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136-666: The Souliotes were an Orthodox Christian Albanian tribal community in the area of Souli in Epirus from the 16th century to the beginning of the 19th century, who via their participation in the Greek War of Independence came to identify with the Greek nation . They originated from Albanian clans that settled in the highlands of Thesprotia in the Late Middle Ages and established an autonomous confederation dominating

272-525: A sipahi , who had a degree of jurisdiction in Souli, represented them, as testified in a 1794 document, and collected a small amount of tax. The incorporation of the Souliots in the timariot system through the payment of taxes certified their legal standing, guaranteed them representation through the sipahi and allowed the continuation of their control and enrichment through activities such as brigandage and

408-533: A hatt-ı Şerif against Ali Pasha of Yannina proclaiming him an outlaw and subsequently called Christians and Muslims persecuted by Ali to aid the Sultan's troops promising the return of their properties and villages. As in summer 1820 both the Sultan and Ali sought the military assistance of the Souliots, Ioannis Kapodistrias , the Greek serving as foreign minister of Russia, who had visited his native Corfu in 1819 and

544-494: A "paid traitor". Other historians of the 19th century follow the same assessment. In modern historiography, the explanation of his political stance through "greed" is considered an oversimplification. Like all other Souliot clans, the Botsaris first and foremost worked for the interests of their own clan, and sought to improve the wealth and political position of their clan, hence the stance of George Botsaris and all Souliot leaders

680-766: A French corvette stationed in Parga. This intervention by the French offered Ali the pretext for a new expedition against them with the support of the agas and beys of Epirus and southern Albania. In 1803 the position of the Souliotes became desperate with the artillery and famine depleting their ranks. On the other hand, the defenders in Souli sent delegations to the Russian Empire, the Septinsular Republic and France for urgent action but without success. As

816-515: A Greek representative of the Russian side, that they were ready to fight with 2,200 men against the Muslims of Rumelia . This was the time when Ali Pasha became the local Ottoman lord of Ioannina. Perraivos (1815) notes that by the end of the 18th century the central settlement of Souli had increased to 26 clans with a total of 450 families. The Greek peasants who were farmers in the lands which

952-490: A bullet in his head. Botsaris's death immediately provoked universal praise in Greece for his military skill and his prudence, he was acclaimed as "worthy of illustrious Greek forefathers", his feat was popularized by philhellenic committees across Europe and he became a legendary figure, enlisted among Greek national heroes. In December 1823, the philhellene Lord Byron arrived at Messolonghi and, having heard of Markos's and

1088-584: A common fatherland. The gradual integration of the Souliots in the Greek national cause was noticed by and perhaps amused their contemporaries, such as the embittered Ahmet Nepravistha, the dervenaga of Kravara, who in a letter replying to Kitsos Tzavellas's request to surrender, took note of their mutation and, pointing out their shared Albanian origin, sarcastically called into question Tzavellas's Greekness. After defeating him next month, in October 1828, Tzavellas had Ahmet's and his men's foreheads stigmatized with

1224-399: A group. Furthermore, this is the only real difference in the aims of the two fields: one focuses on the collective and the other on the individual. However, one can't draw a clear line between mind culture and the mind, since they both contribute to one another. The two fields involve different data sets and settings, but require similar approaches, in whichever schools of thought is used. There

1360-464: A high pay scale. They took part in all the battles fought against Ibrahim pasha and were sent into besieged Messolonghi . After the failure of the Greek navy to break the siege and bring supplies, the city's defenders, increasingly unified by the experience of a protracted siege, rejected the shameful terms offered by their hatred enemy, the Ottomans, who, unconscious of the revolutionary character of

1496-502: A large number of neighbouring villages in the mountainous areas of Epirus, where they successfully resisted Ottoman rule for many years. At the height of its power, in the second half of the 18th century, the Souliote confederacy is estimated to have consisted of up to 4,500 inhabitants. After the revolution, they migrated to and settled in newly independent Greece , and assimilated into the Greek people . The Souliotes were followers of

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1632-483: A letter from Alexei Grigoryevich Orlov , guns and ammunition and urged Souliotes to revolt. The Turks, who got informed on the movements of Souliotes, in March 1772 sent against them an army of 5.000 Muslim Albanians, who were defeated and their leader Suleyman was captured. The hostilities lasted till mid 1772. According to other source the Souliotes were attacked by 9.000 men under Suleyman Tsapari. In 1775, Kurt Pasha sent

1768-476: A local footing, becoming the head of his political faction ( later known as the English Party ) in western Greece, and commonly toured the area trying to dissuade the locals from submitting to the marching Ottoman army under Kütahı . On Mavrokordatos's orders, after the submission of most armed chiefs from Western Roumeli to the Ottomans, Botsaris was promoted to general and successfully assumed command of

1904-625: A means of subsistence became an institutionalized activity of Souliote clans which systematically raided the lowland peasants. The price of weapons in the 17th century had decreased which made their acquirement much easier and the naturally defensive position of Souliote clans in their hilltop settlements made immediate intervention by the Ottoman authorities difficult. The Souliotes were organized in patrilineal clans which they called in Albanian farë (def. fara , pl. farat "tribe"). Membership in

2040-703: A mercenary army to gain political and military power in western Greece against the local armatoloi . In early 1823 western Central Greece was beset by infighting among notables , armed chiefs and Mavrokordatos, who sought to promote those loyal to him. When the Tzavellas clan, who, according to primary sources "couldn't stand the fame of Markos Botsaris", moved to western Greece from the Ionian Islands, they tried to group with his adversaries. As they were poor and with no salary, they were eventually contracted by Mavrokordatos, who ordered them, in manner similar to

2176-712: A military expedition to Souli that ultimately failed. During the Russo-Turkish War (1768–74) , the inhabitants of Souli, as well as of other communities in Epirus were mobilized for another Greek uprising which became known as Orlov Revolt . In 1785 it was the time of Bekir pasha to lead another unsuccessful attack against them. In March 1789, during the Russo-Turkish War (1787–1792) the chieftains of Souli: Georgios and Dimitrios Botsaris, Lambros Tzavellas , Nikolaos and Christos Zervas, Lambros Koutsonikas , Christos Photomaras and Demos Drakos, agreed with Louitzis Sotiris,

2312-425: A privilege enjoyed exclusively by themselves and berating other Christians in the city as rayah . The locals refused to supply the Souliotes with food, housing and other necessary materials because of the bad relations between them and the ties they had to local forces. Enraged at the troubles they provoked, Byron threatened to leave the city, if the Souliots stayed there, paid them part of the salaries due, accepting

