161-468: Sorani Kurdish ( Sorani Kurdish : کوردیی ناوەندی , Kurdî Nawendî ), also known as Central Kurdish , is a Kurdish dialect or a language spoken in Iraq , mainly in Iraqi Kurdistan , as well as the provinces of Kurdistan , Kermanshah , and West Azerbaijan in western Iran . Sorani is one of the two official languages of Iraq, along with Arabic , and is in administrative documents simply referred to as "Kurdish". The term Sorani, named after
322-587: A divide and rule strategy. The repression of Kurdish civic rights began with the independence of the Syrian Arab Republic in 1946. It escalated with the short-lived unification of Syria and Egypt as the United Arab Republic in 1958, partly in response to more vocal Kurdish demands for democracy, recognition as an ethnic group, and complaints that the state police and military academies were closed to Kurds. 120,000 Kurds (40% of
483-676: A military operation in which the Iraqi government retook control of Kirkuk and surrounding areas, and forced the KRG to annul the referendum. The Kurds represent a minority people of Iraq, with a language, culture and identity distinct and separate from the Arab majority. For much of the past century those traditions have been marginalised and the interests of the Kurds sidelined. In the Saddam years there
644-624: A 'dialect'. The policy of the Pahlavi state in regard to Kurdish was like that of safety valve where rights were restricted when the state felt threatened. After the Iranian Revolution in 1979, the new Iranian constitution was ambiguous towards Kurdish but the new regime discouraged the use of Sorani both in private and in public. Limited media in Sorani was allowed in the subsequent years. The policy of safety valve continued throughout
805-446: A 'dialect'. The policy of the Pahlavi state in regard to Kurdish was like that of safety valve where rights were restricted when the state felt threatened. After the Iranian Revolution in 1979, the new Iranian constitution was ambiguous towards Kurdish but the new regime discouraged the use of Sorani both in private and in public. Limited media in Sorani was allowed in the subsequent years. The policy of safety valve continued throughout
966-499: A cohesive and inclusive nationalist movement that acknowledges the intersectionality of struggles and recognizes the need for an equitable society. Women have actively engaged in the nationalist struggle, demanding not only Kurdish rights but also challenging the patriarchal structures within their own communities. Kurdish women have consistently advocated for gender equality, emphasizing the need to address both national and gender-based oppressions simultaneously. Their activism has reshaped
1127-552: A colonial-style scheme that ran counter to U.S. ideals and taxpayer wishes. According to Tejirian, "the internationalism of the 1910s, which followed the first acquisitions of the 'American empire' after the Spanish-American War and led to U.S. entry into World War I, was followed by the isolationism of the 1920s, emphasized most dramatically by U.S. refusal to join the League of Nations." Lack of international sponsorship
1288-689: A distinct ethnicity, suggesting that the Kurds were a European race (compared to the Asiatic Turks) based on physical characteristics and on the Kurdish language (which forms part of the Indo-European language-group). While these researchers had ulterior political motives (to sow dissent in the Ottoman Empire) their findings were embraced and still accepted today by many. Under the millet system , Kurds' primary form of identification
1449-535: A grammar sketch of the Sorani variety of Mukriyan in 1906. Lastly, Ludvig Olsen Fossum published a grammar book in 1919 based on the Sorani variety spoken around Mahabad . After the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire , much of the Sorani-speaking region came under British rule in present-day Iraq. Sorani subsequently became the language for prose , media, and journalism, and a distinct alphabet
1610-406: A grammar sketch of the Sorani variety of Mukriyan in 1906. Lastly, Ludvig Olsen Fossum published a grammar book in 1919 based on the Sorani variety spoken around Mahabad . After the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire , much of the Sorani-speaking region came under British rule in present-day Iraq. Sorani subsequently became the language for prose , media, and journalism, and a distinct alphabet
1771-552: A lasting peace reinforced by an international framework and fraternity of states. The principle of self- determination from Point Twelve of Wilson's Fourteen Points instilled false confidence in minority populations of the Ottoman Empire that they would soon be able to choose their own paths as independent nation-states. The British found the Ottoman theater of the war much more difficult than they had imagined. At war's end,
SECTION 10
#17327805404061932-520: A low-level guerrilla warfare against the ethnic secessionist Kurdish guerrilla group Party for a Free Life in Kurdistan (PJAK) since 2004. PJAK is closely affiliated with the Kurdish militant group Kurdistan Workers' Party (PKK) operating against Turkey . Kurdish women have been at the forefront of resistance, participating in armed struggles, grassroots organizing, and civil society initiatives. Their contributions have been instrumental in building
2093-498: A modified version of the Arabic alphabet . The Latin-based Hawar Alphabet is also used increasingly, and there have been discussions about its adoption. In the Sorani writing system almost all vowels are always written as separate letters. This is in contrast to the original Arabic writing system and most other writing systems developed from it, in which certain vowels (usually "short" vowels) are shown by diacritics above and under
2254-442: A modified version of the Arabic alphabet . The Latin-based Hawar Alphabet is also used increasingly, and there have been discussions about its adoption. In the Sorani writing system almost all vowels are always written as separate letters. This is in contrast to the original Arabic writing system and most other writing systems developed from it, in which certain vowels (usually "short" vowels) are shown by diacritics above and under
2415-467: A pamphlet outlining the justification for Kurdistan's territories. He began with historical claims to the lands, noting many academic works on the geography of Kurdistan and taking care to distinguish between Kurdish and Armenian lands. His argument against the Armenian claims in Kurdistan is that greater Armenia is not "the ethnical cradle of their race." In an unusual turn in his case, Sharif asserts that
2576-514: A result did not have jurisdiction over religious law in most Kurd regions. In 1908, the Young Turks come to power asserting a radical form of Turkish ethnic identity and closed Ottoman associations and non-Turkish schools. They launched a campaign of political oppression and resettlement against ethnic minorities – Kurds, Laz people , and Armenians , but in the wartime context they could not afford to antagonize ethnic minorities too much. At
2737-523: A significant impact on Sorani as thousands of Sorani-speakers have gotten free access to literature. It also became easier to listen to radio and watch television. The Internet moreover fostered the use of Sorani in Iran and the diaspora, where the language had no official status. Orthography remains a challenge for Sorani. In Iraq, Sorani orthography is moving towards being based on a single morpheme while Sorani-speakers in Iran make longer words. An example
2898-471: A significant impact on Sorani as thousands of Sorani-speakers have gotten free access to literature. It also became easier to listen to radio and watch television. The Internet moreover fostered the use of Sorani in Iran and the diaspora, where the language had no official status. Orthography remains a challenge for Sorani. In Iraq, Sorani orthography is moving towards being based on a single morpheme while Sorani-speakers in Iran make longer words. An example
