187-559: The Space & Upper Atmosphere Research Commission , commonly referred to as SUPARCO , is the national space agency of Pakistan . The agency, originally established in 1961 as a committee in Karachi, became an independent commission in 1981. Its initial objective was to learn rocketry and high altitude research from the United States, which ultimately led to the development of a national satellite program. This culminated in
374-450: A Pew Research Center (PEW) poll, favor Sharia law as the official law, and 94 percent of them identify more with religion than nationality compared to Muslims in other nations. Pakistan, a federal parliamentary republic , consists of four provinces : Punjab, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Sindh, and Balochistan, along with three territories : Islamabad Capital Territory , Gilgit-Baltistan , and Azad Kashmir . The Government of Pakistan governs
561-548: A military coup in 1977 against the leftist PPP, which saw General Zia-ul-Haq become the president in 1978. From 1977 to 1988, President Zia's corporatisation and economic Islamisation initiatives led to Pakistan becoming one of the fastest-growing economies in South Asia. While building up the country's nuclear program , increasing Islamisation , and the rise of a homegrown conservative philosophy, Pakistan helped subsidise and distribute US resources to factions of
748-774: A supermajority in elections in 1997, Nawaz Sharif authorised nuclear testings , as a retaliation to the second nuclear tests conducted by India in May 1998. Military tension between the two countries in the Kargil district led to the Kargil War of 1999, and turmoil in civil-military relations allowed General Pervez Musharraf to take over through a bloodless coup d'état . Musharraf governed Pakistan as chief executive from 1999 to 2002 and as president from 2001 to 2008 —a period of enlightenment , social liberalism , extensive economic reforms , and direct involvement in
935-410: A "red streak" crossing the northern sky. Among those in attendance at the program's final launch were astronauts Neil Armstrong and Dick Gordon, as well as centenarian Charlie Smith , who alleged he was 130 years old at the time of Apollo 17. The ascent resulted in an orbit with an altitude and velocity almost exactly that which had been planned. In the hours following the launch, Apollo 17 orbited
1122-481: A 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 7.42/10, ranking 41st globally out of 172 countries. Pakistan operates as a democratic parliamentary federal republic , with Islam designated as the state religion . Initially adopting a constitution in 1956 , Pakistan saw it suspended by Ayub Khan in 1958, replaced by a second constitution in 1962. A comprehensive constitution emerged in 1973, suspended by Zia-ul-Haq in 1977 but reinstated in 1985, shaping
1309-488: A Chinese spacecraft. In cooperation with CNSA , Pakistan sent its first lunar orbiter mission called ICUBE-Q along with Chang'e 6 . In 2019, the commission reached out to United Arab Emirates Space Agency to take part in the Global Space Congress for the first time held at Abu Dhabi , where they held an exhibition on their satellite-related projects. In December 2006, Turkey showed interest to form
1496-601: A Launch Escape System (LES). The LES contained a rocket motor that would propel the CM to safety in the event of an aborted mission in the moments after launch, while the SLA housed the LM during the launch and early part of the flight. The LES was jettisoned after the launch vehicle ascended to the point that it was not needed, while the SLA was left atop the S-IVB third stage of the rocket after
1683-445: A Lonosonde observation facility, and recently the balloon flight mission was carried out by the station on 16 January 2004, up to an altitude of about 36 km to measure the vertical profile of the O 3 trends. The maximum O 3 observed 12.65 mPa at 27 km. One of the most notable mission of SUPARCO is its Lunar program that conducts observational studies on the activity of Lunar phases and distributes its publications within
1870-598: A Lunar Roving Vehicle. In addition to being used by the astronauts for transport from station to station on the mission's three moonwalks, the LRV was used to transport the astronauts' tools, communications equipment, and the lunar samples they gathered. The Apollo 17 LRV was also used to carry some of the scientific instruments, such as the Traverse Gravimeter Experiment (TGE) and Surface Electrical Properties (SEP) experiment. The Apollo 17 LRV traveled
2057-461: A NASA geologist/pilot, Dick Laidley, over geologic features, with part of the exercise conducted at 40,000 feet (12,000 m), and part at 1,000 feet (300 m) to 5,000 feet (1,500 m). The higher altitude was equivalent to what could be seen from the planned lunar orbit of about 60 nmi with binoculars. Evans would be briefed for several hours before each exercise, and given study guides; afterwards, there would be debriefing and evaluation. Evans
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#17327881210892244-408: A blend of socialism , conservatism , and the third way , with the three main political parties being the conservative PML (N), socialist PPP, and centrist PTI. Constitutional amendments in 2010 curtailed presidential powers, enhancing the role of the prime minister. Pakistan, the only country established in the name of Islam, had overwhelming support among Muslims, especially in provinces like
2431-574: A cool, dry winter from December through February; a hot, dry spring from March through May; the summer rainy season, or southwest monsoon period, from June through September; and the retreating monsoon period of October and November. Rainfall varies greatly from year to year, with patterns of alternate flooding and drought common. The diverse landscape and climate in Pakistan support a wide range of trees and plants. From coniferous alpine and subalpine trees like spruce , pine , and deodar cedar in
2618-542: A cumulative distance of approximately 35.7 km (22.2 mi) in a total drive time of about four hours and twenty-six minutes; the greatest distance Cernan and Schmitt traveled from the lunar module was about 7.6 km (4.7 mi). This was the only mission to carry the TGE, which was built by Draper Laboratory at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology . As gravimeters had been useful in studying
2805-471: A depth of one meter takes about a billion years. Apollo 17's CM carried a biological cosmic ray experiment (BIOCORE), containing five mice that had been implanted with radiation monitors under their scalps to see whether they suffered damage from cosmic rays. These animals were placed in individual metal tubes inside a sealed container that had its own oxygen supply, and flown on the mission. All five were pocket mice ( Perognathus longimembris ); this species
2992-632: A devastating cyclone in East Pakistan resulting in 500,000 deaths. In 1970, Pakistan conducted its first democratic elections since independence, intending to transition from military rule to democracy. However, after the East Pakistani Awami League emerged victorious over the Pakistan Peoples Party (PPP), Yahya Khan and the military refused to transfer power. This led to Operation Searchlight ,
3179-603: A joint-venture with Asia-Pacific Space Cooperation Organization where Pakistan is a member. In 2006, Turkish minister of science, accompanied by the Turkish Ambassador to Pakistan, signed the Memorandum of understanding (MOU) with Pakistan to form a joint-venture with Pakistan in the development of satellite technology. The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey and Turkish Aerospace Industries 's senior ranking officials and representative signed
3366-553: A lack of funds, led to a significant setback for SUPARCO. This ultimately resulted in the loss of two orbital slots between 1993 and 1994. To secure a priority slot, the agency negotiated with Hughes Satellite Systems to acquire PakSAT-1 , a geo-stationary satellite originally intended for Indonesia. As per the National Space Policy of Pakistan approved in 2024, SUPARCO as the National Space Agency
3553-508: A landing in a region southwest of Mare Crisium was rejected on the grounds that a Soviet spacecraft could easily access the site and retrieve samples; Luna 20 ultimately did so shortly after the Apollo 17 site selection was made. Schmitt advocated for a landing on the far side of the Moon until told by Director of Flight Operations Christopher C. Kraft that it would not happen as NASA lacked
3740-678: A maritime border with Oman in the Gulf of Oman, and is separated from Tajikistan in the northwest by Afghanistan's narrow Wakhan Corridor . Pakistan is the site of several ancient cultures , including the 8,500-year-old Neolithic site of Mehrgarh in Balochistan , the Indus Valley Civilisation of the Bronze Age , and the ancient Gandhara civilisation . The regions that compose the modern state of Pakistan were
3927-729: A military crackdown, and eventually sparked the war of liberation by Bengali Mukti Bahini forces in East Pakistan, described in West Pakistan as a civil war rather than a liberation struggle. Independent researchers estimate that between 300,000 and 500,000 civilians died during this period while the Bangladesh government puts the number of dead at three million, a figure that is now nearly universally regarded as excessively inflated. Some academics such as Rudolph Rummel and Rounaq Jahan say both sides committed genocide; others such as Richard Sisson and Leo E. Rose believe there
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#17327881210894114-688: A multinational humanitarian programme for satellite–aided search and rescue , the International Cospas-Sarsat Programme . In 1990, the Government of Pakistan accorded approval for SUPARCO's participation in the Cospas program as ground segment provider and lead space station with close coordination with the Soviet Union. Over the years, the mission control center has equipped itself with advanced technology and
4301-405: A national balloon launching facility in Karachi to conduct studies in atmospheric sciences to determine the vertical profile of ozone up to 30–35 km. This balloon sounding facility has been extensively used for carrying out research in better understanding of the meteorology and how the ozone layer vary seasonally in the stratosphere and troposphere. The Ionospheric Station at Karachi operates
