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137-580: Smoky Mountain is an adjective for things related to the Great Smoky Mountains (as in the Smoky Mountain National Park ) and may refer to the following landforms: Smoky Mountain (California) , a Guadalupe Mountains summit at 37°26′28″N 120°01′56″W  /  37.441064°N 120.032115°W  / 37.441064; -120.032115 Smoky Mountain (Idaho) ,

274-641: A Cassia County, Idaho, summit at 42°03′34″N 113°40′49″W  /  42.059489°N 113.680172°W  / 42.059489; -113.680172 Smoky Mountain (Tennessee) , a Cumberland Mountains summit of 3,217 ft (981 m) Smoky Mountain (Utah) , a summit northwest of the Glen Canyon National Recreation Area at 42°03′34″N 113°40′49″W  /  42.059489°N 113.680172°W  / 42.059489; -113.680172 Smoky Mountains (Moon) See also [ edit ] Smokey Mountain ,

411-559: A Manila rubbish pile Smokey Mountain (band) [REDACTED] Topics referred to by the same term This disambiguation page lists articles about distinct geographical locations with the same name. If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article. Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Smoky_Mountain&oldid=776554986 " Category : Place name disambiguation pages Hidden categories: Pages using gadget WikiMiniAtlas Short description

548-413: A concealed site in flowing water, and these are usually guarded by an adult, normally the female. Many of the tropical climbing salamanders ( Bolitoglossa ) and lungless salamanders (Plethodontinae) lay a small number of large eggs on land in a well-hidden spot, where they are also guarded by the mother. Some species such as the fire salamanders ( Salamandra ) are ovoviviparous , with the female retaining

685-545: A diverse bird population due to the presence of multiple forest types. Species that thrive in southern hardwood forests, such as the red-eyed vireo , wood thrush , wild turkey , northern parula , ruby-throated hummingbird , and tufted titmouse , are found throughout the lower elevations and cove hardwood forests. Species more typical of cooler climates, such as the raven , winter wren , black-capped chickadee , yellow-bellied sapsucker , dark-eyed junco , and Blackburnian , chestnut-sided , and Canada warblers , are found in

822-586: A flash of warning hue on its underside. The red eft, the brightly colored terrestrial juvenile form of the eastern newt ( Notophthalmus viridescens ), is highly poisonous. It is avoided by birds and snakes, and can survive for up to 30 minutes after being swallowed (later being regurgitated). The red salamander ( Pseudotriton ruber ) is a palatable species with a similar coloring to the red eft. Predators that previously fed on it have been shown to avoid it after encountering red efts, an example of Batesian mimicry . Other species exhibit similar mimicry. In California,

959-416: A hissing sound, while the sirens sometimes produce quiet clicks, and can resort to faint shrieks if attacked. Similar clicking behaviour was observed in two European newts Lissotriton vulgaris and Ichthyosaura alpestris in their aquatic phase. Vocalization in salamanders has been little studied and the purpose of these sounds is presumed to be the startling of predators. Respiration differs among

1096-438: A lateral row. This may provide an aposematic signal that makes the spines more visible. When the danger has passed, the ribs retract and the skin heals. Although many salamanders have cryptic colors so as to be unnoticeable, others signal their toxicity by their vivid coloring . Yellow, orange, and red are the colors generally used, often with black for greater contrast. Sometimes, the animal postures if attacked, revealing

1233-665: A long body, a laterally flattened tail with dorsal and ventral fins and in some species limb-buds or limbs. Pond-type larvae may have a pair of rod-like balancers on either side of the head, long gill filaments and broad fins. Stream-type larvae are more slender with short gill filaments—in Rhyacotriton and Onychodactylus, and some species in Batrachuperus, the gills and gill rakers are extremely reduced, narrower fins and no balancers, but instead have hind limbs already developed when they hatch. The tadpoles are carnivorous and

1370-539: A minor chiefdom centered on a large village known as Chiaha , which was located on an island now submerged by Douglas Lake . The 1540 expedition of Hernando de Soto and the 1567 expedition of Juan Pardo passed through the French Broad River valley north of the Smokies, both spending a considerable amount of time at Chiaha. The Pardo expedition followed a trail across the flanks of Chilhowee Mountain to

1507-517: A minute fragment of skin is deadly. In feeding trials, fish, frogs, reptiles, birds, and mammals were all found to be susceptible. Mature adults of some salamander species have "nuptial" glandular tissue in their cloacae , at the base of their tails, on their heads or under their chins. Some females release chemical substances , possibly from the ventral cloacal gland, to attract males, but males do not seem to use pheromones for this purpose. In some plethodonts , males have conspicuous mental glands on

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1644-609: A reasonable size. Large species such as the Japanese giant salamander ( Andrias japonicus ) eat crabs, fish, small mammals, amphibians, and aquatic insects. In a study of smaller dusky salamanders ( Desmognathus ) in the Appalachian Mountains , their diet includes earthworms , flies , beetles , beetle larvae, leafhoppers , springtails , moths , spiders , grasshoppers , and mites . Cannibalism sometimes takes place, especially when resources are short or time

1781-433: A second. In some species, the tongue is attached anteriorly to the floor of the mouth, while in others, it is mounted on a pedicel. It is rendered sticky by secretions of mucus from glands in its tip and on the roof of the mouth. High-speed cinematography shows how the tiger salamander ( Ambystoma tigrinum ) positions itself with its snout close to its prey. Its mouth then gapes widely, the lower jaw remains stationary, and

1918-678: A short period of time and involves the closing of the gill slits and the loss of structures such as gills and tail fins that are not required as adults. At the same time, eyelids develop, the mouth becomes wider, a tongue appears, and teeth are formed. The aqueous larva emerges onto land as a terrestrial adult. Not all species of salamanders follow this path. Neoteny , also known as paedomorphosis, has been observed in all salamander families, and may be universally possible in all salamander species. In this state, an individual may retain gills or other juvenile features while attaining reproductive maturity. The changes that take place at metamorphosis are under

2055-514: A simplified retinal structure, and in cave dwellers such as the Georgia blind salamander , they are absent or covered with a layer of skin. In amphibious species, the eyes are a compromise and are nearsighted in air and farsighted in water. Fully terrestrial species such as the fire salamander have a flatter lens which can focus over a much wider range of distances. To find their prey, salamanders use trichromatic color vision extending into

2192-407: A small lizard, having a basal tetrapod body form with a cylindrical trunk, four limbs, and a long tail. Except in the family Salamandridae, the head, body, and tail have a number of vertical depressions in the surface which run from the mid-dorsal region to the ventral area and are known as costal grooves . Their function seems to be to help keep the skin moist by channeling water over the surface of