3059-464: A standard language which had given it legitimacy. During the new Iraqi Republic from 1958 to 1968, the number of journals in Sorani increased fast and a Kurdish department was established at the University of Baghdad and moreover a Directorate General of Kurdish Studies was established to answer the growing Kurdish demands for mother tongue education. In 1960, the first Sorani-Arabic dictionary
3220-404: A standard language which had given it legitimacy. During the new Iraqi Republic from 1958 to 1968, the number of journals in Sorani increased fast and a Kurdish department was established at the University of Baghdad and moreover a Directorate General of Kurdish Studies was established to answer the growing Kurdish demands for mother tongue education. In 1960, the first Sorani-Arabic dictionary
3381-403: A translation of the introduction to Gulistan by Saadi Shirazi . The language of these works heavily relied on Arabic and Persian, which prevented Sorani from enjoying further progress besides being a literary language. Only after World War I did this change. Besides poetry and the few other texts mentioned above, linguistic works on Sorani also existed. Leonard Chodźko wrote a sketch of
SECTION 20
#17327805404063542-401: A translation of the introduction to Gulistan by Saadi Shirazi . The language of these works heavily relied on Arabic and Persian, which prevented Sorani from enjoying further progress besides being a literary language. Only after World War I did this change. Besides poetry and the few other texts mentioned above, linguistic works on Sorani also existed. Leonard Chodźko wrote a sketch of
3703-437: A violent insurgency until the lasting ceasefire in 1999. Throughout this period there was a significant loss of life in addition to many social and political changes. In 1991, Law 2932 was repealed and the Kurdish language was allowed for informal speech and music but not for political or education purposes or in the mass media . The same year a new Anti-Terror bill was passed which defined terrorism as "any kind of action with
3864-646: A way of resisting Sorani. Fearing the loss of hegemony, 53 academics, writers and poets pushed the Kurdish Parliament to declare Sorani as the official language of the autonomous region. This attempt failed multiple times and Kurmanji remains the official Kurdish language in Duhok. In the 2010s, criticism arose due to the quality of the Sorani school textbooks, media texts and signage . In 2011, two journalism professors from Salahaddin University criticized
4025-466: A way of resisting Sorani. Fearing the loss of hegemony, 53 academics, writers and poets pushed the Kurdish Parliament to declare Sorani as the official language of the autonomous region. This attempt failed multiple times and Kurmanji remains the official Kurdish language in Duhok. In the 2010s, criticism arose due to the quality of the Sorani school textbooks, media texts and signage . In 2011, two journalism professors from Salahaddin University criticized
4186-470: A written, standardized form of Central Kurdish written in the Sorani alphabet developed from the Arabic alphabet in the 1920s by Sa'ed Sidqi Kaban and Taufiq Wahby . Tracing back the historical changes of Sorani is difficult. No predecessors of Kurdish are yet known from Old and Middle Iranian times. The extant Kurdish texts may be traced back to no earlier than the 16th century CE. Sorani originates from
4347-587: Is a Kurdish dialect or a language spoken in Iraq , mainly in Iraqi Kurdistan , as well as the provinces of Kurdistan , Kermanshah , and West Azerbaijan in western Iran . Sorani is one of the two official languages of Iraq, along with Arabic , and is in administrative documents simply referred to as "Kurdish". The term Sorani, named after the Soran Emirate , is used especially to refer to
4508-403: Is a nationalist political movement which asserts that Kurds are a nation and espouses the creation of an independent Kurdistan from Iran , Iraq , Syria , and Turkey . Early Kurdish nationalism had its roots in the Ottoman Empire , within which Kurds were a significant ethnic group. With the partitioning of the Ottoman Empire , its Kurdish-majority territories were divided between
4669-660: Is affiliated with the Kurdistan Democratic Party in Iraqi Kurdistan. The similarity between Kurdish and Persian language and culture compared to the Turks and Arabs, the more equal population balance between the ethnic majority Persians and ethnic minorities like the Kurds has resulted in a somewhat different citizenship experience for Iranian Kurds, as such most seek autonomy rather than independence. Iranian group identification and social order
4830-559: Is the word to review which can be spelled both pêdaçûnewe and pê da çûnewe. Arabic and Persian words continue to be purged from written Sorani and are getting replaced by neologisms. Conversely, Sorani is borrowing words from the English language . Iraq After the fall of Saddam Hussein in 2003, Iraq declared Kurdish as the official language of the country beside Arabic. The first section of Article 4 secures this. In 2006, Duhok began using Kurmanji as their official language as
4991-503: Is the word to review which can be spelled both pêdaçûnewe and pê da çûnewe. Arabic and Persian words continue to be purged from written Sorani and are getting replaced by neologisms. Conversely, Sorani is borrowing words from the English language . Iraq After the fall of Saddam Hussein in 2003, Iraq declared Kurdish as the official language of the country beside Arabic. The first section of Article 4 secures this. In 2006, Duhok began using Kurmanji as their official language as
Sorani - Misplaced Pages Continue
5152-506: Is therefore essential that the paramount Power in Kurdistan and Mesopotamia should be the same; in other words, that Great Britain should have an exclusive position in Kurdistan as opposed to any other outside power. At the same time, the arguments against annexation apply even more strongly to Kurdistan than to Mesopotamia. It is desirable that the county (sic) should form an independent confederation of tribes and towns, and that His Majesty's Government should assume functions intermediate between
5313-673: The 2003 invasion of Iraq that ousted Saddam Hussein, the Kurdistan Regional Government was established, enjoying a great measure of self-governance but stopping short of full independence. Devastation from the war, as well as "looting and destruction of crops by Russian, Ottoman, and British [troops]... caused severe famine in the area".In such dire conditions, it was the central focus of all tribal leaders to rebuild their village/tribal infrastructure in order to provide for their own people. Major nationalist or political movements were not foremost in their minds; survival
5474-582: The Gulf War an autonomous "safe haven" was established in Northern Iraq under UN with U.S. Air Force and British Royal Air Force air protection. Under the democratically elected Kurdistan Region , citizens experienced civic rights never previously enjoyed. Student unions , NGOs , and women's organizations emerged as forces in a new civic society and institutionalized tolerance for the region's own ethnic, religious, and language minorities, e.g.,
5635-478: The Iraqi Turkmen . Since the 2003 invasion of Iraq and the downfall of Saddam Hussein , the Kurdish population has found itself drawn back into Iraq with promises of autonomy and citizenship based on a federal, ethnically inclusive model with strong minority rights and guarantees against discrimination. Coming after the 2005 Kurdistan Region independence referendum voted 98.98% in favor of independence,