2448-598: A region is not attested in any sources before the 18th century. François Pouqueville , the French traveler, historian and consul in Ioannina, and others in his era theorized that the area was the ancient Greek Selaida and its modern inhabitants descendants of the Selloi , an ancient Greek tribe that inhabited the region in antiquity. This hypothesis was fueled and proposed in the context of the rise of romanticism in Europe and

2584-452: A request of the notables, and disbanded them, hiring fighters from various regions in their stead. The Souliots moved to Anatoliko and, after Byron's death, days later, in April 1824, they were enlisted by other captains, leaving western Central Greece. During this period, the Souliots integrated in a new reality, defined by their incorporation in the national, political and military goals of

2720-456: A result, Psimouli (2016) describes the status of Souli as a "community without Turkish presence, but not necessarily autonomous". Blood vengeance was one of the core social practices in Souliot society. It regulated relations between clans, the social hierarchy of Souli and the attribution of customary justice in cases of violations of clan property. Blood vengeance was ideologically linked with

2856-406: A tall person. The core of Souli consisted of four villages ( Greek : Τετραχώρι ), namely: Souli (also known as Kakosouli), Avariko (also known as Navariko), Kiafa and Samoniva. In time the confederation expanded and included additional seven villages ( Greek : Επταχώρι ). The latter became the outer defensive ring in case of an attack. Both groups of villages were also collectively called Souli. At

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2992-413: A target. Botsaris gathered his clan and 1,200 Souliotes who retreated to Agrafa . In January 1804, they were attacked by Ali Pasha's army under Beqir Bey with support from the local armatoloi Zikos Michos, Tzimas Alexis and Poulis. As the Botsaris clan was given the important armatolik of Tzoumerka, other armatoloi had targeted them. The Souliotes were besieged for 3 months on the grounds of the monastery of

3128-498: A unit, studying culture and its smaller sections of the structure, thick description is what details the interpretation of those belonging to a certain culture. Victor Turner proposed the concept of  “Social Drama” to describe social interactions that entail some sort of conflict in society, proposing their symbolic significance. His model suggests that there are four phases to any conflictive interaction 1 - Breach; 2 - Crisis; 3 - Redress; 4 - Reintegration; each of these can describe

3264-499: Is confirmed in archival sources and has been recorded in a text in the Church of St. Nicholas of Ioannina. During the transfer of some brigands from Margariti to Yanina the Souliotes attacked the guards and freed them. The text preserved in the Church of St. Nicholas notes that the person who had captured them was a Muslim from Margariti who was collaborating with them as he was the buyer of the stolen goods. This network of brigandage which

3400-422: Is considered to be a constitutive myth designed to link the name of Souli with the narrative of struggles of its inhabitants against Ottoman officials. Historically, this view has been rejected as it would imply that the Souliotes had no name for their main village and region before the killing of a single Ottoman official. Fourikis (1934) goes as far as proposing that Perraivos invented this explanation himself. At

3536-503: Is interpreted in this framework. For the Botsaris clan, since 1799 when Ali Pasha took control of the villages of Lakka Souli which were previously under the sphere of influence of the Botsaris clan, integration in the Ottoman system was the only viable political option. In 1800, George Botsaris received a large sum and the position of the armatolos of Tzoumerka , and the Botsaris clan left Souli and settled in Vourgareli of Arta. This

3672-405: Is the most commonly accepted theory in contemporary historiography. Psimouli (2006) considers the etymological aspects in the theory of Fourikis acceptable, but rejects the view the toponym Souli emerged from the region's geomorphology, because none of the four settlements of the tetrachori is placed on a mountaintop or an outlook but at an altitude of no more than 600 m. The author notes that while

3808-592: The Alipasiad and to a "remembrance" written on a fresco in a church of Seliani , the blow-up was an action of Fotos Tzavelas , in compliance with Ali's orders. The Ottoman Albanian troops violated this treaty and attacked groups of Souliotes. In one instance a group of Souliote women was attacked when heading to Zalongo and c. 22 of them being trapped decided to turn towards the cliff's edge together with their infants and children rather than surrender. According to tradition (see Dance of Zalongo ) they did this one after

3944-704: The Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople . They spoke the Souliotic dialect of Albanian and learnt Greek through their interaction with Greek-speakers. They are known for their military prowess, their resistance to the local ruler Ali Pasha , and later for their contribution to the Greek cause in the revolutionary war against the Ottoman Empire under leaders such as Markos Botsaris and Kitsos Tzavelas . The first historical account of rebellious activity in Souli dates from 1685. During

4080-626: The Greek language in formal ecclesiastical settings ". In this sense, the Greek Orthodox Churches are the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople and its dependencies, the Patriarchates of Alexandria , Antioch and Jerusalem , the Church of Greece and the Church of Cyprus . The third meaning refers to the Church of Greece , an Eastern Orthodox Church operating within the modern borders of Greece . Historically,

4216-525: The Ionian Islands . On 4 December 1820, Ali Pasha constituted an anti-Ottoman coalition joined by the Souliotes, to which they contributed with 3,000 soldiers, mainly because he offered to allow the return of the Souliotes to their land, and partly by appeal to their shared Albanian origins. After the defeat of Ali Pasha and with the outbreak of the Greek War of Independence, the Souliotes were among

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4352-703: The Phoenix , the emblem of the First Hellenic Republic . Souliote groups had already moved during the war to areas which would form part of the Greek Kingdom. After the Greek War of Independence, the Souliotes could not return to their homeland as it remained outside the borders of the newly formed Greek state. Different groups of refugees who settled in Greece after the war despite their common status as refugees had their own peculiarities, interests and customs. The Souliotes, alongside people from

4488-459: The Slavic and other Eastern Orthodox churches as part of their peoples' national awakenings , beginning as early as the 10th century A.D. Thus, by the early 21st century, generally only those churches most closely tied to Greek or Byzantine culture and ethnicity were called "Greek Orthodox" in common parlance. Greek Orthodoxy has also been defined as a religious tradition rooted in preserving

4624-403: The pleqësia were not written down but agreed upon via the oral pledge of besë (def. besa ) to which all heads of clans were bound. The concept of besa was the foundation for agreements not only within Souliot society but functioned as the basis for any agreements which Souliotes made with outsiders, including hostile forces in times of war. The significance of this concept is highlighted by