2329-437: A top predator since the introduction of locally exotic species such as Nile tilapia and carp. Tilapia and carp directly compete with axolotls by consuming their eggs, larvae, and juveniles. Climate change has also immensely affected axolotls and their populations throughout the southern Mexico area. Due to its proximity to Mexico City , officials are currently working on programs at Lake Xochimilco to bring in tourism and educate

2466-623: A type of beetle in the ladybug family, Coccinellidae , has been introduced in an attempt to control the pests. Visibility is dramatically reduced by smog from both the Southeastern United States and the Midwest , and smog forecasts are prepared daily by the Environmental Protection Agency for both nearby Knoxville, Tennessee and Asheville, North Carolina . Environmental threats are

2603-520: Is advanced into the salamander's mouth, the teeth tips relax and bend in the same direction, encouraging movement toward the throat, and resisting the prey's escape. Many salamanders have patches of teeth attached to the vomer and the palatine bones in the roof of the mouth, and these help to retain prey. All types of teeth are resorbed and replaced at intervals throughout the animal's life. A terrestrial salamander catches its prey by flicking out its sticky tongue in an action that takes less than half

2740-566: Is another large, long-lived species with dwindling numbers and fewer juveniles reaching maturity than previously. Another alarming finding is the increase in abnormalities in up to 90% of the hellbender population in the Spring River watershed in Arkansas. Habitat loss, silting of streams, pollution and disease have all been implicated in the decline and a captive breeding programme at Saint Louis Zoo has been successfully established. Of

2877-459: Is being undertaken to assess the status of these salamanders, and to better understand the factors involved in their population declines, with a view to taking action. Ambystoma mexicanum , an aquatic salamander, is a species protected under the Mexican UMA (Unit for Management and conservation of wildlife) as of April 1994. Another detrimental factor is that the axolotl lost their role as

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3014-617: Is caused by the vegetation emitting volatile organic compounds , chemicals that have a high vapor pressure and easily form vapors at normal temperature and pressure. The Great Smoky Mountains stretch from the Pigeon River in the northeast to the Little Tennessee River in the southeast. The northwestern half of the range gives way to a series of elongate ridges known as the "Foothills," the outermost of which include Chilhowee Mountain and English Mountain . The range

3151-492: Is different from Wikidata All article disambiguation pages All disambiguation pages Great Smoky Mountains The Smokies are part of an International Biosphere Reserve . The range is home to an estimated 187,000 acres (76,000 ha) of old-growth forest , constituting the largest such stand east of the Mississippi River . The coves hardwood forests in the range's lower elevations are among

3288-410: Is home to diverse species such as coneflower, skunk goldenrod, Rugels ragwort , bloodroot , hydrangea, and several species of grasses and ferns. A unique community is the beech gap, or beech orchard. Beech gaps consist of high mountain gaps that have been monopolized by beech trees. The beech trees are often twisted and contorted by the high winds that occur in these gaps. Why other tree types such as

3425-624: Is internal. As a general rule, salamanders with internal fertilization have indirect sperm transfer, but in species like the Sardinian brook salamander , the Corsican brook salamander , the Caucasian salamander and the Pyrenean brook salamander , the male transfer his sperm directly into the female cloaca. For the species with indirect sperm transfer, the male deposits a spermatophore on

3562-417: Is larger than that of the female, is used during the amplexus embrace to propel the mating couple to a secluded location. In terrestrial species, the tail moves to counterbalance the animal as it runs, while in the arboreal salamander and other tree-climbing species, it is prehensile . The tail is also used by certain plethodontid salamanders that can jump, to help launch themselves into the air. The tail

3699-435: Is limited. Tiger salamander tadpoles in ephemeral pools sometimes resort to eating each other, and are seemingly able to target unrelated individuals. Adult blackbelly salamanders ( Desmognathus quadramaculatus ) prey on adults and young of other species of salamanders, while their larvae sometimes cannibalise smaller larvae. Most species of salamander have small teeth in both their upper and lower jaws. Unlike frogs , even

3836-465: Is not just limited to limbs but extends to vital organs such as the heart, jaw, and parts of the spinal cord, showing their uniqueness compared to different types of vertebrates. ⁤⁤This ability is most remarkable for occurring without any type of scarring. ⁤⁤This has made salamanders an invaluable model organism in scientific research aimed at understanding and achieving regenerative processes for medical advancements in human and animal biology. Members of

3973-455: Is restricted to the slightly cooler and wetter conditions in north-facing cove forests in the southern Appalachians, and to higher elevations above 900 m (3,000 ft), while the former is more adaptable, and would be perfectly able to inhabit these locations, but some unknown factor seems to prevent the two species from co-existing. One species, the Anderson's salamander , is one of

4110-797: Is roughly bounded on the south by the Tuckasegee River and to the southeast by Soco Creek and Jonathan Creek. The Smokies comprise parts of Blount County , Sevier County , and Cocke County in Tennessee and Swain County and Haywood County in North Carolina. The sources of several rivers are located in the Smokies, including the Little Pigeon River , the Oconaluftee River , and Little River . Streams in

4247-473: Is similar to the moist adiabatic lapse rate (3.3 degrees Fahrenheit per 1,000 ft), while the smaller difference between low temperatures is the result of frequent temperature inversions developing in the morning, especially during autumn. Strong damaging winds (80 to 100 mph (130 to 160 km/h), or sometimes greater) are observed a few times each year around the Smoky Mountains during

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4384-462: Is the only trout species native to the range, although northwestern rainbow trout and European brown trout were introduced in the first half of the 20th century. The larger rainbow and brown trout outcompete the native brook trout for food and habitat at lower elevations. As such, most of the brook trout found in the park today are in streams above 3,000 feet in elevation. Trout generally smaller than in different locales. Protected fish species include

4521-413: Is used in courtship and as a storage organ for proteins and lipids. It also functions as a defense against predation, when it may be lashed at the attacker or autotomised when grabbed. Unlike frogs, an adult salamander is able to regenerate limbs and its tail when these are lost. The skin of salamanders, in common with other amphibians, is thin, permeable to water, serves as a respiratory membrane, and

4658-407: Is well-supplied with glands. It has highly cornified outer layers, renewed periodically through a skin shedding process controlled by hormones from the pituitary and thyroid glands. During moulting, the skin initially breaks around the mouth, and the animal moves forward through the gap to shed the skin. When the front limbs have been worked clear, a series of body ripples pushes the skin toward

4795-706: The Alaska Panhandle . They had an exclusively Laurasian distribution until Bolitoglossa invaded South America from Central America, probably by the start of the Early Miocene , about 23 million years ago. They also lived on the Caribbean Islands during the early Miocene epoch, confirmed by the discovery of Palaeoplethodon hispaniolae , found trapped in amber in the Dominican Republic . Vertebrae fossils recovered from

4932-588: The Appalachian Mountains ; most species are found in the Holarctic realm , with some species present in the Neotropical realm . Salamanders never have more than four toes on their front legs and five on their rear legs, but some species have fewer digits and others lack hind limbs. Their permeable skin usually makes them reliant on habitats in or near water or other cool, damp places. Some salamander species are fully aquatic throughout their lives, some take to