5796-645: The Iraqi armed forces razed villages and hamlets in and near the battle area. It is also during this time that the Iraqi military used chemical weapons on Kurdish towns. Many Kurds consider the Kurdish-majority regions of northern and northeastern Syria to be Western Kurdistan ( Kurdish : Rojavaye Kurdistane ) and seek political autonomy within Syria (akin to Iraqi Kurdistan in Iraq ) or outright independence as part of an independent Kurdistan . After
5957-567: The Kingdom of Kurdistan . To avoid unrest, the British granted the northern Kurdish region considerable autonomy and recognized their nationalist claims. They even tried to institutionalize Kurdish ethnic identity in the 1921 Provisional Iraqi Constitution which stated that Iraq was composed of two ethnic groups with equal rights, Arabs and Kurds, and enshrined the equal legal status of the Kurdish language with Arabic . The mandate government divided
6118-505: The Ottoman Empire was ultimately suppressed by the Ottomans, and Ubeydullah, along with other notables, was exiled to Istanbul. The Kurdish nationalist movement that emerged following World War I (1914-1918) and the 1922 end of the Ottoman Empire largely reacted to the changes taking place in mainstream Turkey, primarily the radical secularization (which the strongly Muslim Kurds abhorred), centralization of authority (which threatened
6279-777: The Silêmanî region. The oldest written literature in Sorani is reported to have been Mehdîname (the book of Mahdi) from 1762 by Mulla Muhammed ibn ul Haj. Sorani thus only emerged as a written language after the decline of the Gorani vernacular, the Ardalan state and the rise of Baban around Silêmanî. During the Baban era, Sorani emerged as an important literary vernacular and many poets such as Nalî wrote in Sorani despite being proficient in Arabic and Persian . Nalî mentioned that he wrote in Sorani knowing his poetry might not receive
6440-424: The Soran Emirate , is used especially to refer to a written, standardized form of Central Kurdish written in the Sorani alphabet developed from the Arabic alphabet in the 1920s by Sa'ed Sidqi Kaban and Taufiq Wahby . Tracing back the historical changes of Sorani is difficult. No predecessors of Kurdish are yet known from Old and Middle Iranian times. The extant Kurdish texts may be traced back to no earlier than
6601-518: The Syrian government announced its Arab Belt plan (later renamed "plan for establishment of model state farms"), intended to forcibly expel the Kurdish population from a 350 km long, 10 to 15 km deep strip of land along Syria's northeast border and replaced them with Arab settlers, and which was partially implemented. There was no change in policy under the new Ba'athist regime post-1963. It refused to implement its program of land reforms that
Sorani - Misplaced Pages Continue
6762-608: The 16th century CE. Sorani originates from the Silêmanî region. The oldest written literature in Sorani is reported to have been Mehdîname (the book of Mahdi) from 1762 by Mulla Muhammed ibn ul Haj. Sorani thus only emerged as a written language after the decline of the Gorani vernacular, the Ardalan state and the rise of Baban around Silêmanî. During the Baban era, Sorani emerged as an important literary vernacular and many poets such as Nalî wrote in Sorani despite being proficient in Arabic and Persian . Nalî mentioned that he wrote in Sorani knowing his poetry might not receive
6923-468: The 1923 formation of the Republic of Turkey marked the beginning of continuing period of reduced civic rights for Kurds. The Caliphate was abolished a year later as well as all public expressions and institutions of Kurdish identity. Kurdish madrasas , newspapers, religious fraternal organizations, and associations were shut down. To give an example of the early republican government's attitude towards
7084-558: The 1960s and 1970s. During this period the primary goal of the movement was to resolve its grievances with the Turkish government through legitimate channels. These attempts were heavily suppressed. Civic rights were temporarily improved with the Turkish Constitution of 1961 which allowed freedom of expression, the press, and association for Kurds. The 1964 Political Parties Act criminalized Kurdish political parties and
7245-537: The 1980s. Iraq Kurdistan Region Parliament passed a provisional constitution in 1992 making Kurdish the official language of Kurdistan Region . 'Kurdish' would refer to Sorani which also became the language of instruction in Kurmanji– and Gorani–speaking areas until these linguistic communities demanded education in Kurmanji and Gorani , respectively. Sorani ceased as language of instruction in these areas in
7406-425: The 1980s. Iraq Kurdistan Region Parliament passed a provisional constitution in 1992 making Kurdish the official language of Kurdistan Region . 'Kurdish' would refer to Sorani which also became the language of instruction in Kurmanji– and Gorani–speaking areas until these linguistic communities demanded education in Kurmanji and Gorani , respectively. Sorani ceased as language of instruction in these areas in
7567-532: The Allied Governments by Middle-Eastern Political Section of British Delegation and a map of the "Proposed Settlement of Turkey in Asia" depict various boundaries for Armenia, but make no mention of Kurdistan. U.S. President Woodrow Wilson went so far as to order a draft of boundaries for an Armenian state. This was the atmosphere going into the end of the war and into the peace conference. The horrors of
7728-581: The Armenians in Kurdistan came as émigrés, abandoning agriculture in Armenia for urban life in Kurdistan. Sharif further accuses the European powers and Turkey of conspiracy against the Kurds by inventing Armenian history in Kurdish lands. He likely made this last statement out of anger from being sidelined at the conference. Nevertheless, Sharif Pasha made a difference in that his case for a Kurdish homeland
7889-505: The British had a hard time maintaining troop concentrations in the Ottoman Empire. The cost of the war was enormous, and the politicians and population back in Britain sought to hasten troops' return home. The Allies' plans to carve up the Ottoman Empire were equally challenging to execute because the different peoples of the empire were seeking their own futures, rather than leaving outsiders or their old overlords to decide for them. During
8050-577: The British to implement the law themselves in May 1931, which made Kurdish an official language in the governorates of Sulaymaniyah , Kirkuk , and Erbil . Kurds were, however, dissatisfied, since Kurdish was only allowed to be used in elementary schools and Iraq had fully arabized the education and administration systems in Kirkuk and Mosul. In subsequent years, linguistic rights for Kurds were either ignored or reluctantly implemented. The development of Sorani
8211-474: The British to implement the law themselves in May 1931, which made Kurdish an official language in the governorates of Sulaymaniyah , Kirkuk , and Erbil . Kurds were, however, dissatisfied, since Kurdish was only allowed to be used in elementary schools and Iraq had fully arabized the education and administration systems in Kirkuk and Mosul. In subsequent years, linguistic rights for Kurds were either ignored or reluctantly implemented. The development of Sorani
SECTION 50
#17327805404068372-436: The Iraqi government and Kurdish leaders signed the 1970 Peace Agreement. It promised Kurdish self-rule, recognition of the bi-national character of Iraq, political representation in the central government, extensive official language rights, the freedom of association and organization, and several other concessions aimed at restoring full civic rights to the Kurdish population. It was to come into effect within four years. After
8533-640: The Kurdish language. However, Kurds were afforded a special position in the official state ethnic-based nationalism because of their cultural similarity to the Persians and their non-Arab ethnicity. Also, the distribution of seats in the Majlis (parliament) was based on religion, not ethnicity, the Kurds were able to exercise greater political power than non-Muslim minorities like the Armenians and Jews. The state's system of military conscription and centralized education served to integrate urban Kurdish populations but