4488-546: A new area, Cernan would perform tasks such as adjusting the antenna on the Lunar Roving Vehicle so as to transmit to Earth while Schmitt gave a report on the geological aspects of the site. The scientists in the geology "backroom" relied on Schmitt's reports to adjust the tasks planned for that site, which would be transmitted to the CapCom and then to Cernan and Schmitt. According to William R. Muehlberger , one of
4675-419: A number of scientists, engineers and researchers stake-holders participate. In August 2006, People's Republic of China signed an agreement with Pakistan to conduct joint research in space technology and committed to work with Pakistan to launch three Earth-weather satellites over the next five years. In May 2007, China (as a strategic partner) publicly signed an agreement with Pakistan to enhance cooperation in
4862-459: A pivotal player in Pakistan's satellite navigation landscape. Its involvement extends to the entire spectrum of satellite navigation, encompassing the design and development of space, ground, and user segments. It has established a Ground Based Augmentation System (GBAS) on a proof of concept basis to provide correction signals to authorized users. Additionally, SUPARCO has deployed a Space Based Augmentation System (SBAS) via PakSAT-MM1 to cater to
5049-433: A professional geologist on matters within his field. Cernan also had to adjust for the loss of Engle, with whom he had trained for Apollo 14. In spite of these issues, Cernan and Schmitt worked well together as a team, and Cernan became adept at describing what he was seeing on geology field trips, and working independently of Schmitt when necessary. The landing crew aimed for a division of labor so that, when they arrived in
5236-463: A result of a coalition between PML (N) and PPPP. Pakistan's diverse geography and climate host a wide array of wildlife . Covering 881,913 km (340,509 sq mi), Pakistan's size is comparable to France and the UK combined. It ranks as the 33rd-largest nation by total area , but this varies based on Kashmir's disputed status. Pakistan boasts a 1,046 km (650 mi) coastline along
5423-632: A separate accord with the SUPARCO to enhance the cooperation in the satellite development program. University of the Punjab , Lahore Pakistan Pakistan , officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan , is a country in South Asia . It is the fifth-most populous country , with a population of over 241.5 million, having the second-largest Muslim population as of 2023. Islamabad
5610-547: A set of detectors to measure the characteristics of the dust particles it sought. It was hoped that the LEME would detect dust impacting the Moon from elsewhere, such as from comets or interstellar space, but analysis showed that it primarily detected dust moving at slow speeds across the lunar surface. All powered ALSEP experiments that remained active were deactivated on September 30, 1977, principally because of budgetary constraints. Like Apollo 15 and 16, Apollo 17 carried
5797-572: A single program focused on theoretical and observational studies. This program explores vast topics like quantum mechanics , deep space objects, dark matter and energy, supernovae, nebulae, and galaxies. Aligned with Pakistan's official space policy, it also aims to strengthen public understanding of physics and mathematics through educational initiatives like academic bulletins and public events celebrating astronomy milestones. This program fosters collaboration with international space agencies and builds upon public interest sparked by SUPARCO's celebration of
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5984-820: A united Islamic bloc, called Islamistan, wasn't supported by other Muslim governments, though figures like the Grand Mufti of Palestine, Al-Haj Amin al-Husseini , and leaders of the Muslim Brotherhood were drawn to the country. Pakistan's desire for an international organization of Muslim countries was fulfilled in the 1970s when the Organization of Islamic Conference (OIC) was formed. East Pakistan's Bengali Muslims, opposed to an Islamist state, clashed with West Pakistanis who leaned towards Islamic identity. The Islamist party Jamaat-e-Islami backed an Islamic state and opposed Bengali nationalism . After
6171-703: Is a signatory to all five United Nations treaties governing the peaceful uses of outer space. ISNET was established in 1987 by the Organization of Islamic Cooperation (OIC) Standing Committee on Scientific and Technological Cooperation (COMSTECH) and SUPARCO hosted the founding meeting of the Network at Karachi. The secretariat of ISNET is located within SUPARCO and Chairman SUPARCO is the ex-officio President of ISNET. ISNET has 17 member states and it organises different international conferences, seminars, workshops, training courses related to space science, technology and satellite application in different member states in which
6358-784: Is an ethnically and linguistically diverse country, with similarly diverse geography and wildlife . The country continues to face challenges, including poverty , illiteracy , corruption , and terrorism . Pakistan is a member of the United Nations, the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation , the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation , the Commonwealth of Nations , the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation , and
6545-557: Is both a Persian and Urdu word... It means the land of the Paks, the spiritually pure and clean." Etymologists note that پاک pāk , is 'pure' in Persian and Pashto and the Persian suffix ـستان -stan means 'land' or 'place of'. Rahmat Ali's concept of Pakistan only related to the northwestern area of the Indian subcontinent . He also proposed the name "Banglastan" for
6732-638: Is capable of distributing distress alert data to rescue coordination centres in the country. SUPARCO has been a pioneer in introducing Remote Sensing/GIS and allied technologies in Pakistan, providing turnkey solutions and services to diverse users across various fields. These applications range from agriculture and forestry to disaster management, water resources, environmental monitoring, urban planning, and coastal and marine studies. SUPARCO's expertise extends to climate change and environmental degradation, utilizing ground-based observations and satellite data for now-casting and forecasting environmental indicators in
6919-438: Is considered a middle power nation, with the world's sixth-largest standing armed forces . It is a declared nuclear-weapons state , and is ranked amongst the emerging and growth-leading economies, with a large and rapidly growing middle class. Pakistan's political history since independence has been characterized by periods of significant economic and military growth as well as those of political and economic instability. It
7106-678: Is divided into three major geographic areas: the northern highlands, the Indus River plain, and the Balochistan Plateau. The northern highlands feature the Karakoram , Hindu Kush , and Pamir mountain ranges, hosting some of the world's highest peaks, including five of the fourteen eight-thousanders (mountain peaks over 8,000 metres or 26,250 feet), notably K2 (8,611 m or 28,251 ft) and Nanga Parbat (8,126 m or 26,660 ft). The Balochistan Plateau lies in
7293-428: Is mandated to carry out all activities related to outer space which includes but not limited to the following: The PakSAT program is the national communication satellites program of the commission conceived in 1979–80. The program is envisioned to consist of two geostationary communication satellites – one operating in 38°E orbit and other at 41°E, respectively. The PakSAT program was originally designed to develop
7480-566: Is the nation's capital, while Karachi is its largest city and financial centre . Pakistan is the 33rd-largest country by area . Bounded by the Arabian Sea on the south, the Gulf of Oman on the southwest, and the Sir Creek on the southeast, it shares land borders with India to the east ; Afghanistan to the west ; Iran to the southwest ; and China to the northeast . It shares
7667-868: Is the only animal found in significant numbers in Cholistan , with a few nilgai along the Pakistan–India border and in some parts of Cholistan. Rare animals include the snow leopard and the blind Indus river dolphin , of which there are believed to be about 1,816 remaining, protected at the Indus Dolphin Reserve in Sindh. In total, 174 species of mammals, 177 species of reptiles, 22 species of amphibians, 198 species of freshwater fish, 668 species of birds, over 5,000 species of insects, and over 5,700 species of plants have been recorded in Pakistan. Pakistan faces deforestation, hunting, and pollution, with
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7854-786: The Anglo-Sikh Wars (1845–1849), and the Anglo-Afghan Wars (1839–1919). By 1893, all modern Pakistan was part of the British Indian Empire , and remained so until independence in 1947. Under British rule, modern Pakistan was primarily divided into the Sind Division , Punjab Province , and the Baluchistan Agency . The region also included various princely states , with the largest being Bahawalpur . The major armed struggle against
8041-684: The Apollo 17 astronauts. In 1973, the Islamabad Ionospheric Station was established at the Quaid-e-Azam University and Landsat ground station was established near Lahore. Following the cessation of U.S. funding for upper atmosphere research in 1972 and the prioritization of nuclear weapons programs after the 1971 war with India, SUPARCO experienced a significant decline in funding and support. Engineers with backgrounds in nuclear engineering were transferred to
8228-556: The British Commonwealth , Pakistan officially drafted its constitution in 1956, and emerged as a declared Islamic republic . In 1971, the exclave of East Pakistan seceded as the new country of Bangladesh after a nine-month-long civil war . In the following four decades, Pakistan has been ruled by governments whose descriptions, although complex, commonly alternated between civilian and military, democratic and authoritarian, relatively secular and Islamist. Pakistan
8415-572: The Durrani Empire of Afghanistan in 1759. The growing political power of the British in Bengal had not yet reached the territories of modern Pakistan. None of modern Pakistan was under British rule until 1839 when Karachi , a small fishing village governed by Talpurs of Sindh with a mud fort guarding the harbour, was taken , and used as an enclave with a port and military base for
8602-738: The First Afghan War that ensued. The remainder of Sindh was acquired in 1843, and subsequently, through a series of wars and treaties, the East India Company , and later, after the post- Sepoy Mutiny (1857–1858), direct rule by Queen Victoria of the British Empire , acquired most of the region. Key conflicts included those against the Baloch Talpur dynasty , resolved by the Battle of Miani (1843) in Sindh,
