innovations that characterize Ottawa is the restructuring of
22512-437: The reasons in the world why society should never let the changes through." He sees the reason for tolerating change in the fact that we already are used to " synchronic variation ", to the extent that we are hardly aware of it. For example, when we hear the word "wicked", we automatically interpret it as either "evil" or "wonderful", depending on whether it is uttered by an elderly lady or a teenager. Deutscher speculates that "[i]n
22680-413: The referendum, Lévesque went back to Ottawa to start negotiating constitutional changes. On November 4, 1981, the Kitchen Accord took place. Delegations from the other nine provinces and the federal government reached an agreement in the absence of Quebec's delegation, which had left for the night. Because of this, the National Assembly refused to recognize the new Constitution Act, 1982 , which patriated
22848-441: The reform was initiated in early 1930s), with newly coined pure Turkish neologisms created by adding suffixes to Turkish word stems (Lewis, 1999). Can and Patton (2010), based on their observations of the change of a specific word use (more specifically in newer works the preference of ama over fakat , both borrowed from Arabic and meaning "but", and their inverse usage correlation is statistically significant), also speculate that
23016-534: The relevant set of phonemes appears, rather than each word's pronunciation changing independently of each other. The degree to which the Neogrammarian hypothesis is an accurate description of how sound change takes place, rather than a useful approximation, is controversial; but it has proven extremely valuable to historical linguistics as a heuristic , and enabled the development of methodologies of comparative reconstruction and internal reconstruction that allow linguists to extrapolate backwards from known languages to
23184-427: The results of the Seven Years' War in Europe, New France was put under a British military regime led by Governor James Murray . In 1762, Commander Jeffery Amherst ended the French presence in Newfoundland at the Battle of Signal Hill . France secretly ceded the western part of Louisiana and the Mississippi River Delta to Spain via the Treaty of Fontainebleau . On February 10, 1763, the Treaty of Paris concluded
23352-457: The same connection to the British Empire and there was no direct threat to Canada, French Canadians saw no reason to fight. By late 1916, casualties were beginning to cause reinforcement problems. After enormous difficulty in the federal government, because almost every French-speaking MP opposed conscription while almost all English-speaking MPs supported it, the Military Service Act became law on August 29, 1917. French Canadians protested in what
23520-480: The same token, they may tag some words eventually as "archaic" or "obsolete". Standardisation of spelling originated centuries ago. Differences in spelling often catch the eye of a reader of a text from a previous century. The pre-print era had fewer literate people: languages lacked fixed systems of orthography, and the manuscripts that survived often show words spelled according to regional pronunciation and to personal preference. Semantic changes are shifts in
23688-402: The seigneurial system was abolished, the Grand Trunk Railway was built and the Canadian–American Reciprocity Treaty was implemented. In 1866, the Civil Code of Lower Canada was adopted. In 1864, negotiations began for Canadian Confederation between the Province of Canada, New Brunswick and Nova Scotia at the Charlottetown Conference and Quebec Conference . After having fought as
23856-412: The simple deletion of vowels in the prefixes, Ottawa has created new variants for each prefix. Restructuring of the person prefixes is discussed in detail in Ottawa morphology . Syntax refers to patterns for combining words and phrases to make clauses and sentences . Verbal and nominal inflectional morphology are central to Ottawa syntax, as they mark grammatical information on verbs and nouns to
24024-475: The single symbols used for the short vowels ⟨i⟩ , ⟨o⟩ , ⟨a⟩ . The long vowel /eː/ does not have a corresponding short vowel, and is written with a single e . The phonological distinction between long and short vowels plays a significant role in Ottawa phonology, as only short vowels can be metrically weak and undergo syncope . Long vowels are always metrically strong and never undergo deletion. The table below gives
24192-421: The sounds w and y between vowels, glottalization of w before consonants, changes in vowel quality adjacent to w , and distinctive intonation. Ottawa has seventeen consonants and seven oral vowels ; there are also long nasal vowels whose phonological status is unclear. In this article, Ottawa words are written in the modern orthography described below, with phonetic transcriptions in brackets using
24360-477: The spring of 1760, the Chevalier de Lévis besieged Quebec City and forced the British to entrench themselves during the Battle of Sainte-Foy . However, loss of French vessels sent to resupply New France after the fall of Quebec City during the Battle of Restigouche marked the end of France's efforts to retake the colony. Governor Pierre de Rigaud, marquis de Vaudreuil-Cavagnial signed the Articles of Capitulation of Montreal on September 8, 1760. While awaiting