8694-526: The Kurds and Iraq in the 1970s, the state still sponsored the implementation of Sorani as language in secondary schools. However, this ended by 1978 when the Iraqi authorities embarked on an Arabization to quell Kurdish nationalism. On this, Hassanpour wrote in 1992 that: Language-related aspects of Arabization include, among other things, the Arabization of Kurdish schools in the Autonomous region;
8855-405: The Kurds and Iraq in the 1970s, the state still sponsored the implementation of Sorani as language in secondary schools. However, this ended by 1978 when the Iraqi authorities embarked on an Arabization to quell Kurdish nationalism. On this, Hassanpour wrote in 1992 that: Language-related aspects of Arabization include, among other things, the Arabization of Kurdish schools in the Autonomous region;
9016-584: The Kurds to fill the power vacuum and govern these areas autonomously. While the Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria (AANES) was originally based in predominantly Kurdish areas, it has come to encompass much of Arabistan to the south. The AANES disavows nationalism, seeking the federalisation of Syria instead. The most influential Kurdish nationalist group in Syria is the Kurdish National Council , which
9177-570: The Kurds were free to publish cultural and historical information in their own language. However, with massive investment and military aid from the western world , in the 1950s and 1960s Iran became a police state which clamped down on many civil rights. After the Iranian Revolution , some Kurdish groups (chiefly the Democratic Party of Iranian Kurdistan ) allied with Iranian leftist and communist groups against Ayatollah Khomeini 's government. The Kurdish rebellion for autonomy in 1979
9338-423: The Kurds' geographical position at the southern and eastern fringe of the empire and the mountainous topography of their territory, in addition to the limited transportation and communication system, agents of the state had little access to Kurdish provinces and were forced to make informal agreements with tribal chiefs. This bolstered the Kurds' authority and autonomy; for instance, the Ottoman qadi and mufti as
9499-668: The Mesopotamian pattern. The Kurdish representative at the Paris Peace Conference was General Muhammad Sharif Pasha. After the Young Turk Revolution deposed Sultan Abdulhamid II and sentenced Sharif Pasha to death, he fled the Ottoman Empire. Sharif Pasha had offered his services to the British at the beginning of the war, but his offer had been refused because the British did not anticipate their being engaged with operations in Kurdistan. He spent
9660-461: The Ottoman Empire, this social order was maintained while the imperial system declined and modern Iranian identity was forged by a reform movement in the late 19th century to the benefit of Kurds. Under this regime, Sunni and Shia Kurds held a privileged position as Muslims. Unlike the other minorities, Christian Armenians, Jews , Zoroastrians and others, they had the right to work in food production and buy crown land . They also benefited from
9821-447: The Ottoman centralist policies of the 19th century began did the first modern Kurdish nationalist movement emerge with an uprising led by a Kurdish landowner and head of the powerful Shemdinan family, Sheikh Ubeydullah . " In 1880 Ubeydullah demanded political autonomy or outright independence for Kurds and the recognition of a Kurdistan state without interference from Turkish or Persian authorities." The uprising against Qajar Persia and
SECTION 60
#17327805404069982-461: The Silêmanî variety of Sorani in 1857; de Morgan wrote his " Etudea linguistiques: Dialectee Kurdea " in 1904, in which he compared eleven varieties of Kurdish to each other and with Persian and Sanskrit . Later, in 1903, Ely Bannister Soane published a learner textbook and vocabulary list on Sorani for British personnel in Kurdistan, while Oskar Mann wrote Die Mundart der Mukri Kurden containing
10143-406: The Silêmanî variety of Sorani in 1857; de Morgan wrote his " Etudea linguistiques: Dialectee Kurdea " in 1904, in which he compared eleven varieties of Kurdish to each other and with Persian and Sanskrit . Later, in 1903, Ely Bannister Soane published a learner textbook and vocabulary list on Sorani for British personnel in Kurdistan, while Oskar Mann wrote Die Mundart der Mukri Kurden containing
10304-584: The Sorani alphabet take various forms depending on where they occur in the word. Forms given below are letters in isolation. An important allophonic variation concerns the two velar sounds /k/ and /g/. Similar to certain other languages of the region (e.g. Turkish and Persian), these consonants are strongly palatalized before the close and mid front vowels (/i/ and /e/) in Central Kurdish. Sorani allows both complex onsets (e.g. spî: "white", kwêr: "blind") and complex codas (e.g. ferş: "carpet"). However,
10465-516: The Sorani alphabet take various forms depending on where they occur in the word. Forms given below are letters in isolation. An important allophonic variation concerns the two velar sounds /k/ and /g/. Similar to certain other languages of the region (e.g. Turkish and Persian), these consonants are strongly palatalized before the close and mid front vowels (/i/ and /e/) in Central Kurdish. Sorani allows both complex onsets (e.g. spî: "white", kwêr: "blind") and complex codas (e.g. ferş: "carpet"). However,
10626-461: The Syrian Kurd population) were stripped of their citizenship in the 1962 Census when the government claimed they were, in fact, Turks and Iraqis illegally residing in the country. Stripped of their nationality, these now stateless Kurds still found themselves subject to its obligations through conscription in the military . The Kurdish language and cultural expressions were banned. In 1962,
10787-519: The Turkish Republic", Kurdish civic rights can be constrained within the context of a Constitution guaranteeing equality without acknowledging them as a distinct group. Equal citizenship rights were enshrined in Turkey's 1920 Provisional Constitution . Article 8 asserted that the country was composed of both Turks and Kurds but under the law they would be treated as common citizens. However,
10948-404: The Turks, and found themselves on the retreat before Turkish retaliation near the plateau of Ankara . The Turks had found a new nationalist leader. The fall of the Ottoman Empire and its Sultanate was certain. The Treaty of Sèvres represented to the Turks. This new treaty made no direct mention of the Kurds or Kurdistan, rather Ottoman Kurdistan was divided among Turkey and the two Arab states to
11109-516: The acknowledgment of the existence of different languages and races in Turkey. The 1972 Law of Association further restricted rights to association and political organization. The failure to address the Kurdish grievances throughout the 1960s and 1970s led to alternate avenues of resolution. In 1984 the Kurdistan Workers Party (PKK) started a guerrilla insurgency against the Turkish Republic. The PKKs insurgency continued to be
11270-651: The administrative assistance, amounting to direct responsibility for the conduct of government, which they intend to undertake in Mesopotamia, and the mere control of external relations, to which they propose to limit themselves in the case of the independent rulers of the Arabian Peninsula. In the hills British control should be exerted with the least direct intervention possible. In the lowlands bordering on Mesopotamia, where there are important oil-fields and other natural resources, it may have to approximate to