8789-605: The Greco-Buddhist culture in the region. Taxila had one of the earliest universities and centres of higher education in the world, which was established during the late Vedic period in the 6th century BCE. The ancient university was documented by the invading forces of Alexander the Great and was also recorded by Chinese pilgrims in the 4th or 5th century CE. At its zenith, the Rai dynasty (489–632 CE) ruled Sindh and
8976-626: The Indian pangolin , the jungle cat , and the sand cat . Indus is home to mugger crocodiles , while surrounding areas host wild boars , deer, and porcupines . Central Pakistan's sandy scrublands shelter Asiatic jackals, striped hyenas , wildcats, and leopards . The mountainous north hosts a variety of animals like the Marco Polo sheep , urial , markhor goat, ibex goat, Asian black bear , and Himalayan brown bear . The lack of vegetative cover, severe climate, and grazing impact on deserts have endangered wild animals. The chinkara
9163-678: The International Year of Astronomy in 2009 which was widely appreciated by the public. Since its establishment, a total of nine important publications has been released under the auspicious of this program with the last volume was issued in September 2012. SUPARCO has been actively involved in space weather monitoring for over five decades, utilizing a nationwide network of ground-based sensors. As Pakistan's reliance on satellites for critical services like communication, navigation, and earth observation increases, SUPARCO has established
9350-695: The Islamic Military Counter-Terrorism Coalition , and is designated as a major non-NATO ally by the United States. The name Pakistan was coined by Choudhry Rahmat Ali , a Pakistan Movement activist, who in January 1933 first published it (originally as "Pakstan") in a pamphlet Now or Never , using it as an acronym . Rahmat Ali explained: "It is composed of letters taken from the names of all our homelands, Indian and Asian, P anjab , A fghania , K ashmir , S indh , and Baluchis tan ." He added, "Pakistan
9537-697: The North-West Frontier Province , West Punjab , and Sindh. In the riots that accompanied the partition in Punjab Province, between 200,000 and 2,000,000 people were killed in what some have described as a retributive genocide between the religions. Around 50,000 Muslim women were abducted and raped by Hindu and Sikh men, while 33,000 Hindu and Sikh women experienced the same fate at the hands of Muslims. Around 6.5 million Muslims moved from India to West Pakistan and 4.7 million Hindus and Sikhs moved from West Pakistan to India. It
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#17327881210899724-728: The Pakistan Movement , which sought a homeland for the Muslims of British India , and election victories in 1946 by the All-India Muslim League , Pakistan gained independence in 1947 after the Partition of the British Indian Empire , which awarded separate statehood to its Muslim-majority regions and was accompanied by an unparalleled mass migration and loss of life. Initially a Dominion of
9911-655: The Pakistan Radio Society (PRS) and the University of Surrey in England enabled SUPARCO to participate in satellite engineering projects, contributing to the development of UoSAT-1 and UO-11 , which were launched in 1984. Pakistan's communication satellite program also led to the expansion of a ground station in Lahore in 1983. SUPARCO began constructing its first satellite, Badr-1 , in 1983, and it
10098-414: The Pakistan Space Weather Center , which employs an array of instruments to observe space weather phenomena in real time. Processed data, including HF communication products, are then disseminated to relevant national users. SUPARCO initiated its Geomagnetic Field Monitoring Program in 1983 at the Sonmiani space facility , establishing a second observatory in Karachi in 2008. This program involves studying
10285-415: The United Provinces , where Muslims were a minority. This idea, articulated by the Muslim League, the Islamic clergy , and Jinnah, envisioned an Islamic state . Jinnah, closely associated with the ulama , was described upon his death by Maulana Shabbir Ahmad Usmani as the greatest Muslim after Aurangzeb , aspiring to unite Muslims worldwide under Islam. The Objectives Resolution of March 1949 marked
10472-426: The Vedic period (1500–500 BCE), bringing with them their distinctive religious traditions and practices which fused with local culture. The Indo-Aryans religious beliefs and practices from the Bactria–Margiana culture and the native Harappan Indus beliefs of the former Indus Valley civilization eventually gave rise to Vedic culture and tribes. Most notable among them was Gandhara civilization , which flourished at
10659-409: The Wallops Flight Facility to learn the rocketry from the United States as Abdus Salam worked on approving to establishing a commission from Ayub administration . A commission to study the upper atmosphere and rocketry was established under Abdus Salam and Ishrat Usmani as its chairman with nuclear engineers from PAEC, Tariq Mustafa and Salim Mehmud , becoming its first members in 1961 through
10846-477: The World Space Week (WSW) to promote the understanding of the Earth science all over the country. SUPARCO works with a number of universities and research institutions to engage in research in observational astronomy and astrophysics. The Institute of Space and Planetary Astrophysics (ISPA) of the Karachi University conducts key research and co-sponsors with international level research programs in astrophysics , with joint ventures of SUPARCO. SUPARCO operates
11033-698: The fifth group of astronauts in 1966, and had been a lieutenant commander in the United States Navy. Schmitt, a civilian, was 37 years old when assigned Apollo 17, had a doctorate in geology from Harvard University , and had been selected in the fourth group of astronauts in 1965. Both Evans and Schmitt were making their first spaceflights. For the backup crews of Apollo 16 and 17, the final Apollo lunar missions, NASA selected astronauts who had already flown Apollo lunar missions, to take advantage of their experience, and avoid investing time and money in training rookies who would be unlikely to ever fly an Apollo mission. The original backup crew for Apollo 17, announced at
11220-456: The most votes in the elections of 2008, appointing party member Yusuf Raza Gilani as Prime Minister. Threatened with impeachment , President Musharraf resigned on 18 August 2008, and was succeeded by Asif Ali Zardari . Clashes with the judicature prompted Gilani's disqualification from the Parliament and as the Prime Minister in June 2012. The general election held in 2013 saw the PML (N) achieve victory, following which Nawaz Sharif
11407-400: The mujahideen against the USSR 's intervention in communist Afghanistan . Pakistan's North-West Frontier Province became a base for the anti-Soviet Afghan fighters, with the province's influential Deobandi ulama playing a significant role in encouraging and organising the 'jihad'. President Zia died in a plane crash in 1988, and Benazir Bhutto , daughter of Zulfikar Ali Bhutto,
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#173278812108911594-508: The secretary-general of the party , the nation's first Prime Minister . From 1947 to 1956, Pakistan was a monarchy within the Commonwealth of Nations, and had two monarchs before it became a republic. The creation of Pakistan was never fully accepted by many British leaders including Lord Mountbatten . Mountbatten expressed his lack of support and faith in the Muslim League's idea of Pakistan. Jinnah refused Mountbatten's offer to serve as Governor-General of Pakistan. When Mountbatten
11781-426: The television receive-only (TVRO) terminals for the receptions of news , entertainment, and educational channels from direct broadcasting satellite dishes . Since 1961, the commission supported and led the early studies on solid-propellant rockets , which it succeeded in developing the Rehbar-I . The Rehbar-I rocket was a derivative based on the U.S. Nike-Cajun , and continued its service until 1972. In 1987,
11968-414: The two-nation theory and led to the establishment of the All-India Muslim League in 1906. In March 1929, in response to the Nehru Report , Muhammad Ali Jinnah , the founder of Pakistan, issued his fourteen points , which included proposals to safeguard the interests of the Muslim minority in a united India. These proposals were rejected. In his December 29, 1930 address, Allama Iqbal advocated
12155-437: The western parts of the Kashmir Region , organized into separate political entities, Azad Kashmir and Gilgit-Baltistan. In 2009, the constitutional assignment ( the Gilgit–Baltistan Empowerment and Self-Governance Order ) granted Gilgit-Baltistan semi-provincial status , providing it with self-government. Apollo 17 Apollo 17 (December 7–19, 1972) was the eleventh and final mission of NASA 's Apollo program ,
12342-455: The "Space Sciences Research Wing" of PAEC. The Commission was first in the Muslim world to start studies in establishing the space program, and was named as "Space and Upper Atmosphere Research Commission" to represent its purpose and mission on 16 September 1961. The Commission working under Abdus Salam was tasked with learning the rocket engineering , and contribution from France and the United States helped start this mission. Foundation of
12529-485: The 1970 general elections, the Parliament crafted the 1973 Constitution . It declared Pakistan an Islamic Republic, with Islam as the state religion, and mandated laws to comply with Islamic teachings laid down in the Quran and Sunnah and that no law repugnant to such injunctions could be enacted. Additionally, it established institutions like the Shariat Court and the Council of Islamic Ideology to interpret and apply Islam. Zulfikar Ali Bhutto faced opposition under
12716-418: The 19th century sailing ships which were given that name, and was a thank-you to the people of the United States. The crew selected the name "Challenger" for the LM in lieu of an alternative, "Heritage". Cernan stated that the selected name "just seemed to describe more of what the future for America really held, and that was a challenge". After Schmitt stepped onto the Moon from Challenger , he stated, "I think