24528-406: The story goes'. Other discussions of Ottawa phonology and phonetics are silent on the issue. Ottawa shares the general grammatical characteristics of the other dialects of Ojibwe . Word classes include nouns , verbs , grammatical particles , pronouns , preverbs , and prenouns . Ottawa grammatical gender classifies nouns as either animate or inanimate. Transitive verbs encode the gender of
24696-439: The summer and −40 °C (−40 °F) during the Quebec winter, Most of central Quebec, ranging from 51 to 58 degrees North has a subarctic climate (Köppen Dfc ). Winters are long, very cold, and snowy, and among the coldest in eastern Canada, while summers are warm but very short due to the higher latitude and the greater influence of Arctic air masses. Precipitation is also somewhat less than farther south, except at some of
24864-465: The summer, severe weather patterns (such as tornadoes and severe thunderstorms ) occur occasionally. Quebec is divided into four climatic zones: arctic, subarctic, humid continental and East maritime. From south to north, average temperatures range in summer between 25 and 5 °C (77 and 41 °F) and, in winter, between −10 and −25 °C (14 and −13 °F). In periods of intense heat and cold, temperatures can reach 35 °C (95 °F) in
25032-450: The syntactic component or the eventual result of phonological or morphological change. The sociolinguist Jennifer Coates, following William Labov, describes linguistic change as occurring in the context of linguistic heterogeneity . She explains that "[l]inguistic change can be said to have taken place when a new linguistic form, used by some sub-group within a speech community, is adopted by other members of that community and accepted as
25200-437: The term " Canadian ", referring to Canada, their place of residence. The French population, who had thus far identified as "Canadiens", began to be identified with their ethnic community under the name " French Canadian " as they were a "French of Canada". As access to new lands remained problematic because they were still monopolized by the Clique du Château , an exodus of Canadiens towards New England began and went on for
25368-529: The terms language and dialect are used. Languages spoken in a series of dialects occupying adjacent territory form a dialect continuum or language complex, with some of the dialects being mutually intelligible while others are not. Adjacent dialects typically have relatively high degrees of mutual intelligibility, but the degree of mutual intelligibility between nonadjacent dialects varies considerably. In some cases, speakers of nonadjacent dialects may not understand each other's speech. A survey conducted during
25536-432: The territory of Nunavut . To the north, it is flanked by major bodies of water such as James Bay , Hudson Bay , Hudson Strait , Ungava Bay , Arctic and Atlantic Oceans, and in the south, it shares a border with the United States . It is the second-largest province by population , with the majority of its population residing in the St. Lawrence River valley, which contains its most populous city of Montreal and
25704-719: The three person prefixes that occur on both nouns and verbs. The prefixes carry grammatical information about grammatical person (first, second, or third). Syncope modifies the pronunciation of the prefixes by deleting the short vowel in each prefix. The third-person prefix /o-/ , which occurs with both nouns and verbs, is completely eliminated in Ottawa. As a result, there is no grammatical marker to indicate third-person on inflected forms of nouns or verbs. For example, where other dialects have jiimaan 'a canoe' with no person prefix, and ojimaan 'his/her canoe' with prefix o- , Ottawa has jiimaan meaning either 'canoe' or 'his/her canoe' (with no prefix, because of syncope). Apart from
25872-448: The total area of Quebec. The Canadian boreal forest is the northernmost and most abundant of the three forest areas in Quebec that straddle the Canadian Shield and the upper lowlands of the province. Given a warmer climate, the diversity of organisms is also higher: there are about 850 plant species and 280 vertebrate species. The mixed forest is a transition zone between the Canadian boreal forest and deciduous forest . This area contains
26040-416: The unemployment rate increased from 8% to 26%. In an attempt to remedy this, the Quebec government enacted infrastructure projects, campaigns to colonize distant regions, financial assistance to farmers, and the secours directs – the ancestor to Canada's Employment Insurance . French Canadians remained opposed to conscription during the Second World War. When Canada declared war in September 1939,
26208-527: The various functions a language 'is called upon' to fulfil in the society which uses it". Over a sufficiently long period of time, changes in a language can accumulate to such an extent that it is no longer recognizable as the same language. For instance, modern English is the result of centuries of language change applying to Old English , even though modern English is extremely divergent from Old English in grammar, vocabulary, and pronunciation. The two may be thought of as distinct languages, but Modern English