11431-455: The aim of changing characteristics of the Republic" essentially criminalizing Kurdish political activism and many basic forms of expression. In 2004 laws were further liberalized allowing Kurdish-language broadcasts and other restrictions, including the giving of Kurdish names to infants have been removed. After World War I Iraq came under a British mandate. Many Kurds did try to establish an independent Kurdish state but they failed, declaring
11592-612: The chief Armenian delegate, had confided to Sir Louis Mallet of the British Delegation fears that the Allies were "abandoning Armenia to her fate." He worried about French ambition in Armenia, and sought British and US recognition for Armenian independence. Sharif Pasha and Bughos Nubar agreed to support each other's bid for independence even if there were disagreements as to the particulars of territory. The two presented overlapping claims and criticized each other's demands, but
11753-401: The citizenship rights of Kurds, Law No. 1850 was introduced after popular revolts, giving after-the-fact legal sanction to civilians and military personnel who killed Kurds during the revolt. Kurdish regions were placed under martial law and the use of the Kurdish language, dress, folklore, and names prohibited. It was this continued repression that led to reemergence of Kurdish nationalism in
11914-533: The close of World War I, plans for the lands, resources, and people under former Ottoman jurisdiction were negotiated. While the U.K. and France were drawing their lines on the map of the Middle East, the Americans, whom they invited to take up mandates in Armenia and Kurdistan, refused to become involved on the ground. U.S. foreign policy appeared hesitant because policymakers feared the U.S become entangled in
12075-630: The coalition against the Islamist extremists. In 1974 the weaker Law of Autonomy in the Area of Kurdistan was actually implemented with much weaker citizenship protections and conflict soon resumed. The 1980s, especially during the Iran–Iraq War , were a particularly low point for Kurdish rights within Iraq. Approximately 500,000 Kurdish civilians were sent to detention camps in southern and eastern Iraq and
12236-510: The country into two separate regions, one Arab, one Kurdish in administrative policy and practice. Two policies emerged regarding Kurds in Iraq: one for non-tribal urban dwellers and one for rural tribal population meant to discourage urban migration. The government institutionalized advantages for rural Kurds – tribes had special legal jurisdiction , tax benefits, and informally guaranteed seats in parliament. In addition, they were exempt from two of
12397-601: The dissolution of the Kurdish Academy in 1978 and the formation of a 'Kurdish corporation' within the Iraqi Scientific Academy (the policy was to replace 'Kurdish' by 'Iraqi' in the name of organizations, institutions and unions); the removal of Sulaymanya University from Sulaymaniya, main center of Kurdish nationalism, to Arbil and partial Arabization of its faculty and curriculum; and the Arabization of Kurdish geographical names. Sorani continued as
12558-459: The dissolution of the Kurdish Academy in 1978 and the formation of a 'Kurdish corporation' within the Iraqi Scientific Academy (the policy was to replace 'Kurdish' by 'Iraqi' in the name of organizations, institutions and unions); the removal of Sulaymanya University from Sulaymaniya, main center of Kurdish nationalism, to Arbil and partial Arabization of its faculty and curriculum; and the Arabization of Kurdish geographical names. Sorani continued as
12719-654: The dominant population. He included the Persian Empire 's Kurdish territories in addition to Ottoman lands. His inclusion of the Persian Kurdish lands was merely to make a point that the Kurds were a large nation spanning a large area, thereby worthy of a homeland free from the outside interference that had often plagued Kurdistan. Delegates representing the Kurds, the Armenians, and the Assyrians presented claims to territory and independence. Bughos Nubar ,
12880-411: The end of World War I, Kurds still had the legal right to conduct their affairs in Kurdish, celebrate unique traditions, and identify themselves as a distinct ethnic group. The Treaty of Sèvres signed in 1920 "suggested" an independent Kurdish and Armenian state but after the establishment of the Turkish Republic by a Turk ethnonationalist government which balked at the treaty, the 1923 Lausanne Treaty
13041-412: The establishment of a constitutional monarchy by Reza Shah in 1925. Similar to other states, he tried to nation-build by creating an exclusionary nationality based on a secular, ethnically Persian Iranian identity and repress the cultural expressions and equal status of ethnic minorities. These minorities, including the Kurds were coerced into accepting Persian culture and many were arrested for speaking
13202-414: The extent that the number of Iraqi Kurds who speak Arabic fluently has dropped significantly over the past decades. Some Kurdish media in Iraq seem to be aiming for constructing a cross-border Kurdish identity. The Kurdish-language satellite channel Kurdistan TV (KTV), owned by the Kurdistan Democratic Party (KDP), for example, employs techniques that expose audiences to more than one Kurdish variety in
13363-413: The extent that the number of Iraqi Kurds who speak Arabic fluently has dropped significantly over the past decades. Some Kurdish media in Iraq seem to be aiming for constructing a cross-border Kurdish identity. The Kurdish-language satellite channel Kurdistan TV (KTV), owned by the Kurdistan Democratic Party (KDP), for example, employs techniques that expose audiences to more than one Kurdish variety in
13524-655: The failed Sheikh Said rebellion , thousands of Northern Kurds fled their homes to live among the Syrian Kurds of Western Kurdistan in the French Mandate of Syria . Under the Mandate, Kurds and other minorities enjoyed privileges denied to the Sunni Arab majority. The French authorities facilitated minority independence movements, as well as recruited and trained minorities for its local militias, as part of
13685-489: The first government press in Sorani was established in Sulaymaniyah in 1920, which propelled Sorani into becoming a language of media, education, and administration. The government press had by 1923 published six books, 118 issues of the weekly publication Pêşkewtin (Progress), fourteen issues of Bangî Kurdistan (The Call of Kurdistan), and sixteen issues of Rojî Kurdistan (The Day of Kurdistan). The period also saw
13846-428: The first government press in Sorani was established in Sulaymaniyah in 1920, which propelled Sorani into becoming a language of media, education, and administration. The government press had by 1923 published six books, 118 issues of the weekly publication Pêşkewtin (Progress), fourteen issues of Bangî Kurdistan (The Call of Kurdistan), and sixteen issues of Rojî Kurdistan (The Day of Kurdistan). The period also saw
14007-510: The first syllable of the English word "above"). This sound change takes place when [æ] directly precedes [w] or when it is followed by the sound [j] (like English "y") in the same syllable. If it, instead, precedes [j] in a context where [j] is a part of another syllable it is pronounced [ɛ] (as in English "bet"). The vowels [o] and [e], both of which have slight off-glides in English, do not possess these off-glides in Sorani. Letters in
14168-453: The first syllable of the English word "above"). This sound change takes place when [æ] directly precedes [w] or when it is followed by the sound [j] (like English "y") in the same syllable. If it, instead, precedes [j] in a context where [j] is a part of another syllable it is pronounced [ɛ] (as in English "bet"). The vowels [o] and [e], both of which have slight off-glides in English, do not possess these off-glides in Sorani. Letters in