12903-399: The Apollo 13 astronauts, and, fearing another mission in crisis as he ran for re-election, initially decided to omit the funds for Apollo 17 from the budget; he was persuaded to accept a December 1972 date for the mission. Like Apollo 15 and 16, Apollo 17 was slated to be a " J-mission ", an Apollo mission type that featured lunar surface stays of three days, higher scientific capability, and
13090-455: The Apollo spacecraft and had more time for geology training. Launched at 12:33 a.m. Eastern Standard Time (EST) on December 7, 1972, following the only launch-pad delay in the course of the whole Apollo program that was caused by a hardware problem, Apollo 17 was a "J-type" mission that included three days on the lunar surface, expanded scientific capability, and the use of the third Lunar Roving Vehicle (LRV). Cernan and Schmitt landed in
13277-426: The Arabian Sea and the Gulf of Oman, and shares land borders totaling 6,774 km (4,209 mi), including 2,430 km (1,510 mi) with Afghanistan, 523 km (325 mi) with China, 2,912 km (1,809 mi) with India, and 909 km (565 mi) with Iran. It has a maritime border with Oman, and shares a border with Tajikistan via the Wakhan Corridor . Situated at the crossroads of South Asia,
13464-441: The British announced their intention to end rule by June 1948. Following rigorous discussions involving Viceroy of India , Lord Mountbatten of Burma , Muhammad Ali Jinnah of the All-India Muslim League , and Jawaharlal Nehru of Congress, the formal declaration to partition British India into two independent dominions—namely Pakistan and India—was issued by Mountbatten on the evening of 3 June 1947. In Mountbatten's oval office,
13651-600: The British in the region was the rebellion known as the Sepoy Mutiny in 1857. Divergence in the relationship between Hinduism and Islam resulted in significant tension in British India , leading to religious violence. The language controversy further exacerbated tensions between Hindus and Muslims. A Muslim intellectual movement , led by Sir Syed Ahmed Khan to counter the Hindu renaissance , advocated for
13838-464: The CSM and LM separated from it. The launch vehicle, SA-512, was one of fifteen Saturn V rockets built, and was the twelfth to fly. With a weight at launch of 6,529,784 pounds (2,961,860 kg) (116,269 pounds (52,739 kg) of which was attributable to the spacecraft), Apollo 17's vehicle was slightly lighter than Apollo 16, but heavier than every other crewed Apollo mission. The first piece of
14025-505: The Earth while the crew spent time monitoring and checking the spacecraft to ensure its readiness to depart Earth orbit. At 3:46 a.m. EST, the S-IVB third stage was reignited for the 351-second trans-lunar injection burn to propel the spacecraft towards the Moon. Ground controllers chose a faster trajectory for Apollo 17 than originally planned to allow the vehicle to reach lunar orbit at
14212-452: The Earth's internal structure, the objective of this experiment was to do the same on the Moon. The gravimeter was used to obtain relative gravity measurements at the landing site in the immediate vicinity of the lunar module, as well as various locations on the mission's traverse routes. Scientists would then use this data to help determine the geological substructure of the landing site and the surrounding vicinity. Measurements were taken while
14399-483: The Earth's magnetic field and its variations in the South Asian region using data collected from these observatories. The data is used to understand the Earth's magnetic environment and mitigate associated hazards. SUPARCO regularly publishes a public domain bulletin of geomagnetic data, which includes research on the effects of solar flares and severe magnetic storms recorded by the observatories. SUPARCO has been
14586-552: The Great conquered the region by defeating various local rulers, most notably, the King Porus , at Jhelum . It was followed by the Maurya Empire , founded by Chandragupta Maurya and extended by Ashoka the Great , until 185 BCE. The Indo-Greek Kingdom founded by Demetrius of Bactria (180–165 BCE) included Gandhara and Punjab and reached its greatest extent under Menander (165–150 BCE), prospering
14773-731: The Indian National Congress, initially skeptical of the League's representation of Indian Muslims, to acknowledge its significance. Jinnah's emergence as the voice of the Indian Muslims, compelled the British to consider their stance, despite their reluctance to partition India . In a final attempt to prevent partition, they proposed the Cabinet Mission Plan . As the Cabinet Mission failed,
14960-495: The Lunar Neutron Probe was inserted into one of the holes drilled into the surface to collect core samples. It was designed to measure the quantity of neutrons which penetrated to the detectors it bore along its length. This was intended to measure the rate of the "gardening" process on the lunar surface, whereby the regolith on the surface is slowly mixed or buried due to micrometeorites and other events. Placed during
15147-856: The Middle East, and Central Asia, Pakistan's location is geopolitically significant. Geologically, Pakistan straddles the Indus–Tsangpo Suture Zone and the Indian tectonic plate in Sindh and Punjab, while Balochistan and most of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa sit on the Eurasian Plate , primarily on the Iranian plateau . Gilgit-Baltistan and Azad Kashmir, along the Indian plate's edge, are susceptible to powerful earthquakes . Pakistan's landscapes vary from coastal plains to glaciated mountains, offering deserts, forests, hills, and plateaus. Pakistan
15334-661: The Moon. The mission's heavy emphasis on science meant the inclusion of a number of new experiments, including a biological experiment containing five mice that was carried in the command module. Mission planners had two primary goals in deciding on the landing site: to sample lunar highland material older than that at Mare Imbrium and to investigate the possibility of relatively recent volcanic activity . They therefore selected Taurus–Littrow , where formations that had been viewed and pictured from orbit were thought to be volcanic in nature. Since all three crew members had backed up previous Apollo lunar missions, they were familiar with
15521-748: The Mughal period were Multan , Lahore , Peshawar and Thatta , which were chosen as the site of impressive Mughal buildings . In the early 16th century, the region remained under the Mughal Empire . In the 18th century, the slow disintegration of the Mughal Empire was hastened by the emergence of the rival powers of the Maratha Confederacy and later the Sikh Empire , as well as invasions by Nader Shah from Iran in 1739 and
15708-630: The Muslim areas of Bengal and "Osmanistan" for Hyderabad State , as well as a political federation between the three. Some of the earliest ancient human civilisations in South Asia originated from areas encompassing present-day Pakistan. The earliest known inhabitants in the region were Soanian during the Lower Paleolithic , of whom artefacts have been found in the Soan Valley of Punjab . The Indus region , which covers most of
15895-686: The Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission, and the Pakistan Air Force's support for the Rehbar program also ceased. Inspired by India's launch of its first satellite in 1975, SUPARCO began lobbying for Pakistan's own satellite program. In 1981, the Commission was reorganized as an independent federal agency. During the same period, a communication satellite project called PakSAT was initiated. Collaborations with
16082-523: The Pakistan Resolution. By 1942, Britain faced considerable strain during World War II , with India directly threatened by Japanese forces. Britain had pledged voluntary independence for India in exchange for support during the war. However, this pledge included a clause stating that no part of British India would be compelled to join the resulting dominion, which could be interpreted as support for an independent Muslim nation. Congress under
16269-550: The State." — Muhammad Ali Jinnah 's first speech to the Constituent Assembly of Pakistan. Maulana Shabbir Ahmad Usmani , a respected Deobandi alim (scholar) who held the position of Shaykh al-Islam in Pakistan in 1949, and Maulana Mawdudi of Jamaat-i-Islami played key roles in advocating for an Islamic constitution. Mawdudi insisted that the Constituent Assembly declare the "supreme sovereignty of God" and
16456-453: The TGE was mounted on the LRV, and also while the device was placed on the lunar surface. A total of 26 measurements were taken with the TGE during the mission's three moonwalks, with productive results. The SEP was also unique to Apollo 17, and included two major components: a transmitting antenna deployed near the lunar module and a receiver mounted on the LRV. At different stops during the mission's traverses, electrical signals traveled from
16643-544: The Taurus–Littrow valley, completed three moonwalks , took lunar samples and deployed scientific instruments . Orange soil was discovered at Shorty crater ; it proved to be volcanic in origin, although from early in the Moon's history. Evans remained in lunar orbit in the command and service module (CSM), taking scientific measurements and photographs. The spacecraft returned to Earth on December 19. The mission broke several records for crewed spaceflight , including
16830-513: The US-led war on terrorism . By its own financial calculations, Pakistan's involvement in the war on terrorism has cost up to $ 118 billion, over eighty one thousand casualties , and more than 1.8 million displaced civilians. The National Assembly historically completed its first full five-year term on 15 November 2007. After the assassination of Benazir Bhutto in 2007, the PPP secured
17017-607: The United Kingdom agreed to the partitioning of India , the modern state of Pakistan was established on 14 August 1947 (27th of Ramadan in 1366 of the Islamic Calendar , considered to be the most blessed date from an Islamic perspective) . This new nation amalgamated the Muslim-majority eastern and northwestern regions of British India , comprising the provinces of Balochistan , East Bengal ,
17204-454: The aborted Apollo 13 mission, as well as on Apollo 15 and 16, but placed successfully only on Apollo 15, and unexpected results from that device made scientists anxious for a second successful emplacement. It was successfully deployed on Apollo 17. The lunar gravimeter was intended to detect wavers in gravity, which would provide support for Albert Einstein 's general theory of relativity ; it ultimately failed to function as intended. The LACE