5069-943: The Holarctic and Neotropical regions, not reaching south of the Mediterranean Basin , the Himalayas , or in South America the Amazon Basin . They do not extend north of the Arctic tree line , with the northernmost Asian species, Salamandrella keyserlingii , which can survive long-term freezing at −55 °C, occurring in the Siberian larch forests of Sakha and the most northerly species in North America, Ambystoma laterale , reaching no farther north than Labrador and Taricha granulosa not beyond

5206-826: The Maddron Bald Trail (between Gatlinburg and Cosby) is an accessible old-growth forest with some of the oldest and tallest trees in the entire range. Over 130 species of trees are found among the canopies of the cove hardwood forests in the Smokies. The dominant species include yellow birch ( Betula alleghaniensis ), basswood ( Tilia americana ), yellow buckeye ( Aesculus flava ), tulip tree ( Liriodendron tulipifera ; commonly called "tulip poplar"), silverbells ( Halesia carolina ), sugar maple ( Acer saccharum ), cucumber magnolia ( Magnolia acuminata ), shagbark hickory ( Carya ovata ), Carolina hemlock ( Tsuga caroliniana ) and eastern hemlock ( Tsuga canadensis ). The American chestnut ( Castanea dentata ), which

5343-618: The Murgon fossil site have been tentatively attributed to that of a Salamander, though its true identity is disputed. If the vertebrae truly belong to a Salamander, they would represent the only Salamanders in Australia . There are about 760 living species of salamander. One-third of the known salamander species are found in North America. The highest concentration of these is found in the Appalachian Mountains region, where

5480-718: The Ordovician period, the North American and African plates collided, destroying the ancient ocean and initiating the Alleghenian orogeny —the mountain-building epoch that created the Appalachian range. The Mesozoic era saw the rapid erosion of the softer sedimentary rocks from the new mountains, re-exposing the older Ocoee Supergroup formations. Around 20,000 years ago, subarctic glaciers advanced southward across North America, and although they never reached

5617-449: The amphiumas , metamorphosis is incomplete, and they retain one pair of gill slits as adults, with fully functioning internal lungs. Some species that lack lungs respire through gills. In most cases, these are external gills, visible as tufts on either side of the head. Some terrestrial salamanders have lungs used in respiration, although these are simple and sac-like, unlike the more complex organs found in mammals . Many species, such as

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5754-401: The balsam wooly adelgid , which arrived in the Smokies in the early 1960s. Thus, red spruce is now the dominant species in the range's spruce-fir forest. Large stands of dead Fraser firs remain atop Kuwohi and on the northwestern slopes of Old Black. While much of the red spruce stands were logged in the 1910s, the tree is still common throughout the range above 5,500 feet (1,700 m). Some of

5891-483: The black rat snake , and the northern water snake . The Smokies are home to one of the world's most diverse salamander populations. Five of the world's nine families of salamanders are found in the range, consisting of up to 31 species. The red-cheeked salamander is found only in the Smokies. The imitator salamander is found only in the Smokies and the nearby Plott Balsams and Great Balsam Mountains . Two other species—the southern gray-cheeked salamander and

6028-401: The cloud forests of Guatemala and Mexico during the 1970s were found by 2009 to be rare. Few data have been gathered on population sizes over the years and, by intensive surveying of historic and suitable new locations, it has been possible to locate individuals of other species, such as Parvimolge townsendi , which had been thought to be extinct . Currently, the major lines of defense for

6165-495: The family Salamandridae are mostly known as newts and lack the costal grooves along the sides of their bodies typical of other groups. The skin of some species contains the powerful poison tetrodotoxin ; these salamanders tend to be slow-moving and have bright warning coloration to advertise their toxicity. Salamanders typically lay eggs in water and have aquatic larvae, but great variation occurs in their lifecycles . Some species in harsh environments reproduce while still in

6302-576: The gray fox ) are found within the Smokies, with red foxes being documented at all elevations. European boar , introduced as game animals in the early 20th century, thrive in southern Appalachia but are considered a nuisance because of their tendency to root up and destroy plants. The boars are seen as taking food resources away from bears as well, and the park service has sponsored a program that pays individuals to hunt and kill boars and leave their bodies in locations frequented by bears. The Smokies are home to over two dozen species of rodents, including

6439-594: The lens or retina of the eye. Within only a few weeks of losing a piece of a limb, a salamander perfectly reforms the missing structure. Salamanders split off from the other amphibians during the mid- to late Permian, and initially were similar to modern members of the Cryptobranchoidea . Their resemblance to lizards is the result of symplesiomorphy , their common retention of the primitive tetrapod body plan, but they are no more closely related to lizards than they are to mammals. Their nearest relatives are

6576-638: The olm , have both lungs and gills as adults. In the Necturus , external gills begin to form as a means of combating hypoxia in the egg as egg yolk is converted into metabolically active tissue. Molecular changes in the mudpuppy during post-embryonic development primarily due to the thyroid gland prevent the internalization of the external gills as seen in most salamanders that undergo metamorphosis. The external gills seen in salamanders differs greatly from that of amphibians with internalized gills. Unlike amphibians with internalized gills which typically rely on

6713-546: The smoky madtom and yellowfin madtom , the spotfin chub , and the duskytail darter . The firefly Photinus carolinus , whose synchronized flashing light displays occur in mid-June, is native to the Smoky Mountains with a population epicenter near Elkmont, Tennessee . Air pollution is contributing to increased red spruce tree mortality at higher elevations and oak decline at lower elevations, while invasive hemlock woolly adelgids attack hemlocks, and balsam woolly adelgids attack Fraser firs . Pseudoscymnus tsugae ,

6850-554: The southern Appalachian salamander —occur only in the general region. Other species include the shovelnose salamander , blackbelly salamander , eastern red-spotted newt , and spotted dusky salamander . The hellbender inhabits swift streams. Other amphibians include the American toad and the American bullfrog , wood frog , upland chorus frog , northern green frog , and spring peeper . Fish include trout , lamprey , darter , shiner , bass , and sucker . The brook trout

6987-502: The ultraviolet range, based on three photoreceptor types that are maximally sensitive around 450, 500, and 570 nm. The larvae, and the adults of some highly aquatic species, also have a lateral line organ, similar to that of fish, which can detect changes in water pressure. All salamanders lack middle ear cavity, eardrum and eustachian tube , but have an opercularis system like frogs, and are still able to detect airborne sound. The opercularis system consists of two ossicles:

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7124-430: The white-tailed deer , the population of which drastically expanded with the creation of the national park. The bobcat is the only remaining wild cat species, although sightings of cougars , which once thrived in the area, are still occasionally reported. The coyote is not believed to be native to the range but has moved into the area in recent years and is treated as a native species. Two species of fox ( red fox and