14329-410: The framework of the Iraqi republic". Once successful at consolidating their power they would repress Kurdish political rights, militarize Kurdish regions, ban nationalist political parties, destroy Kurdish villages, and forcibly impose resettlement (especially in petroleum-rich areas). As a result, from late 1961 onwards there was near constant strife in Iraqi Kurdistan. A major development was made when
14490-529: The government dominated by Sunni Arabists . Within this new framework, as non-Arabs, the Kurds would experience unwelcome changes in status. The 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s demonstrated a pattern. The new Arabist leader would assert his belief in the Kurds as distinct and equal ethnic group in Iraq with political rights. For instance, the Constitution of 1960 claims "Kurds and Arabs are partners within this nation. The Constitution guarantees their rights within
14651-411: The implementation of Article 15 of the Constitution which would allow the use of regional languages. The use of Sorani in Iran has since then been revitalized by Kurdish book publishers like Mang . Nonetheless, the use of Sorani in the public school system is not supported by Iranian nationalists and conservatives who believe it could damage the unity of the nation-state. Sorani is mostly written with
14812-410: The implementation of Article 15 of the Constitution which would allow the use of regional languages. The use of Sorani in Iran has since then been revitalized by Kurdish book publishers like Mang . Nonetheless, the use of Sorani in the public school system is not supported by Iranian nationalists and conservatives who believe it could damage the unity of the nation-state. Sorani is mostly written with
14973-405: The interwar years as continued British internal interference and a series of weak government prevented any one movement from dominating national politics prevented the creation of a formal exclusionary citizenship. However, later the central governments nation-building strategy centered around a secular conception of national identity based upon a sentiment of Iraqi unity (al-wadha al-iraqiyya) with
15134-470: The last few decades. Kurdish media outlets in Iraq mushroomed during the 1990s, spurred by the semi-autonomous status the region has enjoyed since the uprising against the Saddam regime in 1991. The use of Kurdish in media and education is prevalent in Iraqi Kurdistan. Seven of the top 10 TV stations viewed by Iraqi Kurds are Kurdish-language stations, and the use of Arabic in Kurdistan schools has decreased to
15295-415: The last few decades. Kurdish media outlets in Iraq mushroomed during the 1990s, spurred by the semi-autonomous status the region has enjoyed since the uprising against the Saddam regime in 1991. The use of Kurdish in media and education is prevalent in Iraqi Kurdistan. Seven of the top 10 TV stations viewed by Iraqi Kurds are Kurdish-language stations, and the use of Arabic in Kurdistan schools has decreased to
15456-473: The letters, and usually omitted. The other major point of departure of the Sorani writing system from other Arabic-based systems is that the Arabic letters that represent sounds that are non-existent in Sorani are usually (but not always) replaced by letters that better represent their Kurdish pronunciation. Iraq is the only country in which a Kurdish language has enjoyed official or semi-official rights during
15617-419: The letters, and usually omitted. The other major point of departure of the Sorani writing system from other Arabic-based systems is that the Arabic letters that represent sounds that are non-existent in Sorani are usually (but not always) replaced by letters that better represent their Kurdish pronunciation. Iraq is the only country in which a Kurdish language has enjoyed official or semi-official rights during
15778-410: The main language in elementary and secondary schools in Iraqi Kurdistan. In the 1980s, the state sponsored publications in Sorani despite warring with the Kurds. Iran In the 1960s, schooling in Kurdish or teaching Kurdish was unthinkable, even in private. However, the University of Tehran began offering two courses in Kurdish even though one had to refrain from discussing Kurdish and had to call it
15939-408: The main language in elementary and secondary schools in Iraqi Kurdistan. In the 1980s, the state sponsored publications in Sorani despite warring with the Kurds. Iran In the 1960s, schooling in Kurdish or teaching Kurdish was unthinkable, even in private. However, the University of Tehran began offering two courses in Kurdish even though one had to refrain from discussing Kurdish and had to call it
16100-687: The majority remained rural. After World War II with the Soviet withdrawal from Kurdish regions (where they had encouraged autonomous Kurdish government as the Mahabad Republic ), the Shah banned some Kurdish political parties, expressions of cultural identity ended the open political party system and ruled by firman. In 1958 there was a marked liberalization which allowed the activities of Kurdish cultural organizations and student associations but still limited political parties. Unlike other countries
16261-515: The mandate system. He also argued for a British sponsored committee aimed at reconciling relations between the Kurds and the Armenians. Kurdish nationalist organizations nominated Sharif Pasha as their representative at the Paris Peace Conference because of his strategic views and high level contacts within the British government. At Paris, Sharif Pasha carefully laid out Kurdish claims to territory and constructed an argument for Kurdish independence. His claims were based on areas where Kurds constituted
16422-459: The massacre of 182,000 Kurds in the Anfal genocide . The Kurdish–Turkish conflict , where Kurdish armed groups have fought against the state, has been ongoing since 1984. After the 1991 uprisings in Iraq , UN enforced the Iraqi no-fly zones under resolution 688, which included over much of Iraqi Kurdistan, facilitating autonomy and self-government outside the control of the Iraqi government. After
16583-553: The mid-2000s. In 1997, the Kurdistan Sciency Academy was established in Erbil with the goal of creating a unitary language in the autonomous region. Iran More leniency was given towards Kurdish, especially Sorani Kurdish in the 1990s, but use of Sorani in administration and education was still not allowed. The debate on mother tongue education entered the public sphere in the 2000s. World Wide Web has had
16744-421: The mid-2000s. In 1997, the Kurdistan Sciency Academy was established in Erbil with the goal of creating a unitary language in the autonomous region. Iran More leniency was given towards Kurdish, especially Sorani Kurdish in the 1990s, but use of Sorani in administration and education was still not allowed. The debate on mother tongue education entered the public sphere in the 2000s. World Wide Web has had
16905-711: The new Iraqi Constitution adopted in 2005 grants governmental autonomy to the Kurdistan Region , establishes Kurdish as an official language alongside Arabic, acknowledges the national rights of the Kurdish people, and promises equality of citizens regardless of race or religion. Kurdish military forced helped defeat ISIL during the Iraqi Civil War (2014–2017) and gained territory, including Kirkuk and surrounding oil fields. The 2017 Kurdistan Region independence referendum took place on September 25, with 92.73% voting in favor of independence. This triggered
17066-505: The new letters ( پ/ژ/چ/گ/ڤ/ڕ/ڵ/وو/ێ ). Wahby also supported switching to the Latin alphabet , but this idea was not accepted by the literary society or the state. In the 1930s, the League of Nations urged Iraq to draft a law guaranteeing the use of the Kurdish language. The authorities reluctantly agreed, but the British knew the law would not be implemented once they left Iraq. This pushed