17391-494: The accident was later attributed to pilot error, as Cernan had misjudged his altitude before crashing into the water. Jim McDivitt , who was manager of the Apollo Spacecraft Program Office at the time, objected to Cernan's selection because of this accident, but Slayton dismissed the concern. After Cernan was offered command of the mission, he advocated for Engle to fly with him on the mission, but it
17578-598: The agency made Pakistan the first South Asian country to start a space program. Furthermore, a Flight Test Range was established in Sonmiani which is 50 km (31 mi) west of Karachi , from where a program of sounding rocket launches was conducted based on the Nike-Ajax rockets followed by the Judi-Dart program. On 7 July 1962, the Commission launched the first rocket, known as " Rehbar-I ", which reached
17765-521: The altitude of 80 mi (420,000 ft) in space.. The United States publicly supported and hailed the program as the beginning of "a program of continuous cooperation in space research of mutual interest." Until 1972, the United States provided training on rocket engines at the Goddard Space Flight Center . The ground stations for satellite navigation were set-up by the Commission in Karachi and Lahore in 1973, and were visited by
17952-664: The amalgamation of Muslim-majority states in North-West India, including Punjab , North-West Frontier Province , Sind , and Baluchistan . The perception that Congress-led British provincial governments neglected the Muslim League from 1937 to 1939 motivated Jinnah and other Muslim League leaders to embrace the two-nation theory. This led to the adoption of the Lahore Resolution of 1940, presented by Sher-e-Bangla A.K. Fazlul Haque , also known as
18139-445: The amount of the launch delay, with one hour of it at 45:00:00 into the mission and the remainder at 65:00:00. Among their other activities during the outbound trip, the crew photographed the Earth from the spacecraft as it travelled towards the Moon. One of these photographs is now known as The Blue Marble . The crew found that one of the latches holding the CSM and LM together was unlatched. While Schmitt and Cernan were engaged in
18326-453: The areas of space science and technology. The Pakistan-China bilateral cooperation in the space industry span a broad spectrum, including climate science , clean energy technologies, atmospheric and Earth sciences , and marine sciences . On the occasion of Chinese launch of PakSAT-1R, Pakistan's ambassador to China expressed the natural desire of Pakistan for China to send the first officially designated Pakistani astronaut to space aboard
18513-417: The astronauts for Taurus–Littrow, which was not selected until February 1972, but by June, the astronauts were going on field trips to sites specifically selected to prepare for Apollo 17's landing site. Both Cernan and Schmitt had served on backup crews for Apollo landing missions, and were familiar with many of the procedures. Their trainers, such as Gordon Swann , feared that Cernan would defer to Schmitt as
18700-418: The astronauts left the Moon. When operating, it could only send useful data to Earth in high bit rate, meaning that no other ALSEP experiment could send data then, and limiting its operating time. It was turned on to detect the liftoff of the ascent stage, as well as use of the explosives packages, and the ascent stage's impact, and thereafter about once a week, as well as for some 100 hour periods. The LEME had
18887-569: The astronauts were on the Moon: they would be provided with aerial images and maps, and briefed on features of the site and a suggested routing. The following day, they would follow the route, and have tasks and observations to be done at each of the stops. The geology field trips began with one to Big Bend National Park in Texas in October 1971. The early ones were not specifically tailored to prepare
19074-511: The atmosphere, biosphere, cryosphere, and hydrosphere. To support these endeavors, SUPARCO operates specialized centers and facilities, including environmental laboratories, mobile laboratories, a mathematical modeling center, and a microgravity experiments facility. SUPARCO, headquartered in Islamabad, maintains a network of key technical and support facilities across Pakistan. These facilities are strategically located in major cities to support
19261-442: The available evidence supports the hypothesis that these flashes occur when charged particles travel through the retina in the eye. Apollo 17 carried a sodium-iodide crystal identical to the ones in the gamma-ray spectrometer flown on Apollo 15 and 16. Data from this, once it was examined on Earth, was to be used to help form a baseline, allowing for subtraction of rays from the CM or from cosmic radiation to gain better data from
19448-429: The backup crew of Apollo 14 would be Gene Cernan, Ronald Evans, and former X-15 pilot Joe Engle . This put them in line to be the prime crew of Apollo 17, because the Apollo program's crew rotation generally meant that a backup crew would fly as prime crew three missions later. Harrison Schmitt, who was a professional geologist as well as an astronaut, had served on the backup crew of Apollo 15 , and thus, because of
19635-458: The backup crew would follow half an hour after the prime crew, performing identical tasks, and have their own simulated CapCom and Mission Control guiding them. The Apollo 17 astronauts had fourteen field trips—the Apollo 11 crew had only one. Evans did not go on the geology field trips, having his own set of trainers—by this time, geology training for the CMP was well-established. He would fly with
19822-496: The backup crew. The initial field trips took place before the Apollo 15 astronauts were assigned as the backup crew for Apollo 17 in February 1972. Either one or both of Scott and Irwin of Apollo 15 took part in four field trips, though both were present together for only two of them. After they were removed from the backup crew, the new backup commander and LMP, Young and Duke, took part in the final four field trips. On field trips,
20009-563: The banner of Nizam-e-Mustafa ("Rule of the Prophet "), advocating an Islamic state. Bhutto conceded to some Islamist demands before being ousted in a coup. General Zia-ul-Haq, after seizing power, committed to establishing an Islamic state and enforcing sharia law. He instituted Shariat judicial courts, and court benches, to adjudicate using Islamic doctrine. Zia aligned with Deobandi institutions, exacerbating sectarian tensions with anti-Shia policies. Most Pakistanis, according to
20196-455: The cancellation of Apollo 20 in early 1970, NASA decided there would be no more than two Apollo missions per year. Part of the reason Apollo 17 was scheduled for December 1972 was to make it fall after the presidential election in November, ensuring that if there was a disaster, it would have no effect on President Richard Nixon 's re-election campaign. Nixon had been deeply concerned about
20383-566: The color gold, representative of a "golden age" of spaceflight that was to begin with Apollo 17. The image of Apollo in the mission insignia is a rendering of the Apollo Belvedere sculpture in the Vatican Museums . It looks forward into the future, towards the celestial objects shown in the insignia beyond the Moon. These represent humanity's goals, and the image symbolizes human intelligence, wisdom and ambition. The insignia
20570-476: The country worked towards promulgating its constitution and putting the country on the road to democracy. In 1972 Pakistan embarked on an ambitious plan to develop its nuclear deterrence capability with the goal of preventing any foreign invasion ; the country's first nuclear power plant was inaugurated in that same year. India's first nuclear test in 1974 gave Pakistan additional justification to accelerate its nuclear program . Democracy ended with
20757-523: The country's governance. The military's influence in mainstream politics has been significant throughout Pakistan's history. The eras of 1958–1971, 1977–1988 , and 1999–2008 witnessed military coups , leading to martial law and military leaders governing de facto as presidents. Presently, Pakistan operates a multi-party parliamentary system , with distinct checks and balances among government branches. The first successful democratic transition occurred in May 2013. Pakistani politics revolves around
20944-450: The crew members during the trip out to the Moon, back to Earth, and in lunar orbit. The Apollo 17 crew repeated an experiment, also conducted on Apollo 16, with the objective of linking these light flashes with cosmic rays . Evans wore a device over his eyes that recorded the time, strength, and path of high-energy atomic particles that penetrated the device, while the other two wore blindfolds to keep out light. Investigators concluded that
21131-593: The crossroads of India, Central Asia, and the Middle East, connecting trade routes and absorbing cultural influences from diverse civilizations. The initial early Vedic culture was a tribal, pastoral society centered in the Indus Valley, of what is today Pakistan. During this period, the Vedas , the oldest scriptures of Hinduism , were composed. The western regions of Pakistan became part of Achaemenid Empire around 517 BCE. In 326 BCE, Alexander
21318-668: The earlier results. In addition, the S-band transponders in the CSM and LM were pointed at the Moon to gain data on its gravitational field. Results from the Lunar Orbiter probes had revealed that lunar gravity varies slightly due to the presence of mass concentrations , or "mascons". Data from the missions, and from the lunar subsatellites left by Apollo 15 and 16 , were used to map such variations in lunar gravity. Originally planned to launch on December 6, 1972, at 9:53 p.m. EST (2:53 a.m. on December 7 UTC), Apollo 17
21505-439: The first EVA, it was retrieved during the third and final EVA. The astronauts brought it with them back to Earth, and the measurements from it were compared with the evidence of neutron flux in the core that had been removed from the hole it had been placed in. Results from the probe and from the cores were instrumental in current theories that the top centimeter of lunar regolith turns over every million years, whereas "gardening" to
21692-407: The five mice survived the flight, though only two of them appeared healthy and active; the cause of death of the fifth mouse was not determined. Of those that survived, the study found lesions in the scalp itself and, in one case, the liver. The scalp lesions and liver lesions appeared to be unrelated to one another; nothing was found that could be attributed to cosmic rays. The Biostack experiment