7261-468: The 20 species of minute salamanders ( Thorius spp.) in Mexico, half are believed to have become extinct and most of the others are critically endangered. Specific reasons for the decline may include climate change, chytridiomycosis, or volcanic activity, but the main threat is habitat destruction as logging, agricultural activities, and human settlement reduce their often tiny, fragmented ranges. Survey work

7398-500: The California newt has many large poison glands in its skin, is diurnal, and is avoided by snakes. Some salamander species use tail autotomy to escape predators. The tail drops off and wriggles around for a while after an attack, and the salamander either runs away or stays still enough not to be noticed while the predator is distracted. The tail regrows with time, and salamanders routinely regenerate other complex tissues, including

7535-685: The Chimney Tops, and kuwahi ᎫᏩᎯ, or "mulberry place". Most Cherokee settlements were located in the river valleys on the outer fringe of the Smokies, which along with the Unicoi Mountains provided the main bulwark dividing the Overhill Cherokee villages in modern Tennessee from the Cherokee Middle towns in modern North Carolina. The Overhill town of Chilhowee was situated at the confluence of Abrams Creek and

7672-587: The Dragon's Advocate and even hardy orchids . There are two native species of rhododendron in the area. The catawba rhododendron has purple flowers in May and June, while the rosebay rhododendron has longer leaves and white or light pink blooms in June and July. The orange- to sometimes red-flowered and deciduous flame azalea closely follows along with the catawbas. The closely related mountain laurel blooms in between

7809-660: The Little Tennessee, and the Overhill town of Tallassee was located just a few miles upstream near modern Calderwood (both village sites are now under Chilhowee Lake). A string of Overhill villages, including Chota and Tanasi , dotted the Little Tennessee valley north of Chilhowee. Salamander Cryptobranchoidea Salamandroidea Salamanders are a group of amphibians typically characterized by their lizard -like appearance, with slender bodies, blunt snouts, short limbs projecting at right angles to

7946-617: The Mississippian-period villages at Chilhowee and Citico (Pardo's notary called them by their Muskogean names, "Chalahume" and "Satapo"). By the time the first English explorers arrived in southern Appalachia in the late 17th century, the Cherokee controlled much of the region, and the Great Smoky Mountains lay at the center of their territory. One Cherokee legend tells of a magical lake hidden deep within

8083-517: The Plethodontidae are thought to have originated in mountain streams. Here, vegetation zones and proximity to water are of greater importance than altitude. Only species that adopted a more terrestrial mode of life have been able to disperse to other localities. The northern slimy salamander ( Plethodon glutinosus ) has a wide range and occupies a habitat similar to that of the southern gray-cheeked salamander ( Plethodon metcalfi ). The latter

8220-884: The Smokies are part of the Tennessee River watershed and are thus entirely west of the Eastern Continental Divide . The largest stream entirely within the park is Abrams Creek , which rises in Cades Cove and empties into the Chilhowee Lake impoundment of the Little Tennessee River near Chilhowee Dam . Other major streams include Hazel Creek and Eagle Creek in the southwest, Raven Fork near Oconaluftee, Cosby Creek near Cosby , and Roaring Fork near Gatlinburg . The Little Tennessee River passes through five impediments along

8357-471: The Smokies are typically divided into three zones: Appalachian balds —patches of land where trees are unexpectedly absent or sparse—are interspersed through the mid-to-upper elevations in the range. Balds include grassy balds, which are highland meadows covered primarily by thick grasses, and heath balds, which are dense thickets of rhododendron and mountain laurel typically occurring on narrow ridges. Mixed oak-pine forests are found on dry ridges, especially on

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8494-434: The Smokies, the advancing glaciers led to colder mean annual temperatures and an increase in precipitation throughout the range. Trees were unable to survive at the higher elevations and were replaced by tundra vegetation. Spruce-fir forests occupied the valleys and slopes below approximately 4,950 feet (1,510 m). The persistent freezing and thawing during this period created the large blockfields that are often found at

8631-510: The Smokies. As for temperatures, the average temperature difference between the mountains ( Newfound Gap around 5,000 feet (1,500 m) MSL and the valleys (Park Headquarters around 1,600 feet (490 m) MSL in the Great Smoky Mountains National Park is between 10 and 13 °F (6 and 7 °C) with highs and between 3 and 6 °F (2 and 3 °C) with lows. The difference between high temperatures

8768-659: The Smokies—formed over a billion years ago from the accumulation of marine sediments and igneous rock in a primordial ocean. In the Late Precambrian period, this ocean expanded, and the more recent Ocoee Supergroup rocks formed from accumulations of the eroding land mass onto the ocean's continental shelf. By the end of the Paleozoic era, the ancient ocean had deposited a thick layer of marine sediments which left behind sedimentary rocks such as limestone. During

8905-405: The animal of an approaching predator. Salamanders are usually considered to have no voice and do not use sound for communication in the way that frogs do. Before mating, they communicate by pheromone signaling; some species make quiet ticking, clicking, squeaks or popping noises, perhaps by the opening and closing of valves in the nose. Most salamanders lack vocal cords, but a larynx is present in

9042-422: The animal slippery and more difficult for predators to catch. Granular glands scattered on the upper surface, particularly the head, back, and tail, produce repellent or toxic secretions. Some salamander toxins are particularly potent. The rough-skinned newt ( Taricha granulosa ) produces the neurotoxin tetrodotoxin , the most toxic nonprotein substance known. Handling the newts does no harm, but ingestion of even

9179-404: The axolotl does not account for the overall lack of diversity. Evidence points toward a historical bottlenecking of Ambystoma that contributes to the variation issues and no longer a large genetic pool for it to pull from, thus raising concern for inbreeding due to lack of gene flow. One way researchers are looking into maintaining genetic diversity within the population is via cryopreservation of

9316-491: The base of large mountain slopes. Between 16,500 and 12,500 years ago, the glaciers to the north retreated and mean annual temperatures rose. The tundra vegetation disappeared, and the spruce-fir forests retreated to the highest elevations. Hardwood trees moved into the region from the coastal plains, replacing the spruce-fir forests in the lower elevations. The temperatures continued warming until around 6,000 years ago, when they began to gradually grow cooler. Heavy logging in

9453-544: The body, and the presence of a tail in both larvae and adults. All ten extant salamander families are grouped together under the order Urodela from the group Caudata . Urodela is a scientific Latin term based on the Ancient Greek οὐρά δήλη : ourà dēlē "conspicuous tail". Caudata is the Latin for "tailed ones", from cauda : "tail". Salamander diversity is highest in eastern North America , especially in