4760-497: The revolt of 1854 and the Balkan Wars (1912–1913) with Ottoman rule ending in 1913. The Souliotes ( Albanian : Suljotë ; Greek : Σουλιώτες ) were named after the village of Souli ( Greek : Σούλι , Albanian : Suli ), a hilltop settlement in modern Thesprotia , Greece . Souli gradually became the name of the entire region where the four main Souliot settlements are located (Souli, Avariko, Kiafa, Samoniva). Souli as

4896-474: The 1,300 Souliote defenders to the inner defiles of Souli and temporarily occupied the main settlement of the region. However, after a successful counterattack, the Ottoman Albanian units were routed with 2,500 of them killed. On the other hand, the Souliotes suffered minimal losses, but Lambros Tzavelas , one of their main leaders, was mortally wounded. The 1792 attack ended in Souliote victory and in

5032-487: The 18th century, the Souliotes expanded their territory of influence. As soon as Ali Pasha became the local Ottoman ruler in 1789 he immediately launched successive expeditions against Souli. However, the numerical superiority of his troops was not enough. The siege against Souli was intensified from 1800 and in December 1803 the Souliotes concluded an armistice and agreed to abandon their homeland. Most of them were exiled in

5168-607: The 5,000-strong vanguard of the Ottoman army of Mustafa Pasha of Skodra in Karpenisi and Botsaris, leading 350 Souliots, attempted a nightly surprise attack into the camp of the Muslim Albanians, who bore identical arms and spoke the same language, but, operating alone and, contrary to plan, left to fight unsupported by other armed chiefs, except for the Souliot Kitsos Tzavellas , was killed with

5304-464: The Assumption of Mary. In the final battle, on April 7, most Souliotes were killed and of those who survived many were taken hostage. About 80 escaped from this battle. Ali Pasha at the same time published a firman which targeted the Botsaris clan which was hunted down. Kitsos Botsaris and his family with a few others managed to escape to Parga and later settled in the Ionian Islands. He returned to

5440-546: The Botsaris' family. The correspondence of the Souliotes to both Christian and Muslim leaders was either written in Greek or translated from Greek. Greek was commonly used in Ottoman Epirus for writing not just between Christians (including Souliotes) but even between Muslim Albanian-speakers who employed Greek secretaries as is, e.g., the case with the correspondence between the Cham beys and Ali pasha. A written account on

5576-544: The Christian Souliots, confident in their connection with the revolutionaries, rejected. As such Ago Muhurdar, a Muslim Albanian previously loyal to Ali stated: "Souliots! Until today we were servants of you and your allies... we were deceived because now we see clearly that both you and your co-religionists fight for your faith and freedom. Your war for faith and freedom is clearly a war against our faith and ruler". Distanced from their thitherto Albanian allies,

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5712-538: The French in various units, such as the Battaglione dei Cacciatori Macedoni and the Régiment Albanais (Albanian Regiment), terms which did not have their later ethnic connotation, but were instead stylized terms that described the soldiers' general origins or mode of fighting. Colonel Minot, the commander of the regiment, appointed as battalion captains mostly the leaders of Souliote clans who enjoyed

5848-504: The Greek Orthodox Bishop Serafeim Byzantios notes that "as the Souliotes speak Albanian, most villages of Lakka speak Albanian, but Greek is not unknown to them". The closest existing variant of Souliotic Albanian is that of the village Anthousa (Rapëza) and also Kanallaki . This dialect is spoken only by few people in modern times. Further evidence on the language of the Souliotes is drawn from

5984-549: The Greek Revolution and their Hellenization, while maintaining their organization in autonomous, competing clans, remnants of the old clans. Despite their inability to unify under the same command, due to the clan antagonism that determined their accession to opposing armed bands or political factions, the Souliots remained experienced and formidable warriors to be employed by the Greek Administration on

6120-815: The Greek identity. In 2022, U.S. government estimated that 81-90% of the population of Greece identified as Greek Orthodox. The Greek Orthodox churches are descendants of churches which the Apostles founded in the Balkans and the Middle East during the first century A.D., as well as maintainers of many ancient church traditions. Symbolic anthropology Prominent figures in symbolic anthropology include Clifford Geertz , David M. Schneider , Victor Turner and Mary Douglas . Clifford Geertz's interpretive approach asserts that humans are in need of symbolic “sources of illumination” to orient themselves to

6256-653: The Greek nation. Trying to bind the Souliots in the Revolution, Mavrokordatos, now elected president of the Executive , appointed Notis Botsaris Minister of War, a position he declined, opting to carry on as chieftain in endangered Souli, but his nephew Markos stayed in revolted Greece with a view to a joint operation of Souliots and the revolutionaries against Hurshid. After Hurshid captured Ali and had him decapitated in January 1822, he decided to turn his attention to

6392-556: The Muslim Albanians faithful to Ali Pasha signed an alliance with them and 3,000 Christian soldiers were fighting against the Sultan in Epirus. The Souliot struggle had initially a local character, but an understanding of the Souliotes and Muslim Albanians with Ali Pasha was in accordance with the plans of Alexandros Ypsilantis , leader of the Philike Etaireia, for the preparation for the Greek revolution. The Greek revolutionaries wished to lengthen Ali's siege in order to withhold

6528-457: The Muslim agas and beys of Margariti and the Souliotes had created in the region was the cause of the attack by Mustafa Pasha. Other attacks in the same era include that Dost Bey, commander of Delvinë (1759) and Mahmoud Aga, governor of Arta (1762). During 1721–1772 the Souliotes managed to repulse a total of six military expeditions. As a result, they expanded their territory at the expense of

6664-476: The Parasouliote villages as well as Parga and Preveza, Ali ordered the construction of tower fortifications around Souli. For two years the Souliotes were able to survive this encirclement by the smuggling of supplies from Parga and from nearby Paramythia and Margariti. Nevertheless, a lack of food and supplies was taking its toll. In April 1802 the Souliotes received a supply of food, weapons and ammunition by

6800-614: The Pashalik of Yanina in 1813 when Ali Pasha gave him again the armatolik of Tzoumerka but as soon as he returned he was murdered by a Gogos Bakolas. Many Souliotes entered service with the Russians on Corfu , where they became an important component of the " Greek Legion ". This was a regiment of irregulars organized by the Russians among mainland refugees; it not only included Souliotes, but also Himariotes , Maniots , and other Greek klephts and armatoloi . The formation of this unit

6936-673: The Peloponnese after the beginning of the Greek revolts and after witnessing anti-Muslim actions in Messolonghi the Muslim Albanian agas perceived the religious character and divergent aims of the Greek Revolution and apprised of Ali's slim chances of success, they abandoned the Souliots and Ali and joined the Ottomans, accepting the proposals of the Albanian Omer Vrioni , a delegate of Hurshid Pasha, which