26376-415: The vocabulary available to speakers of English. Throughout its history , English has not only borrowed words from other languages but has re-combined and recycled them to create new meanings, whilst losing some old words . Dictionary-writers try to keep track of the changes in languages by recording (and, ideally, dating) the appearance in a language of new words, or of new usages for existing words. By
26544-497: The vocabulary items in each set are found in other dialects, taken as a group each is uniquely Ottawa. Ottawa uses a set of demonstrative pronouns that contains terms unique to Ottawa, while other words in the set are shared with other Ojibwe dialects. Taken as a group the Ottawa set is distinctive. The following chart shows the demonstrative pronouns for: (a) Wikwemikong, an Ottawa community; (b) Curve Lake, an Eastern Ojibwe community; and (c) Cape Croker, an Ottawa community that uses
26712-416: The war. France ceded its North American possessions to Great Britain. Thus, France had put an end to New France and abandoned the remaining 60,000 Canadiens, who sided with the Catholic clergy in refusing to take an oath to the British Crown . The rupture from France would provoke a transformation within the descendants of the Canadiens that would eventually result in the birth of a new nation . After
26880-468: The word "wicked" is undergoing amelioration in colloquial contexts, shifting from its original sense of 'evil', to the much more positive one as of 2009 of 'brilliant'. Words' meanings may also change in terms of the breadth of their semantic domain. Narrowing a word limits its alternative meanings, whereas broadening associates new meanings with it. For example, "hound" ( Old English hund ) once referred to any dog, whereas in modern English it denotes only
27048-465: The word length increase can influence the common word choice preferences of authors. Kadochnikov (2016) analyzes the political and economic logic behind the development of the Russian language. Ever since the emergence of the unified Russian state in the 15th and 16th centuries the government played a key role in standardizing the Russian language and developing its prescriptive norms with the fundamental goal of ensuring that it can be efficiently used as
27216-437: The world's renewable fresh water . More than half a million lakes and 4,500 rivers empty into the Atlantic Ocean , through the Gulf of Saint Lawrence and the Arctic Ocean , by James , Hudson , and Ungava bays. The largest inland body of water is the Caniapiscau Reservoir ; Lake Mistassini is the largest natural lake. The Saint Lawrence River has some of the world's largest sustaining inland Atlantic ports. Since 1959,
27384-421: Was a period of modernization, secularization and social reform, where French Canadians expressed their concern and dissatisfaction with their inferior socioeconomic position , and the cultural assimilation of francophone minorities in the English-majority provinces. It resulted in the formation of the modern Québécois identity and Quebec nationalism . In 1960, the Liberal Party of Quebec was brought to power with
27552-441: Was introduced by European explorers, missionaries and traders who were speakers of English and French. They wrote Ottawa words and sentences using their own languages' letters and orthographic conventions, adapting them to the unfamiliar new language. Indigenous writing in Ottawa was also based upon English or French, but only occurred sporadically through the 19th and 20th centuries. Modern focus on literacy and use of written forms of
27720-436: Was little immigration, the colony grew because of the Habitants' high birth rates. In 1665, the Carignan-Salières regiment developed the string of fortifications known as the "Valley of Forts" to protect against Iroquois invasions and brought with them 1,200 new men. To redress the gender imbalance and boost population growth, King Louis XIV sponsored the passage of approximately 800 young French women ( King's Daughters ) to
27888-417: Was the primary communication route between New France and France, and Acadia contained 5,000 Acadians . In the siege of Louisbourg (1745) , the British were victorious, but returned the city to France after war concessions. The last of the four French and Indian Wars was the Seven Years' War ("The War of the Conquest " in Quebec) and lasted from 1754 to 1763. In 1754, tensions escalated for control of
28056-412: Was the warmest and driest recorded in more than 60 years. Given the geology of the province and its different climates, there are a number of large areas of vegetation in Quebec. These areas, listed in order from the northernmost to the southernmost are: the tundra , the taiga , the Canadian boreal forest (coniferous), mixed forest and deciduous forest. On the edge of Ungava Bay and Hudson Strait
28224-423: Was −51.0 °C (−59.8 °F). The all-time record of the greatest precipitation in winter was established in winter 2007–2008, with more than five metres of snow in the area of Quebec City. March 1971, however, saw the " Century's Snowstorm " with more than 40 cm (16 in) in Montreal to 80 cm (31 in) in Mont Apica of snow within 24 hours in many regions of southern Quebec. The winter of 2010
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