9590-402: The body. Some aquatic species, such as sirens and amphiumas , have reduced or absent hind limbs, giving them an eel -like appearance, but in most species, the front and rear limbs are about the same length and project sideward, barely raising the trunk off the ground. The feet are broad with short digits, usually four on the front feet and five on the rear. Salamanders do not have claws, and

9727-478: The breeding season. Cave species dwelling in darkness lack pigmentation and have a translucent pink or pearlescent appearance. Salamanders range in size from the minute salamanders , with a total length of 27 mm ( 1 + 1 ⁄ 8  in), including the tail, to the Chinese giant salamander which reaches 1.8 m (6 ft) and weighs up to 65 kg (145 lb). All the largest species are found in

9864-455: The changing of pressures within the buccal and pharyngeal cavities to ensure diffusion of oxygen onto the gill curtain, neotenic salamanders such as Necturus use specified musculature, such as the levatores arcuum, to move external gills to keep the respiratory surfaces constantly in contact with new oxygenated water. Salamanders are opportunistic predators . They are generally not restricted to specific foods, but feed on almost any organism of

10001-457: The chin which are pressed against the females' nostrils during the courtship ritual. They may function to speed up the mating process, reducing the risk of its being disrupted by a predator or rival male. The gland at the base of the tail in Plethodon cinereus is used to mark fecal pellets to proclaim territorial ownership. Olfaction in salamanders plays a role in territory maintenance,

10138-472: The cloacae of females. The results of this research may be used in captive-breeding programmes for endangered species. The order name Urodela comes from the name Urodèles given by André Marie Constant Duméril in 1805, it is derived from the Greek words οὐρά ourā́ "tail" and δῆλος dēlos "visible, conspicuous" because of their "persistent" tails. Disagreement exists among different authorities as to

10275-424: The columella (equivalent to the stapes of higher vertebrates ) which is fused to the skull, and the operculum. An opercularis muscle connects the latter to the pectoral girdle, and is kept under tension when the animal is alert. The system seems able to detect low-frequency vibrations (500–600 Hz), which may be picked up from the ground by the fore limbs and transmitted to the inner ear. These may serve to warn

10412-585: The concern of many non-profit environmental stewardship groups, especially The Friends of the Smokies. Formed in 1993, the group assists the National Park Service in its mission to preserve and protect the Great Smoky Mountains National Park by raising funds and public awareness, and providing volunteers for needed projects. Native Americans have likely been hunting in the Great Smoky Mountains for 14,000 years. Numerous Archaic period ( c.  8000 –1000 B.C.) artifacts have been found within

10549-617: The conservation of Salamanders includes both in situ and ex situ conservation methods. There are efforts in place for certain members of the Salamander family to be conserved under a conservation breeding program (CBP) but there should be research done ahead of time to determine if the Salamander species is actually going to value from the CBP, as researchers have noted that some species of amphibians completely fail in this environment. Various conservation initiatives are being attempted around

10686-498: The control of thyroid hormones and in obligate neotenes such as the axolotl ( Ambystoma mexicanum ), the tissues are seemingly unresponsive to the hormones. In other species, the changes may not be triggered because of underactivity of the hypothalamus-pituitary-thyroid mechanism which may occur when conditions in the terrestrial environment are too inhospitable. This may be due to cold or wildly fluctuating temperatures, aridity, lack of food, lack of cover, or insufficient iodine for

10823-470: The cool season (October through April), as a result of a phenomenon known as mountain waves . These mountain wave winds are strongest in a narrow area along the foothills and can create extensive areas of fallen trees and roof damage, especially around Cades Cove in the Great Smoky Mountains National Park and the Camp Creek community. Strong winds created by mountain waves were a contributing factor with

10960-498: The densest black bear population east of the Mississippi River. The black bear has come to symbolize wildlife in the Smokies, and the animal frequently appears on the covers of the Great Smoky Mountains National Park's literature. Most of the range's adult eastern black bears weigh between 100 pounds (45 kg) and 300 pounds (140 kg), although some grow to more than 500 pounds (230 kg). Other mammals include

11097-399: The devastating Gatlinburg fire on November 28, 2016 during the 2016 Great Smoky Mountains wildfires . Damaging winds can also be generated by strong thunderstorms, with tornadoes and strong thunderstorm complexes (also known as mesoscale convective systems ) occasionally affecting the Smoky Mountains. The climate of Kuwohi is hemiboreal ( Köppen Dfb , Trewartha Dcb ). As with much of

11234-603: The different species of salamanders, and can involve gills, lungs, skin, and the membranes of mouth and throat. Larval salamanders breathe primarily by means of gills , which are usually external and feathery in appearance. Water is drawn in through the mouth and flows out through the gill slits. Some neotenic species such as the mudpuppy ( Necturus maculosus ) retain their gills throughout their lives, but most species lose them at metamorphosis . The embryos of some terrestrial lungless salamanders, such as Ensatina , that undergo direct development, have large gills that lie close to

11371-406: The egg's surface. When present in adult salamanders, lungs vary greatly among different species in size and structure. In aquatic, cold-water species like the torrent salamanders ( Rhyacotriton ), the lungs are very small with smooth walls, while species living in warm water with little dissolved oxygen, such as the lesser siren ( Siren intermedia ), have large lungs with convoluted surfaces. In

11508-755: The eggs are laid. In the Asiatic salamanders , the giant salamanders and Sirenidae , which are the most primitive groups, the fertilization is external. In a reproductive process similar to that of typical frogs, the male releases sperm onto the egg mass. These salamanders also have males that exhibit parental care , which otherwise only occur in females with internal fertilization. Three different types of egg deposition occur. Ambystoma and Taricha spp. spawn large numbers of small eggs in quiet ponds where many large predators are unlikely. Most dusky salamanders ( Desmognathus ) and Pacific giant salamanders ( Dicamptodon ) lay smaller batches of medium-sized eggs in

11645-437: The eggs inside her body until they hatch, either into larvae to be deposited in a water body, or into fully formed juveniles. In temperate regions, reproduction is usually seasonal and salamanders may migrate to breeding grounds. Males usually arrive first and in some instances set up territories . Typically, a larval stage follows in which the organism is fully aquatic. The tadpole has three pairs of external gills, no eyelids,

11782-515: The endangered northern flying squirrel and 10 species of bats, including the endangered Indiana bat . The National Park Service has successfully reintroduced river otters and elk . An attempt to reintroduce the red wolf in the early 1990s ultimately failed. These wolves were removed from the park and relocated to the Alligator River National Wildlife Refuge in North Carolina. The Smokies are home to

11919-530: The few species of living amphibians to occur in brackish or salt water. Many salamanders do not use vocalisations, and in most species the sexes look alike, so they use olfactory and tactile cues to identify potential mates, and sexual selection occurs. Pheromones play an important part in the process and may be produced by the abdominal gland in males and by the cloacal glands and skin in both sexes. Males are sometimes to be seen investigating potential mates with their snouts. In Old World newts, Triturus spp.,