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7072-553: The Rhomaic (Greek)-Albanian dictionary composed in 1809 mainly by Markos Botsaris and his family members. The Albanian variant in the text shows lexical influence from Greek, Turkish and other languages. Of 1494 Albanian words of the vocabulary, 361 are loanwords from Greek, 187 from Turkish, 21 from Italian and two from other languages. The Albanian entries correspond to 1701 Greek entries. Many entries are related to religion and church organization. For Jochalas who edited and published

7208-645: The Russian army. While unsuccessful in this endeavor, they joined the Filiki Etaireia ("Company of Friends"), the secret society founded in Odessa in 1814 for the purpose of liberating Greek lands from Ottoman rule. They returned to the Ionian Islands and elsewhere and began to recruit fellow veterans into the Philike Etaireia , including a number of Souliot leaders. In July 1820 the Sultan issued

7344-503: The Souliot clans appears for the first time by Perraivos. According to his notes, at the end of the 18th century, 450 families which belonged to 26 clans lived in the village of Souli. In Kiafa, there were 90 families which belonged to four clans. In Avariko, five families which belonged to three clans and in Samoniva 50 families which belonged to three clans. As the Souliot population, new clans were established from existing ones and formed

7480-419: The Souliot clans which negotiated and eventually collaborated with Ali Pasha and integrated itself in the local Ottoman hierarchy were the Botsaris clan. Perraivos (1815) is one of the contemporary historians who recorded the collaboration of Botsaris with Ali Pasha since the spring of 1800. Perraivos attributes this shift to the "madness of greed" of George Botsaris (grandfather of Markos Botsaris) whom he calls

7616-421: The Souliot tribal organization remained one which preserved the collective autonomy of each clan until its end. Social stratification was expressed since the second half of the 18th century in social practices of the Souliots, but was never institutionalized. The Souliotes wore red skull caps, fleecy capotes over their shoulders, embroidered jackets, scarlet buskins, slippers with pointed toes and white kilts. In

7752-405: The Souliote confederation were known as Parasouli . Parasouliotes could join the Souliotes to armed operations but they had no representation in the Souliote government. In case they displayed distinction in warfare they received permission to settle in Souliote villages and enjoyed the same rights and duties as the Souliotes. Most scholars agree that the first inhabitants of Souli settled there in

7888-638: The Souliotes liberated the region of Souli, both from Muslim Lab Albanians, who were previously installed by Ali Pasha as settlers, and Muslim Cham Albanians, allies of Pashobey. They also captured the Kiafa fort. The uprising of the Souliotes, among the first to revolt against the Sultan, like the rest of the other Greek exiles in the Ionian islands, inspired the revolutionary spirit among the other Greek communities. Soon they were joined by additional Greek communities (armatoles and klephts). Later, in January 1821, even

8024-566: The Souliotes were mostly garrisoned on Corfu, which remained under French control until 1814, very few entered British service. The British disbanded the remnants of the Souliot Regiment in 1815 and subsequently decommissioned their own two Greek Light Regiments. This left many of the Souliotes and other military refugees without livelihoods. In 1817, a group of veterans of Russian service on the Ionian Islands traveled to Russia to see if they could get patents of commission and employment in

8160-454: The Souliots had acquired were distinguished by the name of the village in which they dwelt. Clan, class and territorial labels had significance in addition to religion. Relations between Ali Pasha and the Souliotes are documented since 1783 when the Souliotes had fought for Ali Pasha's army as allied mercenaries against Ahmet Kurt Pasha of the Pashalik of Berat . As soon as Ali Pasha became

8296-534: The Souliots turned to the government of revolted Greece, to which they had sent a plenipotentiary, Fotos Bomporis , a man born in Preveza from a family originating from Himara , to represent them in the First National Assembly at Epidaurus , the first legislative body of the provisional Greek Government that convened in December 1821 and January 1822, issuing the declaration of independence of

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8432-459: The Souliots's bravery, formed an armed band of 500 Souliots, who were attracted by the money Byron, the administrator of the loans the Greeks had recently contracted with City bankers, was reputed to carry. Bands of Souliot chieftains did not only comprise Souliots, as, to increase their clout, they had allowed their bands to include fighters from Roumeli, who were after higher wages, but, charged by

8568-497: The Souliots's return to their stronghold, they decided, four months later, in November 1820, to change camps and began secret negotiations with their old enemy, Ali. In part thanks to Ali's appeal to their shared Albanian origin, but mainly after he offered to allow them to return to their land, the Souliots agreed in December to support him to lift the Sultan's siege of Yannina in return for their resettlement in Souli. Οn December 12,

8704-608: The Souliots, famishing isolated in their mountains, were forced to seek British mediation, signed the surrender of Souli to the Sultan's forces in July and abandoned their lands for a second and final time in September, armed and carrying their movable property, heading to the Ionian islands. Markos Botsaris opted to remain in Acarnania and developed a friendship with Mavrokordatos, who was similarly tainted with failure and in need of

8840-403: The Sultan's army in Epirus, but the Souliots considered lifting the siege as a precondition for securing their control of Souli and under the military leadership of Markos Botsaris tried to control the road leading from Arta to Ioannina to interrupt the supplies for the Sultan's army. Christophoros Perraivos , sent by Ypsilantis to Epirus and aiming to connect Ali's and the Souliots's struggle with

8976-501: The Tzavellas and Zervas clans each of which could field 300 men and other smaller clans with 100 men each. George Botsaris presented himself as "the most respected individual among the Souliots" and his son Dimitris presented his father as the captain of the Souliots and himself as the commissioner of the Albanians (in Greek, ton Arvaniton epitropikos ). It is evident that in this period of Souliot history, social stratification among

9112-627: The Western regular tactics. This unit was eventually named "Legion of Light Riflemen". The Souliotes participated in campaigns in Naples in 1805, Tenedos in 1806, Dalmatia in 1806, and during the defense of Lefkada in 1807. With the Treaty of Tilsit in 1807 and the détente between Russia and France, the Russian forces withdrew from the Ionian Islands and the French occupied them. The Souliotes and other components of Russian units entered service with

9248-673: The area of Argyrkokastro or Chimara . Εmmanuel Protopsaltis asserted based on his reading of the texts that the national sentiment and the basic ethnic and linguistic component of Souli was Greek rather than Albanian. Psimouli criticizes the publication by Protopsaltis for its lack of critical analysis. In a study by scholar Petros Fourikis examining the onomastics of Souli, most of the toponyms and micro-toponyms such as: Kiafa , Koungi , Bira , Goura , Mourga , Feriza , Stret(h)eza , Dembes , Vreku i Vetetimese , Sen i Prempte and so on were found to be derived from Albanian. A study by scholar Alexandros Mammopoulos (1982) concludes that not all