17227-400: The new letters ( پ/ژ/چ/گ/ڤ/ڕ/ڵ/وو/ێ ). Wahby also supported switching to the Latin alphabet , but this idea was not accepted by the literary society or the state. In the 1930s, the League of Nations urged Iraq to draft a law guaranteeing the use of the Kurdish language. The authorities reluctantly agreed, but the British knew the law would not be implemented once they left Iraq. This pushed
17388-492: The newly formed states of Turkey, Iraq, and Syria, making Kurds a significant ethnic minority in each state. Kurdish nationalist movements have long been suppressed by Turkey and in the states of Iran, Iraq, and Syria, all of whom have fear of a potential independent Kurdistan. Since the 1970s, Iraqi Kurds have pursued the goal of greater autonomy and even outright independence against the Iraqi nationalist Ba'ath Party regimes, which responded with brutal repression, including
17549-598: The partition of Kurdistan into three sections, in the two largest of which certain rights are secured to ourselves, the French, and the Arabs, but none to the Kurds." The study noted the strategic value of Kurdistan thus: The Power paramount in this country will command the strategic approaches to Mesopotamia and control the water supply of the eastern affluents of the Tigris, on which the irrigation of Mesopotamia largely depends. It
17710-405: The pharyngeal sounds /ħ/ and /ʕ/ are counted or not). Alveolar Vowels in parentheses are not phonemic , but have been included in the table below because of their ubiquity in the language. Letters in the Sorani alphabet take various forms depending on where they occur in the word. Forms given below are letters in isolation. The vowel [æ] is sometimes pronounced as [ə] (the sound found in
17871-404: The pharyngeal sounds /ħ/ and /ʕ/ are counted or not). Alveolar Vowels in parentheses are not phonemic , but have been included in the table below because of their ubiquity in the language. Letters in the Sorani alphabet take various forms depending on where they occur in the word. Forms given below are letters in isolation. The vowel [æ] is sometimes pronounced as [ə] (the sound found in
18032-625: The power of local chieftains and Kurdish autonomy), and rampant Turk ethnonationalism in the new Turkish Republic (which obviously threatened to marginalize Kurds). Western powers (particularly the United Kingdom ) fighting the Turks promised the Kurds that they would act as guarantors for Kurdish freedom, a promise they subsequently broke. One particular organization, the Society for the Elevation of Kurdistan (Kürdistan Teali Cemiyeti)
18193-407: The publication of Sorani works for schools, and courts began using the language as well. In 1923, Taufiq Wahby was instructed to produce school books in Sorani by the Iraqi government, and his modified orthography for the language would be implemented as the official Sorani script in school textbooks two decades later. His orthography included purging the Arabic letters ( ث/ذ/ص/ض/ط/ظ ) and creating
18354-407: The publication of Sorani works for schools, and courts began using the language as well. In 1923, Taufiq Wahby was instructed to produce school books in Sorani by the Iraqi government, and his modified orthography for the language would be implemented as the official Sorani script in school textbooks two decades later. His orthography included purging the Arabic letters ( ث/ذ/ص/ض/ط/ظ ) and creating
18515-788: The publication of periodicals in Sorani but also state-sponsored radio broadcasting and teaching Kurdish at the University of Tehran . In the 1950s, the Iranian authorities began restricting and controlling the tolerance towards Kurdish which continued towards the Iranian Revolution in 1979. No positive rights were given and any written use was controlled. However, the restrictions had to be loosen since Kurds in Iran were receiving radio broadcasting from Iraq and Soviet Armenia . Iran thus allowed for limited radio broadcasting in Mahabad, Sanandaj and Kermanshah which legitimized and popularized Sorani further. Iraq The Kurdish Scientific Academy
18676-676: The publication of periodicals in Sorani but also state-sponsored radio broadcasting and teaching Kurdish at the University of Tehran . In the 1950s, the Iranian authorities began restricting and controlling the tolerance towards Kurdish which continued towards the Iranian Revolution in 1979. No positive rights were given and any written use was controlled. However, the restrictions had to be loosen since Kurds in Iran were receiving radio broadcasting from Iraq and Soviet Armenia . Iran thus allowed for limited radio broadcasting in Mahabad, Sanandaj and Kermanshah which legitimized and popularized Sorani further. Iraq The Kurdish Scientific Academy
18837-412: The same dissemination as it might have done in the more prestigious Arabic or Persian. Contemporaries of Nalî like Salim and Mustefa Bêgî Kurdî also wrote in Sorani and their writings would become the foundation for the standard variety of Sorani. When the Baban dynasty was overthrown in 1850, the golden era of Sorani ended and poets including Nalî left the Silêmanî region. Hacî Qadirî Koyî continued
18998-410: The same dissemination as it might have done in the more prestigious Arabic or Persian. Contemporaries of Nalî like Salim and Mustefa Bêgî Kurdî also wrote in Sorani and their writings would become the foundation for the standard variety of Sorani. When the Baban dynasty was overthrown in 1850, the golden era of Sorani ended and poets including Nalî left the Silêmanî region. Hacî Qadirî Koyî continued
19159-547: The same show or program. It has been suggested that continuous exposure to different Kurdish varieties on KTV and other satellite television stations might make Kurdish varieties increasingly mutually intelligible. In Iran, state-sponsored regional TV stations air programs in both Kurdish and Persian. Kurdish press are legally allowed in Iran, but there have been many reports of a policy of banning Kurdish newspapers and arresting Kurdish activists. Sorani has 9 phonemic vowels and 26 to 28 phonemic consonants (depending on whether
19320-542: The same show or program. It has been suggested that continuous exposure to different Kurdish varieties on KTV and other satellite television stations might make Kurdish varieties increasingly mutually intelligible. In Iran, state-sponsored regional TV stations air programs in both Kurdish and Persian. Kurdish press are legally allowed in Iran, but there have been many reports of a policy of banning Kurdish newspapers and arresting Kurdish activists. Sorani has 9 phonemic vowels and 26 to 28 phonemic consonants (depending on whether
19481-523: The scheme worked. The negotiators were convinced that both the Kurds and the Armenians deserved homelands in the new Middle East, and granted provisions for statehood and self-determination in the resulting Treaty of Sèvres. Sharif Pasha grew frustrated with the Allies over his sidelining in negotiations and with the Kurdish League over his agreement with the Armenians, and eventually resigned his post. Following his marginalization, Sharif produced
19642-471: The south, Iraq and Syria, which were under British and French mandates respectively. The following sections are a brief glimpse of the Kurds' activities in Turkey and Iraq after the division of territories between the two states. By the enforcement of laws such as Article 57 of the Turkish Constitution of 1982 which outlaws "any activity harmful to national unity and territorial integrity of
19803-632: The state of Sorani in Kurdistan Region which could affect its use among the people. They also expressed dismay over the method of the Parliament in using the language, since the institution wrote their bills and laws in Arabic and then translated to Sorani. Iran More flexibility was shown to Kurdish in the mid-2000s by the reformists , likely to win the Kurdish vote. Kurds used the opportunity and began publishing more in Sorani, set up private language learning courses and also advocated for