21879-550: The foreign funding coming from the United States . The American NASA was embarking the Apollo program in a competition with Soviet space program had realize the need of scientific data in upper atmosphere and therefore, invited India and Pakistan (bordering nations of the Indian Ocean ) to join the studies and experimentations. Initially, the engineers from Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission (PAEC) were directed at
22066-563: The funds for the necessary communications satellites. The three sites that made the final consideration for Apollo 17 were Alphonsus crater , Gassendi crater , and the Taurus–Littrow valley. In making the final landing site decision, mission planners considered the primary objectives for Apollo 17: obtaining old highlands material a substantial distance from Mare Imbrium, sampling material from young volcanic activity (i.e., less than three billion years), and having minimal ground overlap with
22253-469: The initial step towards this goal, affirming God as the sole sovereign. Muslim League leader Chaudhry Khaliquzzaman asserted that Pakistan could only truly become an Islamic state after bringing all believers of Islam into a single political unit. Keith Callard observed that Pakistanis believed in the essential unity of purpose and outlook in the Muslim world, expecting similar views on religion and nationality from Muslims worldwide. Pakistan's desire for
22440-426: The landing site for Apollo 17. As with previous lunar landings, the Apollo 17 astronauts undertook an extensive training program that included learning to collect samples on the surface, usage of the spacesuits , navigation in the Lunar Roving Vehicle, field geology training, survival training, splashdown and recovery training, and equipment training. The geology field trips were conducted as much as possible as if
22627-686: The launch vehicle to arrive at Kennedy Space Center was the S-II second stage, on October 27, 1970; it was followed by the S-IVB on December 21; the S-IC first stage did not arrive until May 11, 1972, followed by the Instrument Unit on June 7. By then, LM-12 had arrived, the ascent stage on June 16, 1971, and the descent stage the following day; they were not mated until May 18, 1972. CM-114, SM-114 and SLA-21 all arrived on March 24, 1972. The rover reached Kennedy Space Center on June 2, 1972. The CM and
22814-517: The leadership of Mahatma Gandhi launched the Quit India Movement , demanding an immediate end to British rule. In contrast, the Muslim League chose to support the UK's war efforts , thereby nurturing the possibility of establishing a Muslim nation. The 1946 elections saw the Muslim League secure 90 percent of the Muslim seats, supported by the landowners of Sindh and Punjab. This forced
23001-537: The limits prescribed by Him is a sacred trust". It was later included as a preamble to the constitutions of 1956, 1962, and 1973. Democracy faced setbacks due to the martial law imposed by President Iskander Mirza , who was succeeded by General Ayub Khan . After adopting a presidential system in 1962, Pakistan witnessed significant growth until the second war with India in 1965, resulting in an economic downturn and widespread public discontent in 1967. In 1969, President Yahya Khan consolidated control, but faced
23188-412: The local terrain, and, though Alphonsus might be easier operationally than Taurus–Littrow, it was of lesser scientific interest. At Taurus–Littrow, it was believed that the crew would be able to obtain samples of old highland material from the remnants of a landslide event that occurred on the south wall of the valley and the possibility of relatively young, explosive volcanic activity in the area. Although
23375-508: The longest crewed lunar landing mission (12 days, 14 hours), greatest distance from a spacecraft during an extravehicular activity of any type (7.6 kilometers or 4.7 miles), longest time on the lunar surface (75 hours), longest total duration of lunar-surface extravehicular activities (22 hours, 4 minutes), largest lunar-sample return (approximately 115 kg or 254 lb), longest time in lunar orbit (6 days, 4 hours), and greatest number of lunar orbits (75). In 1969, NASA announced that
23562-484: The lunar gravity field at the site, a Lunar Atmospheric Composition Experiment (LACE), to investigate what the lunar atmosphere is made up of, a Lunar Seismic Profiling Experiment (LSPE), to detect nearby seismic activity, and a Lunar Ejecta and Meteorites Experiment (LEME), to measure the velocity and energy of dust particles. Of these, only the HFE had been flown before; the others were new. The HFE had been flown on
23749-685: The military funded the commission's design study on rocket engines for Hatf-I , which was completed with the Khan Research Laboratories (KRL), the national defense laboratory of the Ministry of Defence . In 1995, the Commission designed the rocket engine for the Abdali project, which was completed in 2004. The Commission also conducted studies on rocket engines for the Shaheen program. Every year, SUPARCO sponsors and organizes
23936-406: The mission's second day, the first full day in space, in order to adjust the crew's wake-up times for the subsequent days in preparation for an early morning (EST) wake-up time on the day of the lunar landing, then scheduled for early afternoon (EST). This was done since the first day of the mission had been extended because of the launch delay. Following the second rest period, and on the third day of
24123-453: The mission, the crew executed the first mid-course correction, a two-second burn of the CSM's service propulsion engine to adjust the spacecraft's Moon-bound trajectory. Following the burn, the crew opened the hatch separating the CSM and LM in order to check the LM's systems and concluded that they were nominal. So that events would take place at the time indicated in the flight plan, the mission clocks were moved ahead by 2 hours and 40 minutes,
24310-400: The next generation ought to accept this as a challenge. Let's see them leave footprints like these." Prior to the cancellation of Apollo 18 through 20, Apollo 17 was slated to launch in September 1971 as part of NASA's tentative launch schedule set forth in 1969. The in-flight abort of Apollo 13 and the resulting modifications to the Apollo spacecraft delayed subsequent missions. Following
24497-798: The northern mountains to deciduous trees like shisham in the Sulaiman Mountains , and palms such as coconut and date in the southern regions. The western hills boast juniper , tamarisk , coarse grasses, and scrub plants. Mangrove forests dominate the coastal wetlands in the south. Coniferous forests span altitudes from 1,000 to 4,000 metres (3,300 to 13,100 feet) in most northern and northwestern highlands. In Balochistan's xeric regions, date palms and Ephedra are prevalent. In Punjab and Sindh's Indus plains, tropical and subtropical dry and moist broadleaf forests as well as tropical and xeric shrublands thrive. Approximately 4.8% or 36,845.6 square kilometres (3,684,560 ha) of Pakistan
24684-434: The objective of obtaining data to assist in developing a geological model of the interior of the Moon to an approximate depth of 1.3 km (0.81 mi). The infrared scanning radiometer was designed with the objective of generating a temperature map of the lunar surface to aid in locating surface features such as rock fields, structural differences in the lunar crust , and volcanic activity. The far-ultraviolet spectrometer
24871-401: The orbital ground tracks of Apollo 15 and Apollo 16 to maximize the amount of new data obtained. A significant reason for the selection of Taurus–Littrow was that Apollo 15's CMP, Al Worden, had overflown the site and observed features he described as likely volcanic in nature. Gassendi was eliminated because NASA felt that its central peak would be difficult to reach due to the roughness of
25058-720: The organization's various research and development activities. SUPARCO, has consistently prioritized international cooperation as a central component of its space development program. The agency maintains active membership in several international organizations, institutes, scientific committees and United Nations bodies like UNCOPUOS , UN-SPIDER , UN-ESCAP , COSPAR , IAF , ISPRS , APSCO etc. This has fostered collaboration in scientific and technical information exchange, data sharing, joint projects, technology transfer, training, collaborative studies. SUPARCO has also entered into numerous bilateral and multilateral cooperation agreements and MoUs to facilitate space-related activities. Pakistan
25245-540: The originally planned launch time of 9:53 p.m. on December 6, remained open until 1:31 a.m., the latest time at which a launch could have occurred during the December 6–7 window. Approximately 500,000 people observed the launch in the immediate vicinity of Kennedy Space Center, despite the early-morning hour. The launch was visible as far away as 800 km (500 mi), and observers in Miami, Florida , reported
25432-488: The panoramic and mapping cameras, which were also in the SIM bay. Beginning with Apollo 11, crew members observed light flashes that penetrated their closed eyelids. These flashes, described by the astronauts as "streaks" or "specks" of light, were usually observed while the spacecraft was darkened during a sleep period. These flashes, while not observed on the lunar surface, would average about two per minute and were observed by
25619-419: The planned time, despite the launch delay. The Command and Service Module separated from the S-IVB approximately half an hour following the S-IVB trans-lunar injection burn, after which Evans turned the spacecraft to face the LM, still attached to the S-IVB. The CSM then docked with the LM and extracted it from the S-IVB. Following the LM extraction, Mission Control programmed the S-IVB, no longer needed to propel
25806-615: The present-day Pakistan, was the site of several successive ancient cultures including the Neolithic (7000–4300 BCE ) site of Mehrgarh , and the 5,000-year history of urban life in South Asia to the various sites of the Indus Valley Civilisation , including Mohenjo-daro and Harappa . Following the decline of the Indus valley civilization, Indo-Aryan tribes moved into the Punjab from Central Asia in several waves of migration in
25993-430: The prime ministers of around a dozen major princely states gathered to receive their copies of the plan before its worldwide broadcast. At 7:00 P.M., All India Radio transmitted the public announcement, starting with the viceroy's address, followed by individual speeches from Nehru, and Jinnah. The founder of Pakistan Muhammad Ali Jinnah concluded his address with the slogan Pakistan Zindabad (Long Live Pakistan). As