9384-488: The area of Arta and the rest of Epirus, in many cases insisted on being represented as a separate group in their affairs with the Greek state and maintain their own representatives. In other cases are grouped together with the other Epirote refugees as "Epirosouliotes" or just "Epirotes". The Souliots were considered to have "a sense of superiority" and were seen by some as being arrogant because they considered themselves to be superior in military affairs in their participation in

9520-421: The area. The Souliote clans were pastoralist communities. Demographic pressure, environmental conditions and lack of grazing grounds gradually created social conditions, which led many Souliote clans to engage in pillaging and raiding other Souliote clans and primarily the neighbouring, lowland peasant communities as a means to combat lack of means of subsistence. In the 18th century, the occasional use of raiding as

9656-480: The case with fighters from northern Greece, thus steering the Souliots towards a constant, unaccommodable demand for their salaries. The concentration of many Souliot families in Mesologgi was a source of deep concern for the locals. The armed clashes between them were frequent as Souliotes engaged in robberies and even took possession of parts of the houses of locals for their own families, while claiming Greekness as

9792-592: The central administration of the Greek revolutionaries taking shape in Messologhi in return for help against Arta. In November they sent representatives to the assembly that established a constitutional charter for Western Continental Greece and they made a common attack on the city of Arta, which they captured and plundered, provoking the counterattack of Hurshid Pasha , the Sultan's new commander in chief in Yannina. Upon information of massacres of local Muslims in

9928-429: The clans had created an environment which led weaker clans to coalesce around stronger ones and be represented by them. The role, however, of the pleqësia was to stop such differentiation and maintain relations of equality in the community. Until the fall of Souli in 1803, the Souliot community never accepted to have a single leader from one clan and even in times of war each clan chose its leader from its own ranks. Thus,

10064-408: The concepts of honour-dishonour which was a collective trait of the entire clan. The pervasiveness of blood vengeance in Souliot society is highlighted in Souli's architecture: all houses were essentially fortified towers which were placed in strategic positions which could be defended from attacks which started from other fortified towers of Souli and even the churches had embrasures . M. Botsaris uses

10200-544: The core of the four Souliotic settlements are mostly Albanian. The first historical account of anti-Ottoman activity in Souli dates from the Ottoman-Venetian War of 1684–89. In particular in 1685, the Souliotes together with the inhabitants of Himara revolted and overthrew the local Ottoman authorities. This uprising was short-lived due to the reaction of the local Ottoman beys, agas and pashas. Perraivos (1815) based on oral stories he collected proposed that

10336-614: The death of Stefan Dušan and demographic decline of the Greek agrarian population due to the plague . One Albanian immigrant group, that of the Mazarakaioi , could reach the area from the north through Vagenetia , while the other from the south via Rogoi . Authors who traveled in the region in the late 18th and early 19th centuries argue that the initial core of clans which formed the Souliotes gradually grew and expanded in other settlements. George Finlay recorded that "the Chams reserve

10472-457: The decisive battles. Without food and ammunition, they were forced to withdraw to the fortresses of Kiafa and Kougi, where they lost the last battle on December 7, 1803. Following that, the Souliotes concluded an armistice with Veli Pasha, Ali's son and commander of the expedition. Finding their defense untenable in the long run, they agreed upon a treaty on 12 December which obliged them to abandon their homeland. They were allowed to leave with arms,

10608-477: The defenders of Souli managed to repulse the attacks. Despite the end of the Russo-Turkish War, Ali Pasha was obsessed to capture this centre of resistance. Thus, he looked forward to implement indirect and long-term strategies since the numerical superiority of his troops proved inadequate. In July 1792 Ali dispatched an army of c. 8,000–10,000 troops against the Souliotes. It initially managed to push

10744-422: The defense of Messolonghi during its first siege in late 1822. Meanwhile, the Souliots, unable to secure a living by offering armed service in the Ionian islands, sought to migrate to the Greek mainland and Botsaris, who wanted to form a military unit loyal to himself in order to assert his position, coordinated their gathering at Messolonghi, not far from their homeland, under the aegis of Mavrokordatos, who needed

10880-467: The defense. However, the rest in Souli gathered together in Saint George's Orthodox Church and decided either to fight or die. The remaining Souliotes numbered at no more than 2,000 armed men. The main leaders were Fotos Tzavellas , Dimos Drakos , Tousas Zervas , Koutsonikas, Gogkas Daglis, Giannakis Sehos, Fotomaras, Tzavaras, Veikos, Panou, Zigouris Diamadis, and Georgios Bousbos. They won all

11016-405: The dictionary, despite the influence of Greek on Souliotic Albanian in the entries, it is evident that Botsaris and his family members who helped him lacked structural knowledge of Greek and were very inexperienced in writing. He also observes that the Albanian phrases are syntaxed as if were Greek (Yochalas, p.53). Similar lack of knowledge of Greek grammar, syntax and spelling is observed for all of

11152-483: The dispute between those dubbed as the "autochthonous" (natives) Agriniotes and the "heterochthonous" (foreigners) Souliotes. Greek Orthodox Church Greek Orthodox Church ( Greek : Ἑλληνορθόδοξη Ἐκκλησία , Ellinorthódoxi Ekklisía , IPA: [elinorˈθoðoksi ekliˈsia] ) is a term that can refer to any one of three classes of Christian churches, each associated in some way with Greek Christianity , Levantine Arabic-speaking Christians or more broadly

11288-555: The end of the 19th century Labridis proposed that Souli may derive from one of the earliest Cham Albanian clan leaders who settled in the area and gave his name to it as was the habit in tribal settlements. Fourikis (1934) rejected an origin of the toponym from a personal name and proposed that it simply derived from the Albanian word sul (mountain peak) which is found as a geographical toponym in other areas where medieval Albanian clans settled. It may also be interpreted as 'watchpost', 'lookout', or 'mountain summit'. The view of Fourikis

11424-527: The extended practice of Ottoman officials since the 17th century to not live on the territories they were assigned to, but in the closest large urban settlement. All archival sources show that throughout its existence the Souliotic community paid its taxes regularly and complied with Ottoman economic laws in their transactions and as such was represented in the Ottoman system, but it was not integrally included in it as its remote position and lack of natural resources didn't lead to any Ottoman presence within Souli. As