12056-481: The formation of thyroid hormones. Genetics may also play a part. The larvae of tiger salamanders ( Ambystoma tigrinum ), for example, develop limbs soon after hatching and in seasonal pools promptly undergo metamorphosis. Other larvae, especially in permanent pools and warmer climates, may not undergo metamorphosis until fully adult in size. Other populations in colder climates may not metamorphose at all, and become sexually mature while in their larval forms. Neoteny allows

12193-406: The four families giant salamanders , sirens , Congo eels and Proteidae , who are all aquatic and obligate paedomorphs. Some of the largest terrestrial salamanders, which goes through full metamorphosis, belongs to the family of Pacific giant salamanders , and are much smaller. Most salamanders are between 10 and 20 cm (4 and 8 in) in length. An adult salamander generally resembles

12330-704: The frogs and toads, within Batrachia . The oldest known total-group ( Caudata ) salamander is Triassurus from the Triassic of Kyrgyzstan . Further salamander fossils are known from the Middle Jurassic of England , Scotland , China , and Kazakhstan . The oldest known crown-group salamander ( Urodela ) remains uncertain but recent analyses suggest it is Valdotriton from the Late Jurassic of Spain . Salamanders are found only in

12467-449: The future. Skin secretions of the tiger salamander ( Ambystoma tigrinum ) fed to rats have been shown to produce aversion to the flavor, and the rats avoided the presentational medium when it was offered to them again. The fire salamander ( Salamandra salamandra ) has a ridge of large granular glands down its spine which are able to squirt a fine jet of toxic fluid at its attacker. By angling its body appropriately, it can accurately direct

12604-730: The game-rich forests of the Smokies and into the fertile river valleys on the outer fringe of the range. Substantial Mississippian-period villages were uncovered at Citico and Toqua (named after the Cherokee villages that later thrived at these sites) along the Little Tennessee River in the 1960s. Fortified Mississippian-period villages have been excavated at the McMahan Indian Mounds in Sevierville and as well as mounds in Townsend . Most of these villages were part of

12741-437: The ground or in the water according to species, and the female picks this up with her vent. The spermatophore has a packet of sperm supported on a conical gelatinous base, and often an elaborate courtship behavior is involved in its deposition and collection. Once inside the cloaca, the spermatozoa move to the spermatheca , one or more chambers in the roof of the cloaca, where they are stored for sometimes lengthy periods until

12878-471: The harsh mountain tops, typically above 5,500 feet (1,700 m). About 10,600 acres (43 km ) of the spruce-fir forest are old-growth. The spruce-fir forest consists primarily of two conifer species— red spruce ( Picea rubens ) and Fraser fir ( Abies fraseri ). The Fraser firs, which are native to southern Appalachia, once dominated elevations above 6,200 feet (1,900 m) in the Smokies. Most of these firs were killed, however, by an infestation of

13015-629: The higher elevations in the Smokies are cool enough to support forest types more commonly found in the northern United States. The northern hardwood forests constitute the highest broad-leaved forest in the eastern United States. About 28,600 acres (116 km ) are old-growth. In the Smokies, the northern hardwood canopies are dominated by yellow birch ( Betula alleghaniensis ) and American beech ( Fagus grandifolia ). White basswood ( Tilia heterophylla ), mountain maple ( Acer spicatum ) and striped maple ( Acer pensylvanicum ), and yellow buckeye ( Aesculus flava ) are also present. The understory

13152-403: The larvae of salamanders possess these teeth. Although larval teeth are shaped like pointed cones, the teeth of adults are adapted to enable them to readily grasp prey. The crown , which has two cusps (bicuspid), is attached to a pedicel by collagenous fibers. The joint formed between the bicuspid and the pedicel is partially flexible, as it can bend inward, but not outward. When struggling prey

13289-404: The larval stage may last from days to years, depending on species. Sometimes this stage is completely bypassed, and the eggs of most lungless salamanders (Plethodontidae) develop directly into miniature versions of the adult without an intervening larval stage. By the end of the larval stage, the tadpoles already have limbs and metamorphosis takes place normally. In salamanders, this occurs over

13426-619: The larval state. The word salamander comes from Old French salamandre from Latin salamandra from Greek σαλαμάνδρα  : salamándra, of uncertain, possibly, pre-Greek origin. The Greek word is used for the fire salamander . The skin lacks scales and is moist and smooth to the touch, except in newts of the Salamandridae, which may have velvety or warty skin, wet to the touch. The skin may be drab or brightly colored, exhibiting various patterns of stripes, bars, spots, blotches, or dots. Male newts become dramatically colored during

13563-829: The last few decades of the 20th century, although no direct link between the fungus and the population decline has yet been found. The IUCN made further efforts in 2005 as they established the Amphibian Conservation Action Plan (ACAP), which was subsequently followed by Amphibian Ark (AArk), Amphibian Specialist Group (ASG), and finally the umbrella organization known as the Amphibian Survival Alliance (ASA). Researchers also cite deforestation , resulting in fragmentation of suitable habitats, and climate change as possible contributory factors. Species such as Pseudoeurycea brunnata and Pseudoeurycea goebeli that had been abundant in

13700-637: The late 19th century and early 20th century devastated much of the forests of the Smokies, but the National Park Service estimates 187,000 acres (760 km ) of old-growth forest remains, comprising the largest old-growth stand in the Eastern United States. Most of the forest is a mature second-growth hardwood forest. The range's 1,600 species of flowering plants include over 100 species of native trees and 100 species of native shrubs. The Smokies are also home to over 450 species of non-vascular plants and 2,000 species of fungi. The forests of

13837-738: The local population on the restoration of the natural habitat of these creatures. This proximity is a large factor that has impacted the survival of the axolotl, as the city has expanded to take over the Xochimilco region in order to make use of its resources for water and provision and sewage. It is farmed for use in research facilities and so may one day return to its natural habitat. The recent decline in population has substantially impacted genetic diversity among populations, making it difficult to further progress scientifically. Some genetic indiversity due to paedeomorphism in Ambystoma species such as

13974-410: The lungless salamanders ( family Plethodontidae and the clawed salamanders in the family of Asiatic salamanders ), no lungs or gills are present, and gas exchange mostly takes place through the skin, known as cutaneous respiration , supplemented by the tissues lining the mouth. To facilitate this, these salamanders have a dense network of blood vessels just under the skin and in the mouth. In

14111-471: The males are sexually dimorphic and display in front of the females. Visual cues are also thought to be important in some Plethodont species. Except for terrestrial species in the three families Plethodontidae , Ambystomatidae , and Salamandridae , salamanders mate in water. The mating varies from courtship between a single male and female to explosive group breeding. In the clade Salamandroidea , which makes up about 90% of all species, fertilization