26180-458: The program Apollo had a one-sentence job description, "The flight director may take any actions necessary for crew safety and mission success." Capsule communicators (CAPCOMs) were Fullerton, Parker, Young, Duke, Mattingly, Roosa, Alan Shepard and Joseph P. Allen . The insignia's most prominent feature is an image of the Greek sun god Apollo backdropped by a rendering of an American eagle ,
26367-511: The public domain. The SUPARCO Astrophysics program, is an active scientific mission of SUPARCO, dedicated for the development of space science . The program's mainstream objective and aim is to conduct research studies for the advancement and better understanding of the theoretical physics , astronomy , astrophysics , and mathematics involving the three-dimensional universal space and time . SUPARCO's Space Program 2040, launched in 2012, incorporates astronomy and astrophysics research into
26554-1373: The realm of multiple empires and dynasties, including the Gandhāra , the Achaemenid , the Maurya , the Kushan , the Parthian , the Paratarajas , the Gupta ; the Umayyad Caliphate in its southern regions, the Hindu Shahis , the Ghaznavids , the Delhi Sultanate , the Samma , the Shah Miris , the Mughals , the Durranis , the Sikhs and most recently, the British Raj from 1858 to 1947. Spurred by
26741-415: The red bars on the eagle mirroring those on the U.S. flag . Three white stars above the red bars represent the three crewmembers of the mission. The background includes the Moon, the planet Saturn , and a galaxy or nebula. The wing of the eagle partially overlays the Moon, suggesting humanity's established presence there. The insignia includes, along with the colors of the U.S. flag (red, white, and blue),
26928-426: The region, including the Ghaznavid Empire (975–1187 CE), the Ghorid Kingdom, and the Delhi Sultanate (1206–1526 CE). The Lodi dynasty , the last of the Delhi Sultanate, was replaced by the Mughal Empire (1526–1857 CE). The Mughals introduced Persian literature and high culture, establishing the roots of Indo-Persian culture in the region. In the region of modern-day Pakistan, key cities during
27115-436: The rollout, during which the prime crew joined the operating crew from Bendix atop the crawler. At Pad 39-A, testing continued, and the CSM was electrically mated to the launch vehicle on October 11, 1972. Testing concluded with the countdown demonstration tests, accomplished on November 20 and 21. The countdown to launch began at 7:53 a.m. (12:53 UTC) on December 5, 1972. The Apollo Lunar Surface Experiments Package
27302-436: The rotation, would have been due to fly as lunar module pilot on Apollo 18. In September 1970, the plan to launch Apollo 18 was cancelled . The scientific community pressed NASA to assign a geologist, rather than a pilot with non-professional geological training, to an Apollo landing. NASA subsequently assigned Schmitt to Apollo 17 as the lunar module pilot. After that, NASA's director of flight crew operations, Deke Slayton ,
27489-465: The same time as the prime crew, was the crew of Apollo 15: David Scott as commander, Alfred Worden as CMP and James Irwin as LMP, but in May 1972 they were removed from the backup crew because of their roles in the Apollo 15 postal covers incident . They were replaced with the landing crew of Apollo 16: John W. Young as backup crew commander, Charles Duke as LMP, and Apollo 14's CMP, Stuart Roosa . Originally, Apollo 16's CMP, Ken Mattingly ,
27676-406: The same time, this marked the first time NASA had three launch vehicles there since the height of the Apollo program in 1969. After the spacecraft was mounted on the launch vehicle on August 24, it was rolled out to Pad 39-A on August 28. Although this was not the final time a Saturn V would fly (another would lift Skylab to orbit), area residents reacted as though it was, and 5,000 of them watched
27863-442: The scientific instrument module (SIM) bay. The SIM bay housed three new experiments for use in lunar orbit: a lunar sounder, an infrared scanning radiometer , and a far-ultraviolet spectrometer. A mapping camera, panoramic camera, and a laser altimeter , which had been carried previously, were also included in the SIM bay. The lunar sounder was to beam electromagnetic impulses toward the lunar surface, which were designed with
28050-408: The scientists who trained the astronauts, "In effect [Schmitt] was running the mission from the Moon. But we set it up this way. All of those within the geological world certainly knew it, and I had a sneaking hunch that the top brass knew it too, but this is a practical way out, and they didn't object." Also participating in some of the geology field trips were the commander and lunar module pilot of
28237-479: The service module (SM) were mated on March 28, 1972, and the testing of the spacecraft began that month. The CSM was placed in a vacuum chamber at Kennedy Space Center, and the testing was conducted under those conditions. The LM was also placed in a vacuum chamber; both the prime and the backup crews participated in testing the CSM and LM. During the testing, it was discovered that the LM's rendezvous radar assembly had received too much voltage during earlier tests; it
28424-407: The sixth and most recent time humans have set foot on the Moon or traveled beyond low Earth orbit . Commander Gene Cernan and Lunar Module Pilot Harrison Schmitt walked on the Moon, while Command Module Pilot Ronald Evans orbited above. Schmitt was the only professional geologist to land on the Moon; he was selected in place of Joe Engle , as NASA had been under pressure to send a scientist to
28611-452: The space program and engineering education in spite of opportunity available from the United States . The Punjab University was the only university that was undertaking the research in aeronautics in 1957; only after when the former Soviet Union launched its first satellite in space, the Sputnik 1 . It was during the development of Apollo program in 1961 when Abdus Salam found an opportunity for Pakistan to start its space program with
28798-401: The spacecraft, to impact the Moon and trip the seismometers left by prior Apollo crews. It struck the Moon just under 87 hours into the mission, triggering the seismometers from Apollo 12, 14, 15 and 16. Approximately nine hours after launch, the crew concluded the mission's first day with a sleep period, until waking up to begin the second day. Mission Control and the crew decided to shorten
28985-484: The specific needs of aviation, marine, and land users who require high-integrity correction signals. SUPARCO operates a Satellite Navigation Signal Monitoring facility that plays a crucial role in monitoring, archiving, and analyzing satellite navigation signals from various monitoring stations located across Pakistan. This facility fosters collaboration with national and international organizations involved in satellite navigation systems. Pakistan has been participating in
29172-631: The successful launch of Pakistan's first satellite from China in 1990. The agency was also an early participant in the rocket development program launched by the Ministry of Defence of Pakistan. The agency leads the National Space Program (NSP) and maintains the orbital operations of its satellites with support facilities throughout the country. The agency has sustained significant criticism within Pakistan for failing to compete with its Indian and Chinese counterparts in terms of capabilities in spite of being established earlier than them. The past federal ministries of Pakistan initially avoided to fund
29359-402: The support crew. Their role was to provide any assistance in preparing for the missions that the missions director assigned then. Preparations took place in meetings at facilities across the US and sometimes needed a member of the flight crew to attend them. Because McDivitt was concerned that problems could be created if a prime or backup crew member was unable to attend a meeting, Slayton created
29546-501: The support crews to ensure that someone would be able to attend in their stead. Usually low in seniority, they also assembled the mission's rules, flight plan and checklists, and kept them updated; for Apollo 17, they were Robert F. Overmyer , Robert A. Parker and C. Gordon Fullerton . Flight directors were Gerry Griffin , first shift, Gene Kranz and Neil B. Hutchinson, second shift, and Pete Frank and Charles R. Lewis, third shift. According to Kranz, flight directors during
29733-460: The supremacy of the shariah in Pakistan. The efforts of Jamaat-i-Islami and the ulama led to the passage of the Objectives Resolution in March 1949. This resolution, described by Liaquat Ali Khan as the second most significant step in Pakistan's history, affirmed that "sovereignty over the entire universe belongs to God Almighty alone and the authority which He has delegated to the State of Pakistan through its people for being exercised within
29920-417: The surrounding territories. The Arab conqueror Muhammad ibn Qasim conquered Sindh and some regions of Punjab in 711 CE. The Pakistan government's official chronology claims this as the time when the foundation of Pakistan was laid. The Early Medieval period (642–1219 CE) witnessed the spread of Islam in the region. Before the arrival of Islam beginning in the 8th century, the region of Pakistan
30107-464: The tank to pressurize, the sequencer did not recognize the fix and therefore paused the countdown. The clock was reset and held at the T-22 minute mark while technicians worked around the malfunction in order to continue with the launch. This pause was the only launch delay in the Apollo program caused by a hardware problem. The countdown then resumed, and the liftoff occurred at 12:33 a.m. EST on December 7, 1972. The launch window, which had begun at
30294-498: The transmitting device, through the ground, and were received at the LRV. The electrical properties of the lunar regolith could be determined by comparison of the transmitted and received electrical signals. The results of this experiment, which are consistent with lunar rock composition, show that there is almost no water in the area of the Moon in which Apollo 17 landed, to a depth of 2 km (1.2 mi). A 2.4 m (7.9 ft) long, 2 cm (0.79 in) diameter device,
30481-458: The usage of the Lunar Roving Vehicle. Since Apollo 17 was to be the final lunar landing of the Apollo program, high-priority landing sites that had not been visited previously were given consideration for potential exploration. Some sites were rejected at earlier stages. For instance, a landing in the crater Copernicus was rejected because Apollo 12 had already obtained samples from that impact, and three other Apollo expeditions had already visited