11560-425: The fact that M. Botsaris translates besë in Greek as threskeia (religion) and i pabesë ("without besë ) as apistos (unbeliever). As each clan acted autonomously of the general assembly of their leaders, they could sign agreements with outsiders which contradicted the agreements which the Souliot community signed as a whole and this was a common cause of friction among the Souliot clans. A detailed recording of

11696-405: The fara was exclusively decided via patrilineality. Indicative of this condition is the translation of M. Botsaris of the Greek term genos which is the exact equivalent to fara as gjish which in Albanian means grandfather. Each fara was formed by the descendants of a common patrilineal progenitor whose personal name became the clan name of the entire fara. It was led by a single clan leader who

11832-507: The first attack against Souli by the Ottoman authorities occurred in 1721. Archival sources show that the campaign occurred more likely in 1731-33 and didn't have Souliotes as its specific target. In the early 18th century, the Muslim Cham beys of Margariti and the Souliotes promoted Venetian interests in certain areas of Epirus. In this context, an armatolos of Preveza known by the name Triboukis who supported French commercial interests

11968-425: The first communities to take arms against the Ottomans. Following the successful struggle for independence, they settled in parts of the newly established Greek state and assimilated into the Greek nation, with many attaining high posts in the Greek government, including that of Prime Minister . Members of the Souliote diaspora participated in the national struggles for the incorporation of Souli to Greece, such as in

12104-408: The government, Byron favoured enlisting true Souliots. In contrast with fighters in the bands of Roumeliot armed chiefs, for whom the various provinces of Roumeli undertook their subsistence, the livelihood of the Souliots as well as that of their families in the Ionian islands, depended solely on the wages they received for their armed services from the revolutionary administration, as was generally

12240-511: The ideological return to the ancient past. Such views had little acceptance in historiography and were already rejected as early as the publication of the History of Souli (1815) by Christoforos Perraivos . The origin of the toponym Souli is uncertain. Perraivos attributed the name to an Ottoman official in the region who was killed in a battle against the Souliotes, who gave his name to their village. In contemporary historiography, this theory

12376-460: The importance of their economic and military presence during the eighteenth century, learnt to use also Greek. For the social use of each language, William Martin Leake writes that "Souliot men spoke Albanian at home and all men could speak Greek as they were their neighbours, while many women could speak Greek too". For the movements of Souliots to the villages of Lakka Souliou in the 18th century,

12512-434: The influence different figures such as Sigmund Freud , Carl Jung and Claude Lévi-Strauss had on one another. French anthropologist Lévi-Strauss, much like Swiss psychiatrist Jung, wanted to understand the mind through understanding myth. Symbolic or interpretive anthropology emphasizes the individual's interpretation of events, and how that interpretation enhances the more collectively perceived characteristics or rituals of

12648-494: The language Souliotes used is the diary of Fotos Tzavellas, composed during his captivity by Ali Pasha (1792–1793). This diary is written by F. Tzavellas himself in simple Greek with several spelling and punctuation mistakes. Emmanouel Protopsaltes, former professor of Modern Greek History at the University of Athens, who published and studied the dialect of this diary, concluded that Souliotes were Greek speakers originating from

12784-399: The limited ability of the pastures of Souli to maintain superfluous population and to the closed character of tribal organization, which is not open to accepting outsiders in mass. The Souliote population was located in inland Thesprotia and for much of the 16th century remained away from the plagues and military events which affected coastal Epirus. This was an era of demographic increase for

12920-420: The local Ottoman ruler, all local factions which held power over tax collection were opposed to him. In February 1789, a coalition between the Muslim Albanian beys of Gjirokastër , Berat , Chameria and the Souliotes attempted to depose Ali Pasha. Clashes lasted for about 4 months and Ali Pasha was weakened but by May he signed an agreement with the Souliotes who abandoned the coalition and in exchange were given

13056-546: The local population. Since at least 1823 when many of them moved from the Ionian islands to western Greece, the Souliotes had been aiming to settle in Mesologgi , Agrinio , Nafpaktos . In the area of Agrinio (then Vrachori), the Souliotes asked from the government of Petrobey Mavromichalis to be given land in Zapadi. The locals were against this decision and the situation deteriorated to the point of threat of civil war. Thus

13192-505: The mid-sixteenth century Souli is listed in an Ottoman tax register as a village inhabited by 244 taxpayers, located in the Christian nahiye of Ai-Donat, part of the homonymous kaza of the sanjak of Delvina . In a 1613 tax list, however, Souli is one of the settlements in which some taxpayers paid resm-i çift and resm-i bennak , taxes paid by Muslim subjects , newcomers or converts to Islam . The Souliots were subject to

13328-426: The middle of the 16th century as groups of shepherds. The earliest inhabitants came from southern Albania and the plains of Thesprotia. Vasso Psimouli holds that Souli was chosen as a place of permanent settlement by a subgroup of one of the two Albanian immigrant pastoralist populations that arrived in the area organized in large kinship groups ( Albanian : fis ) in the mid-14th century, a time of power vacuum after

13464-474: The mountain peaks which surround Souli have Albanian toponyms, none of them was actually named sul by the clans which settled there. Hence, Psimouli (2006) proposes that "Souli" or "Siouli" refers to a personal name -the first name or cognomen of the progenitor of the Albanian immigrant group that settled there - as happened in other settlements like Spata or the neighbouring Mazaraki or Mazarakia . The name itself metaphorically may have referred to his height as

13600-410: The name Suliote for 100 families who, by virtue of birth, belonged to the military caste of Suli". According to Finlay, this population increased from other immigrant clans which joined them. Modern sources argue that the gradual settlement of families and tribes of different origins in Souli unlikely, because of the lack of sources testifying the abandonment of villages in the 17th century and also due to

13736-528: The necessities of war, foodstuffs and whatever else they wished to take. When the last Souliot tribes left, monk Samuel stayed with 5 Souliots in the fortified monastery of Saint Paraskevi in Kugi, in order to surrender war supplies to deputies of Veli , son of Ali, but the gunpowder exploded during the surrender. According to Perraivos, Samuel, enraged at the insult of one of Veli's deputies, set himself ablaze opting for death instead of surrender, while according to

13872-511: The negotiations, the Botsaris clan managed to be recognized by Ali Pasha as the lawful representative of Souli and George Botsaris as the one who would enforce the terms of peace among the Souliotes. During the following seven years Ali Pasha undertook preparations to take revenge for the defeat. Meanwhile, he besieged the French-controlled towns of the Ionian coast. Especially two of them, Preveza and Parga , were vital to Souli for