14248-474: The most common hawk species, have been sighted at all elevations. Owl species include the barred owl , eastern screech owl , and northern saw-whet owl . Timber rattlesnakes —one of two venomous snake species in the Smokies—are found at all elevations. The other venomous snake, the copperhead , is typically found at lower elevations. Other reptiles include the eastern box turtle , the eastern fence lizard ,

14385-582: The most diverse ecosystems in North America, and the Southern Appalachian spruce–fir forest that covers the upper elevations is the largest of its kind. The Smokies are home to the densest black bear population in the Eastern United States and the most diverse salamander population outside of the tropics. Along with the biosphere reserve, the Great Smoky Mountains have been designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site . The U.S. National Park Service preserves and maintains 78 structures within

14522-515: The mudpuppy (Necturus) and some other species, and the Pacific giant salamanders and a few others have a large larynx and bands known as plicae vocales. The California giant salamander can produce a bark or rattle, and a few species can squeak by contracting muscles in the throat. The arboreal salamander can squeak using a different mechanism; it retracts its eyes into its head, forcing air out of its mouth. The ensatina salamander occasionally makes

14659-468: The national park that were once part of the numerous small Appalachian communities scattered throughout the range's river valleys and coves. The park contains five historic districts and nine individual listings on the National Register of Historic Places . The name "Smoky" comes from the natural fog that often hangs over the range and presents as large smoke plumes from a distance. This fog

14796-469: The national park's boundaries, including projectile points uncovered along likely animal migration paths. Woodland period ( c.  1000 B.C. - 1000 A.D.) sites found within the park contained 2,000-year-old ceramics and evidence of primitive agriculture. The increasing reliance upon agriculture during the Mississippian period ( c.  900 –1600 A.D.) lured Native Americans away from

14933-641: The oldest rocks in the Smokies, comprise the dominant rock type in the Raven Fork Valley (in the Oconaluftee valley ) and lower Tuckasegee River between Cherokee and Bryson City . They consist primarily of metamorphic gneiss , granite , and schist . Cambrian sedimentary rocks are found among the outer reaches of the Foothills to the northwest and in limestone coves such as Cades Cove. The Precambrian gneiss and schists—the oldest rocks in

15070-543: The palatable yellow-eyed salamander ( Ensatina eschscholtzii ) closely resembles the toxic California newt ( Taricha torosa ) and the rough-skinned newt ( Taricha granulosa ), whereas in other parts of its range, it is cryptically colored. A correlation exists between the toxicity of Californian salamander species and diurnal habits: relatively harmless species like the California slender salamander ( Batrachoseps attenuatus ) are nocturnal and are eaten by snakes, while

15207-579: The prey, which is then swallowed. Though frequently feeding on slow-moving animals like snails , shrimps and worms , sirenids are unique among salamanders for having developed herbivory speciations, such as beak-like jaw ends and extensive intestines. They feed on algae and other soft-plants in the wild, and easily eat offered lettuce . Salamanders have thin skins and soft bodies, move rather slowly and might appear vulnerable to opportunistic predation, but have several effective lines of defense. Mucus coating on damp skin makes them difficult to grasp, and

15344-571: The range but inaccessible to humans. Another tells of a captured Shawnee medicine man named Aganunitsi who, in exchange for his freedom, travels to the remote sections of the range in search of the Uktena . The Cherokee called Gregory Bald Tsitsuyi ᏥᏧᏱ, or "rabbit place," and believed the mountain to be the domain of the Great Rabbit. Other Cherokee place names in the Smokies included Duniskwalgunyi ᏚᏂᏍᏆᎫᏂ, or "forked antlers", which refers to

15481-437: The range's southwestern boundary, namely Tellico Lake , Chilhowee Lake , Calderwood Lake , Cheoah Lake , and Fontana Lake . The highest point in the Smokies is Kuwohi , the tallest mountain in Tennessee, which rises to an elevation of 6,643 feet (2,025 m). It has the range's highest topographic prominence at 4,503 feet (1,373 m). Mount Le Conte is the tallest (i.e., from immediate base to summit) mountain in

15618-541: The range, rising 5,301 feet (1,616 m) from its base in Gatlinburg to its 6,593-foot (2,010 m) summit. The Smokies rise prominently above the surrounding low terrain. For example, Mount Le Conte (6,593 feet [2,010 m]) rises more than a mile (1.6 km) above its base. Because of their prominence, the Smokies receive a heavy annual amount of precipitation. Annual precipitation amounts range from 50 to 80 in (1,300 to 2,000 mm), and snowfall in

15755-488: The rear. The hind limbs are extracted and push the skin farther back, before it is eventually freed by friction as the salamander moves forward with the tail pressed against the ground. The animal often then eats the resulting sloughed skin. Glands in the skin discharge mucus which keeps the skin moist, an important factor in skin respiration and thermoregulation. The sticky layer helps protect against bacterial infections and molds, reduces friction when swimming, and makes

15892-410: The recognition of predators, and courtship rituals, but is probably secondary to sight during prey selection and feeding. Salamanders have two types of sensory areas that respond to the chemistry of the environment. Olfactory epithelium in the nasal cavity picks up airborne and aquatic odors, while adjoining vomeronasal organs detect nonvolatile chemical cues, such as tastes in the mouth. In plethodonts,

16029-424: The red spruce fail to encroach into the beech gaps is unknown. The Southern Appalachian spruce–fir forest —also called the "boreal" or "Canadian" forest—is a relict of the ice ages , when mean annual temperatures in the Smokies were too cold to support a hardwood forest. While the rise in temperatures between 12,500 and 6,000 years ago allowed the hardwoods to return, the spruce-fir forest has managed to survive on

16166-804: The red spruces are believed to be 300 years old, and the tallest rise to over 100 feet (30 m). The main difference between the Southern Appalachian spruce–fir forest and the spruce-fir forests in northern latitudes is the dense broad-leaved understory of the former, which are home to catawba rhododendron , mountain ash , pin cherry , thornless blackberry, and hobblebush . The herbaceous and litter layers are poorly lit year-round and are thus dominated by shade-tolerant plants such as ferns, namely mountain wood fern and northern lady fern , and over 280 species of mosses. Many wildflowers grow in mountains and valleys, including bee balm , Solomon's seal , Dutchman's breeches , various trilliums ,

16303-480: The salamander family. Research is being done on the environmental cues that have to be replicated before captive animals can be persuaded to breed. Common species such as the tiger salamander and the mudpuppy are being given hormones to stimulate the production of sperm and eggs, and the role of arginine vasotocin in courtship behaviour is being investigated. Another line of research is artificial insemination , either in vitro or by inserting spermatophores into

16440-448: The sensory epithelium of the vomeronasal organs extends to the nasolabial grooves , which stretch from the nostrils to the corners of the mouth. These extended areas seem to be associated with the identification of prey items, the recognition of conspecifics , and the identification of individuals. The eyes of most salamanders are adapted primarily for vision at night. In some permanently aquatic species, they are reduced in size and have