30668-509: The valley is similar to the landing site of Apollo 15 in that it is on the border of a lunar mare , the advantages of Taurus–Littrow were believed to outweigh the drawbacks. The Apollo Site Selection Board, a committee of NASA personnel and scientists charged with setting out scientific objectives of the Apollo landing missions and selecting landing sites for them, unanimously recommended Taurus–Littrow at its final meeting in February 1972. Upon that recommendation, NASA selected Taurus–Littrow as
30855-412: The vicinity of Mare Imbrium , near the rim of which Copernicus is located. The lunar highlands near the crater Tycho were rejected because of the rough terrain that the astronauts would encounter there. A site on the lunar far side in the crater Tsiolkovskiy was rejected due to technical considerations and the operational costs of maintaining communication with Earth during surface operations. Lastly,
31042-504: The west and the Thar Desert in the east. The 1,609 km (1,000 mi) Indus River and its tributaries traverse the nation from Kashmir to the Arabian Sea, sustaining alluvial plains along the Punjab and Sindh regions. The climate varies from tropical to temperate, with arid conditions in the coastal south. There is a monsoon season with frequent flooding due to heavy rainfall, and a dry season with significantly less rainfall or none at all. Pakistan experiences four distinct seasons:
31229-407: Was a suite of nuclear-powered experiments, flown on each landing mission after Apollo 11. This equipment was to be emplaced by the astronauts to continue functioning after the astronauts returned to Earth. For Apollo 17, the ALSEP experiments were a Heat Flow Experiment (HFE), to measure the rate of heat flow from the interior of the Moon, a Lunar Surface Gravimeter (LSG), to measure alterations in
31416-426: Was a surface-deployed module that used a mass spectrometer to analyze the Moon's atmosphere. On previous missions, the Code Cathode Gauge experiment had measured the quantity of atmospheric particles, but the LACE determined which gases were present: principally neon, helium and hydrogen. The LSPE was a seismic-detecting device that used geophones , which would detect explosives to be set off by ground command once
31603-402: Was asked by Collins and Lapierre if he would have sabotaged Pakistan had he known that Jinnah was dying of tuberculosis, he replied 'most probably'. "You are free; you are free to go to your temples, you are free to go to your mosques or to any other place of worship in this State of Pakistan. You may belong to any religion or caste or creed – that has nothing to do with the business of
31790-460: Was chosen because it was well-documented, small, easy to maintain in an isolated state (not requiring drinking water during the mission and with highly concentrated waste), and for its ability to withstand environmental stress. Officially, the mice—four male and one female—were assigned the identification numbers A3326, A3400, A3305, A3356 and A3352. Unofficially, according to Cernan, the Apollo 17 crew dubbed them Fe, Fi, Fo, Fum, and Phooey. Four of
31977-401: Was designed by artist Robert McCall , based on ideas from the crew. In deciding the call signs for the command module (CM) and lunar module (LM), the crew wished to pay tribute to the American public for their support of the Apollo program, and to the mission, and wanted names with a tradition within American history. The CM was given the call sign "America". According to Cernan, this evoked
32164-400: Was elected as Prime Minister for the third time. In 2018, PTI won the general election and Imran Khan became the 22nd Prime Minister. In April 2022, Shehbaz Sharif was elected as prime minister, after Imran Khan lost a no-confidence vote. During 2024 general election , PTI-backed independents became the largest bloc, but Shehbaz Sharif was elected prime minister for a second term, as
32351-446: Was elected as the country's first female Prime Minister. The PPP was followed by conservative Pakistan Muslim League (N) (PML (N)), and over the next decade the leaders of the two parties fought for power, alternating in office. This period is marked by prolonged stagflation , political instability, corruption , misgovernment, geopolitical rivalry with India, and the clash of left wing - right wing ideologies. As PML (N) secured
32538-415: Was eventually launched by China in 1990 after negotiations with the United States failed. SUPARCO continued its collaboration with the United Kingdom, developing the Badr-B satellite in partnership with the British Rutherford Laboratory . However, due to orbital crises and funding constraints, Badr-B was not launched until 2001 by Russia. Gen Zia's decision to delay the PakSAT project in 1984, citing
32725-412: Was forested in 2021. Pakistan's fauna mirrors its diverse climate. The country boasts around 668 bird species, including crows , sparrows , mynas , hawks , falcons , and eagles . Palas, Kohistan , is home to the western tragopan , with many migratory birds visiting from Europe, Central Asia, and India. The southern plains harbor mongooses , small Indian civet , hares, the Asiatic jackal ,
32912-473: Was home to a diverse plethora of faiths, including Hinduism , Buddhism , Jainism and Zoroastrianism . During this period, Sufi missionaries played a pivotal role in converting a majority of the regional population to Islam. Upon the defeat of the Turk and Hindu Shahi dynasties which governed the Kabul Valley , Gandhara (present-day Khyber Pakhtunkhwa), and western Punjab in the 7th to 11th centuries CE, several successive Muslim empires ruled over
33099-431: Was left with the question of who would fill the two other Apollo 17 slots: the rest of the Apollo 15 backup crew ( Dick Gordon and Vance Brand ), or Cernan and Evans from the Apollo 14 backup crew. Slayton ultimately chose Cernan and Evans. Support at NASA for assigning Cernan was not unanimous. Cernan had crashed a Bell 47G helicopter into the Indian River near Cape Kennedy during a training exercise in January 1971;
33286-548: Was made clear to him that Schmitt would be assigned instead, with or without Cernan, so he acquiesced. The prime crew of Apollo 17 was publicly announced on August 13, 1971. When assigned to Apollo 17, Cernan was a 38-year-old captain in the United States Navy ; he had been selected in the third group of astronauts in 1963, and flown as pilot of Gemini 9A in 1966 and as lunar module pilot of Apollo 10 in 1969 before he served on Apollo 14's backup crew. Evans, 39 years old when assigned to Apollo 17, had been selected as part of
33473-474: Was moved into the Vehicle Assembly Building in August for further testing, after which it was mounted on the launch vehicle. After completing testing, including a simulated mission, the LRV was placed in the LM on August 13. Erection of the stages of the launch vehicle began on May 15, 1972, in High Bay 3 of the Vehicle Assembly Building, and was completed on June 27. Since the launch vehicles for Skylab 1 and Skylab 2 were being processed in that building at
33660-402: Was no genocide. In response to India's support for the insurgency in East Pakistan, preemptive strikes on India by Pakistan's air force , navy , and marines sparked a conventional war in 1971 that resulted in an Indian victory and East Pakistan gaining independence as Bangladesh . With Pakistan surrendering in the war, Yahya Khan was replaced by Zulfikar Ali Bhutto as president;
33847-427: Was replaced by the manufacturer, Grumman . The LM's landing radar also malfunctioned intermittently and was also replaced. The front and rear steering motors of the Lunar Roving Vehicle (LRV) also had to be replaced, and it required several modifications. Following the July 1972 removal from the vacuum chamber, the LM's landing gear was installed, and it, the CSM and the SLA were mated to each other. The combined craft
34034-492: Was similar to one carried on Apollo 16, and was designed to test the effects of the cosmic rays encountered in space travel on microorganisms that were included, on seeds, and on the eggs of simple animals ( brine shrimp and beetles), which were carried in a sealed container. After the mission, the microorganisms and seeds showed little effect, but many of the eggs of all species failed to hatch, or to mature normally; many died or displayed abnormalities. The Apollo 17 SM contained
34221-454: Was the final crewed Saturn V launch, and the only one to occur at night. The launch was delayed by two hours and forty minutes due to an automatic cutoff in the launch sequencer at the T-30 second mark in the countdown. The cause of the problem was quickly determined to be the launch sequencer's failure to automatically pressurize the liquid oxygen tank in the third stage of the rocket; although launch control noticed this and manually caused
34408-488: Was the largest mass migration in human history. A subsequent dispute over the princely state of Jammu and Kashmir eventually sparked the Indo-Pakistani War of 1947–1948 . After independence in 1947, Jinnah, the President of the Muslim League, became Pakistan's first Governor-General and the first President-Speaker of the Parliament , but he succumbed to tuberculosis on 11 September 1948. Meanwhile, Pakistan's founding fathers agreed to appoint Liaquat Ali Khan ,
34595-426: Was to be assigned along with his crewmates, but he declined so he could spend more time with his family, his son having just been born, and instead took an assignment to the Space Shuttle program. Roosa had also served as backup CMP for Apollo 16. For the Apollo program, in addition to the prime and backup crews that had been used in the Mercury and Gemini programs, NASA assigned a third crew of astronauts, known as
34782-412: Was to be used to obtain information on the composition, density, and constituency of the lunar atmosphere . The spectrometer was also designed to detect far-UV radiation emitted by the Sun that had been reflected off the lunar surface. The laser altimeter was designed to measure the altitude of the spacecraft above the lunar surface within approximately 2 meters (6.6 feet), providing altitude information to
34969-451: Was trained in lunar geology by Farouk El-Baz late in the training cycle; this continued until close to launch. The CMP was given information regarding the lunar features he would overfly in the CSM and which he was expected to photograph. The Apollo 17 spacecraft comprised CSM-114 (consisting of Command Module 114 (CM-114) and Service Module 114 (SM-114)); Lunar Module 12 (LM-12); a Spacecraft-Lunar Module Adapter (SLA) numbered SLA-21; and
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