14008-489: The objectives of the Greek revolution, proposed to attack the seaside forts of Preveza and Parga , but Markos Botsaris and the Muslim Albanians rejected his plans, operated eastwards of Souli and after occupying a number of positions they managed to interrupt the sending of supplies from Arta and control most of Epirus, greatly advancing the objectives of the Filiki Eteria. In continuation of their cooperation during

14144-409: The other while dancing and singing. Other Souliotes reached Parga, which was under Russian control at the time. They either settled down there or set off for the Ionian Islands. After the surrender of Souli, Souliote clans chose divergent paths but many were ultimately led to move to the Ionian Islands and in south Greece. Kitsos Botsaris who had succeeded his father as armatolos of Tzoumerka became

14280-504: The peak of their power, in 1800, Souliot leaders estimated that their community numbered c. 20,000 inhabitants. Vasso Psimouli estimates a total population of c. 4,500 for the Souliot villages. Of these, she estimates that up to 1,250 were living in the "eptachori", among whom 500 were armed, according to Perraivos, organized in 18 clans, while the other 3,250, in 31 clans, were living in the "tetrachori" and provided c. 1200 armed men. Several surrounding villages, c. 50–66, which became part of

14416-418: The population of the seven villages around core Souli. There was an informal hierarchy among Souliot clans in the second half of the 18th century which was determined by the fighting power (men) of each fara and its size. The Botsaris clan was one of the oldest and most powerful in all four villages of core Souli. Georgios Botsaris in 1789 claimed that his clan could field 1,000 men against Ali Pasha followed by

14552-402: The practices of the Ottomans and other Greek armed groups, to wage war against and plunder the province of Agrafa which was under the control of Georgios Karaiskakis . After they plundered Agrafa, the Tzavellas clan joined Karaiskakis and abandoned Mavrokordatos as he had designated Markos Botsaris "General of Western Greece". The two clans had a very deep hostility to each other that throughout

14688-401: The proposal of Markos Botsaris and the Souliots for a military campaign against Arta as a diversion to help Souli and personally assumed its leadership, but the Greek forces met with crushing defeat in the battle of Peta in July. With annual revenue from the tithes of Karleli and Vonitsa , that Botsaris had rented, insufficient to procure food and ammunition and without external assistance,

14824-669: The provision of protection to subjugated populations. Perraivos records that the " sipahi of Soli", Beqir Bey, was settled in Yannina and went to Souli once every year to collect taxes. Taxation archives show that the economy of the Souliotes was based on small-scale subsistence pastoralism which due to few available grazing grounds never increased enough to become a source of commercial activity. The spahis of Souli generated little profit from their position. It seems that no Ottoman official or timariot holder of Souli lived there. This likely happened not because of Souliot hostility but because of

14960-405: The rebels at Souli and laid siege to it. In May 1822 the desperate resistance of c. 2,000 defenders of Souli managed to repel a 15,000-strong army, led by Hurshid Pasha, consisting mostly of Albanians, the agas of Chameria along with Ghegs , Labs and Tosks , who secretly aided the Souliots. To secure western Central Greece, his political base, from the Sultan's forces, Mavrocordatos approved

15096-611: The respect among the soldiers. Among them were: Tussa Zervas, George Dracos, Giotis Danglis, Panos Succos, Nastullis Panomaras, Kitsos Palaskas, Kitsos Paschos. Fotos Tzavellas, Veicos Zervas. During the Anglo-French struggle over the Ionian Islands between 1810 and 1814, the Souliotes in French service faced off against other refugees organized by the British into the Greek Light Infantry Regiment. Since

15232-517: The right to act as armatoles in certain areas in Epirus and some of their clan leaders received wages from Ali Pasha. Ali Pasha managed to install as dervend agha (representative of the Pashalik of Yannina in Souli, one of his subordinates Andreas Iskos (relative of Georgios Karaiskakis ) As part of the same agreement he held five children of prominent Souliote families as hostages. Ali Pasha launched successive spring-summer campaigns in 1789 and 1790. Although some Parasouliote settlements were captured,

15368-399: The right to use in common specific natural resources (water springs, grazing grounds) which had been assigned to it. All heads of clans gathered in the general assembly which Lambros Koutsonikas (himself a Souliot) recorded in Greek as Πλεκεσία , a term that can be linked to the Albanian pleqësia (council of elders). This acted as the highest political structure of Souliot society which

15504-534: The rite used in the Eastern Roman Empire . The broader meaning refers to "the entire body of Orthodox (Chalcedonian) Christianity , sometimes also called 'Eastern Orthodox', 'Greek Catholic', or generally 'the Greek Church ' ". A second, narrower meaning refers to "any of several independent churches within the worldwide communion of (Eastern) Orthodox Christianity that retain the use of

15640-641: The sequence of events that occurs from a drama in any given social relation. In this way Turner displays his theory of this linear ritual in society involving several exhibits of symbolism. Turner states that his theory was derived after observing the Ndembu people's interactions in West-Central Angola in Africa, then later perceiving it among most other people. Anthropology and psychology have influenced one another from very early on, especially due to

15776-561: The situation became more desperate in the summer of the same year, Ali's troops began assaults against the seven core villages of Souli. Meanwhile, the British turned to the Ottoman Empire in order to strengthen their forces against Napoleon , and the weapons and ammunition supplies were interrupted. Without support from outside and wearied by years of siege, the unity of the Souliote clans started to split. As such two chieftains, Athanasios Koutsonikas and Pilios Gousis , withdrew from

15912-561: The summer, the Souliots, Muslim Albanian beys and the Greek armatoles of Acarnania signed in September a tripartite alliance to aid Ali and each other even against Ali, should he become powerful enough to turn against one of them. In October an envoy acting on the instructions of Alexandros Mavrokordatos , the Phanariot Greek who had been in Messolonghi from July, sought and managed to persuade all three parties to recognize

16048-440: The supply of livestock and ammunition. Perraivos records that, in his pursuit to gather all incomes of all large estate holders of the area in order to augment his political power, Ali tried to buy from Bekir bey, the sipahi of Souli, the timariot rights in Souli and, facing his obstinate refusal, killed him. At the fall of Preveza in late 1798, Ali Pasha managed to secure the neutrality of Souliotes through bribery. The biggest of

16184-524: The system of meaning in a particular culture. Geertz was influenced largely by sociologist Max Weber and concerned himself more with overall cultural operation. Victor Turner believed that symbols initiate social actions, and are “determinable influences inclining persons and groups to action.” Turner's influence came largely from Emile Durkheim , caring more about the way symbols functioned within society. The two different schools of perspective on symbolic anthropology also have their roots in different cultures,