16577-462: The shape of the foot varies according to the animal's habitat. Climbing species have elongated, square-tipped toes, while rock-dwellers have larger feet with short, blunt toes. The tree-climbing salamander ( Bolitoglossa sp.) has plate-like webbed feet which adhere to smooth surfaces by suction, while the rock-climbing Hydromantes species from California have feet with fleshy webs and short digits and use their tails as an extra limb. When ascending,

16714-429: The slimy coating may have an offensive taste or be toxic. When attacked by a predator, a salamander may position itself to make the main poison glands face the aggressor. Often, these are on the tail, which may be waggled or turned up and arched over the animal's back. The sacrifice of the tail may be a worthwhile strategy, if the salamander escapes with its life and the predator learns to avoid that species of salamander in

16851-537: The south-facing North Carolina side of the range. Stands dominated by the Eastern hemlock ( Tsuga canadensis ) are occasionally found along streams and broad slopes above 3,500 feet (1,100 m). Cove hardwood forests, which are native to southern Appalachia, are among the most diverse forest types in North America. The cove hardwood forests of the Smokies are mostly second-growth, although some 72,000 acres (290 km ) are still old-growth. The Albright Grove along

16988-681: The southern Blue Ridge , the area qualifies as part of the Appalachian Rainforest . On the other hand, Gatlinburg's climate is four-season subtropical ( Cfa ) under Köppen (oceanic Do under Trewartha ), typical of Tennessee. Most of the rocks in the Great Smoky Mountains consist of Late Precambrian rocks that are part of a formation known as the Ocoee Supergroup . The Ocoee Supergroup consists primarily of slightly metamorphosed sandstones , phyllites , schists , and slate . Early Precambrian rocks, which include

17125-458: The species to survive even when the terrestrial environment is too harsh for the adults to thrive on land. A general decline in living amphibian species has been linked with the fungal disease chytridiomycosis . A higher proportion of salamander species than of frogs or caecilians are in one of the at-risk categories established by the IUCN . Salamanders showed a significant diminution in numbers in

17262-432: The spermatophores from the male axolotl. It is a safe and non-invasive method that requires the collection of the spermatophores and places them into a deep freeze for preservation. Most importantly, they have found that there is only limited damage done to the spermatophores upon thawing and thus it is a viable option. As of 2013, it is a method that is being used to save not only the axolotl but also numerous other members of

17399-439: The spray for a distance of up to 80 cm (30 in). The Iberian ribbed newt ( Pleurodeles waltl ) has another method of deterring aggressors. Its skin exudes a poisonous, viscous fluid and at the same time, the newt rotates its sharply pointed ribs through an angle between 27 and 92°, and adopts an inflated posture. This action causes the ribs to puncture the body wall, each rib protruding through an orange wart arranged in

17536-409: The sruce-fir and northern hardwood zones. Ovenbirds , whip-poor-wills , and downy woodpeckers live in the drier pine-oak forests and heath balds. Bald eagles and golden eagles have been spotted at all elevations in the park. Peregrine falcon sightings are also not uncommon, and a peregrine falcon eyrie is known to have existed near Alum Cave Bluffs throughout the 1930s. Red-tailed hawks ,

17673-406: The tail props up the rear of the body, while one hind foot moves forward and then swings to the other side to provide support as the other hind foot advances. In larvae and aquatic salamanders, the tail is laterally flattened, has dorsal and ventral fins, and undulates from side to side to propel the animal through the water. In the families Ambystomatidae and Salamandridae, the male's tail, which

17810-413: The throat, assisted by depression of the eyeballs into the roof of the mouth. Many lungless salamanders of the family Plethodontidae have more elaborate feeding methods. Muscles surrounding the hyoid bone contract to store elastic energy in springy connective tissue, and actually "shoot" the hyoid bone out of the mouth, thus elongating the tongue. Muscles that originate in the pelvic region and insert in

17947-431: The tongue are used to reel the tongue and the hyoid back to their original positions. An aquatic salamander lacks muscles in the tongue, and captures its prey in an entirely different manner. It grabs the food item, grasps it with its teeth, and adopts a kind of inertial feeding. This involves tossing its head about, drawing water sharply in and out of its mouth, and snapping its jaws, all of which tend to tear and macerate

18084-487: The tongue bulges and changes shape as it shoots forward. The protruded tongue has a central depression, and the rim of this collapses inward as the target is struck, trapping the prey in a mucus-laden trough. Here it is held while the animal's neck is flexed, the tongue retracted and jaws closed. Large or resistant prey is retained by the teeth while repeated protrusions and retractions of the tongue draw it in. Swallowing involves alternate contraction and relaxation of muscles in

18221-557: The two, and all of the blooms progress from lower to higher elevations. The reverse is true in autumn, when nearly bare mountaintops covered in rime ice (frozen fog) can be separated from green valleys by very bright and varied leaf colors. The rhododendrons are broadleafs , whose leaves droop in order to shed wet and heavy snows that come through the region during winter. The Great Smoky Mountains are home to 66 species of mammals, over 240 species of birds, 43 species of amphibians, 60 species of fish, and 40 species of reptiles. The range has

18358-455: The water intermittently, and others are entirely terrestrial as adults. This group of amphibians is capable of regenerating lost limbs as well as other damaged parts of their bodies. Researchers hope to reverse engineer the regenerative processes for potential human medical applications, such as brain and spinal cord injury treatment or preventing harmful scarring during heart surgery recovery. The remarkable ability of salamanders to regenerate

18495-487: The winter can be heavy, especially on the higher slopes. For comparison, the surrounding terrain has annual precipitation of around 40 to 50 in (1,000 to 1,300 mm). Flash flooding often occurs after heavy rain. In 2004, the remnants of Hurricane Frances caused major flooding, landslides , and high winds, which were soon followed by Hurricane Ivan , making the situation worse. Other post-hurricanes, including Hurricane Hugo in 1989, have caused similar damage in

18632-481: The world. The Chinese giant salamander , at 1.8 m (6 ft) the largest amphibian in the world, is critically endangered , as it is collected for food and for use in traditional Chinese medicine . An environmental education programme is being undertaken to encourage sustainable management of wild populations in the Qinling Mountains and captive breeding programmes have been set up. The hellbender

18769-532: Was arguably the most beloved tree of the range's pre-park inhabitants, was killed off by the introduced Chestnut blight in the 1920s. The understories of the cove hardwood forest contain dozens of species of shrubs and vines. Dominant species in the Smokies include the Eastern redbud ( Cercis canadensis ), flowering dogwood ( Cornus florida ), Catawba rhododendron ( Rhododendron catawbiense ), mountain laurel ( Kalmia latifolia ), and smooth hydrangea ( Hydrangea arborescens ). The mean annual temperatures in

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