16320-691: The term "Greek Orthodox" has been used to describe all Eastern Orthodox churches, since the term "Greek" can refer to the heritage of the Byzantine Empire . During the first eight centuries of Christian history, most major intellectual, cultural, and social developments in the Christian Church took place in the Byzantine Empire or its sphere of influence , where the Greek language was widely spoken and used for most theological writings. The empire's capital, Constantinople ,

16456-455: The terms hasm (enemy) and hak which literally means vengeance in Albanian as the equivalent of Greek dikaiosyne (justice). The term linked to the actual practice of blood vengeance which he uses is gjak ( Gjakmarrja ). The Souliots spoke Albanian, being the descendants of an Albanian pastoral group that had settled in the area, while, due to their communication and exchanges with the mostly Greek-speaking population of surrounding areas and

16592-438: The toponyms of Souli were Albanian and that many derive from various other Balkan languages, including quite a few in Greek. In a 2002 study, Shkëlzen Raça states that Souliote toponyms listed by Fourikis can only be explained through Albanian. Vasso Psimouli (2006) states that many of the placenames of the wider area of Souli are Slavic or Aromanian (Zavruho, Murga, Sqapeta, Koristiani, Glavitsa, Samoniva, Avarico), while those of

16728-437: The ultimate decision by the government was postponed and later abandoned as the position was considered vulnerable to Ottoman attacks from the frontier. In other areas of Agrinio, the Souliotes settled simply by occupying without a legal permit public land and even landed property whose owners weren't there. This move angered the locals, who considered these lands to belong to them. The land distribution affair fueled for many years

16864-481: The various Ottoman lords. Souliotes participated in the Orlov revolt that broke out around 1770 against Ottoman Empire, with the help of Russia. Many of the joined the Russian fleet. Their revolt was connected with the acts of Russian agents in Epirus, which continued till the 2nd Russo-Turkish War (1787–1792) . The Russian agent Ludovicos or Luigi Sotiri (a doctor from Lefkada ) came to Souli probably in 1771, carrying

17000-459: The very few written documents by Souliotes. Robert Elsie noted that the 1,484 Albanian lexemes "are important for our knowledge of the now extinct Suliot dialect of Albanian". In the early twentieth century among the descendants of Souliotes in the Kingdom of Greece, there was an example of Souliote still being fluent in Albanian, namely lieutenant Dimitrios (Takis) Botsaris, a direct descendant of

17136-552: The war they supported opposed factions and refused to fight under the same command. In an effort to release the tension and daily infighting between leaders of armed bands, all of them, including newly arrived from the Ionians Zygouris Tzavellas, were elevated to the generalship, leading Markos to tear apart the certificate of his rank in protest. In August the Roumeliot and Souliot forces of 1,200 men met with

17272-477: The war, asked them to surrender their arms, their only means of subsistence, and many Souliots died during the sortie in April 1826. Many Souliots, including distinguished officers of important clans, were also killed in the battle of Analatos in 1827. Addressing the Third National Council of the provisional Greek government in 1827 Kitsos Tzavelas stressed the sacrifice of the Souliotes for

17408-460: The war. This feeling of superiority of Souliotes was not only directed towards other groups of refugees but also towards the central authorities. In such conditions, it was difficult for the Souliotes to follow the central government and they were constantly a source of "reaction and mutinies". A local relation from Agrinio (1836) to the central government reports that as the Souliotes were jobless and without land they had resorted to looting and robbing

17544-461: The work of Victor Turner traditionally being recognized as the British way of thought, while the work of Clifford Geertz is viewed as the American way. The purpose of symbolic and interpretive anthropology can be described through a term used often by Geertz that originated from Gilbert Ryle , " Thick Description ." By this what is conveyed, is that since culture and behavior can only be studied as

17680-408: Was an early important center of Christianity, and its liturgical practices, traditions, and doctrines were gradually adopted throughout Eastern Orthodoxy , still providing the basic patterns of contemporary Orthodoxy. Thus, Eastern Orthodox came to be called "Greek" Orthodox in the same way that Western Christians came to be called "Roman" Catholic . However, the appellation "Greek" was abandoned by

17816-525: Was concerned about the predicament of the Souliots, communicated to the Souliot leaders via his two brothers in Corfu his encouragement to take advantage of this opportunity in order to return to their homeland. The Souliots of Corfu promtply submitted a request to Ismail Pasha, the leader of the Sultan's army, and joined his force along with Markos Botsaris and other Souliots dispersed through Epirus. As Ismail Pasha, also known as Pashobey, temporized, fearful of

17952-459: Was its representative, although this practice was under constant negotiation as a leader may not have been acceptable by all members of the fara. Each clan was further divided in brotherhoods. As such, in time, it had the tendency to branch out in new clans which were formed as the original one grew in size and could no longer hold its cohesion as one unit under one leader. Members of the fara enjoyed privileges of settlement in specific villages and had

18088-595: Was murdered. At the same time, the beys of Margariti launched a raid campaign as far as south as Acarnania . The Souliotes who also promoted Venetian goals, either jointly or independently of the Cham beys, launched their own pillaging raids. The local Ottoman authorities gathered 10,000 troops under Aslanzade Hadji Mehmet Pasha who attacked the Cham beys and the armatoloi who engaged in pillaging and destroyed Margariti. Souli itself wasn't attacked in this campaign. The second recorded attack against Souli in oral history occurred in 1754 by Mustafa Pasha of Yanina. This oral story

18224-408: Was responsible for solving disputes, formulating tribal laws, arbitrage between clans in dispute and the enforcement of decisions of the council against members of the community. It was a space where the different fara of Souliot society negotiated with each other their position in Souliotic society. The assembly was held in the open courtyard next to the church of St. George in Souli. The decisions of

18360-417: Was the first time that a Souliot clan became part of the Ottoman political system. The departure of the Botsaris clan weakened Souli as they were a significant part of its force. In June–July 1800 a new campaign was mounted by Ali involving 11,500 troops. When this direct assault failed, Ali resorted to long-term measures to subdue the warrior community. In order to isolate the seven main villages of Souli from

18496-497: Was undertaken by the Greek-born Russian colonel Emmanouil Papadopoulos . Its organization was laid down by Papadopoulos in a leaflet in Greek titled " Explanations on the establishment of a legion of Epiro-Souliotes and Himaro-Peloponnesians in the service of His Imperial Majesty Alexander I ... ". He recognized that Souliotes and the others were already naturally trained in irregular tactics and did not have to conform to

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