19964-505: The state of Sorani in Kurdistan Region which could affect its use among the people. They also expressed dismay over the method of the Parliament in using the language, since the institution wrote their bills and laws in Arabic and then translated to Sorani. Iran More flexibility was shown to Kurdish in the mid-2000s by the reformists , likely to win the Kurdish vote. Kurds used the opportunity and began publishing more in Sorani, set up private language learning courses and also advocated for
20125-511: The strongest facets of the modern state; they had their own schools and were outside the jurisdiction of national courts. This privileged position lasted into the 1950s. Kurdish rights were further entrenched in 1932 by the Local Languages Law, a condition of the League of Nations (undoubtedly under British influence) being that to join, Iraq had to enact constitutional protection for the Kurds. Political rights were fairly open in
20286-412: The tradition of writing in Sorani and lamented the lack of promotion of Sorani among the Kurdish clergy and called those who did not do so 'bastards'. Beside Koyi, Riza Talebanî also promoted Sorani as a literary language. Prior to the 20th century, only three non-poetic Sorani works are known to exist being Mewlûdname by Şêx Husên Qazî (1793-1871), a glossary of Arabic-Kurdish by Ehmedî from 1795 and
20447-411: The tradition of writing in Sorani and lamented the lack of promotion of Sorani among the Kurdish clergy and called those who did not do so 'bastards'. Beside Koyi, Riza Talebanî also promoted Sorani as a literary language. Prior to the 20th century, only three non-poetic Sorani works are known to exist being Mewlûdname by Şêx Husên Qazî (1793-1871), a glossary of Arabic-Kurdish by Ehmedî from 1795 and
20608-477: The tuyal land tenure system which favoured Muslims. This advantage allowed Kurds to establish strong control over food production and land. The notable absence of ethnic restrictions on holding government office allowed Kurdish tribal leaders and notables to purchase office and establish a strong Kurdish presence in Iranian politics without having to culturally assimilate or deny ethnicity. This political presence
20769-692: The two members of the clusters are arranged in such a way that, in all cases, the Sonority Sequencing Principle (SSP) is preserved. In many loanwords, an epenthetic vowel is inserted to resyllabify the word, omitting syllables that have codas that violate SSP. Originally mono-syllabic words such as /hazm/ ("digestion") and /zabt/ ("record") therefore become /hɛ.zɪm/ and /zɛ.bɪt/ respectively. Kurdish nationalism Ancient Medieval Modern Kurdish nationalism ( Kurdish : کوردایەتی , romanized : Kurdayetî , lit. 'Kurdishness or Kurdism')
20930-553: The two members of the clusters are arranged in such a way that, in all cases, the Sonority Sequencing Principle (SSP) is preserved. In many loanwords, an epenthetic vowel is inserted to resyllabify the word, omitting syllables that have codas that violate SSP. Originally mono-syllabic words such as /hazm/ ("digestion") and /zabt/ ("record") therefore become /hɛ.zɪm/ and /zɛ.bɪt/ respectively. Sorani Kurdish language Sorani Kurdish ( Sorani Kurdish : کوردیی ناوەندی , Kurdî Nawendî ), also known as Central Kurdish ,
21091-401: The use of Sorani in radio broadcasting which elevated its prestige but also the urgency in proficiency since it was linked to current events. Iraq The 1940s experienced an intermittent suppression of Kurdish but Sorani still succeeded in becoming considerably standardized by the end of the period. By the time the 14 July Revolution took place in 1958, Sorani had incorporated the norms of
21252-399: The use of Sorani in radio broadcasting which elevated its prestige but also the urgency in proficiency since it was linked to current events. Iraq The 1940s experienced an intermittent suppression of Kurdish but Sorani still succeeded in becoming considerably standardized by the end of the period. By the time the 14 July Revolution took place in 1958, Sorani had incorporated the norms of
21413-409: The war pushed idealism to its extreme in the minds of some negotiators and some heads of states, while the reality on the ground was starkly different from their grand visions of a new world. Other statesmen, particularly Lloyd-George and Clemenceau, had imperial interests in mind rather than the international peace and reconciliation that Wilson professed. After the surrender of the Ottoman Empire and
21574-488: The war when the prevailing thought was a realignment of the Ottoman territories along the European model of nation-states in which Ottoman minorities each would govern their own people in their own territories. British Foreign Office documents of the time indicate a certainty of a future Armenian state, but leave out other parties such as the Kurds and the Assyrians. A sketch of the Draft Treaty of Peace between Turkey and
21735-419: The war with Iraq. Still compared to other countries Kurds were still allowed limited publications, to celebrate holidays, wear traditional dress, and use Kurdish (except as a language of instruction). Significant improvements were made in 1997 whereby the government allowed a profusion of Kurdish language in media, although some of these publications were later restricted. The Iranian government has been facing
21896-571: The war years in Monte Carlo waiting for another opportunity. Despite his disappointment with the British, Sharif Pasha reestablished his contact with the British near the end of the war. In 1918, he began communicating with Sir Percy Cox, the head of British forces in Mesopotamia , to discuss establishing British protection over an autonomous Kurdistan. He argued for similar arrangements in Mesopotamia and elsewhere, describing something akin to
22057-506: The war, more attention was paid to the Armenians than to the Kurds. This was likely because the Armenians were primarily Christian, and thereby more prone to identify with the West and vice versa. The Kurds were considered complicit in the atrocities committed against the Armenians within the Ottoman Empire during the early stages of the war. Little attention was given to Kurdistan until after
22218-488: Was a deliberate process of persecution and " Arabisation " of Kurdish areas, culminating in the late 1980s with the Anfal campaign that destroyed thousands of villages and killed huge numbers of civilians. The chemical weapons attack on Halabja in March 1988 killed as many as 5,000 in a day. In recent years the threat posed by ISIS and the important role played by Kurdish Peshmerga soldiers in ground operations assisting
22379-468: Was a problem that would plague the Kurds. The Foreign Office's Political Intelligence Department presented British negotiators with a thorough study of the Ottoman Empire's lands and peoples before they attended negotiations in Paris. This document placed heavy emphasis on Armenia and commitments to the French and Arabs. The situation of Kurdistan was addressed with the statement, "We are thus committed to
22540-491: Was also in the works but rudimentary. When the Republic of Mahabad fell, formal use of Sorani also ceased in Iran, however the new Pahlavi state under Mohammad Reza Pahlavi would become more tolerant than that of Reza Shah. Researcher Hassanpour argues that the reason for this was the vulnerability of the new central government which had to approach the Kurds more relaxed. For this, some developments did take place including
22701-435: Was also in the works but rudimentary. When the Republic of Mahabad fell, formal use of Sorani also ceased in Iran, however the new Pahlavi state under Mohammad Reza Pahlavi would become more tolerant than that of Reza Shah. Researcher Hassanpour argues that the reason for this was the vulnerability of the new central government which had to approach the Kurds more relaxed. For this, some developments did take place including
22862-456: Was based on religious identification with Islam , specifically Shia Islam , the dominant sect. While the majority of Kurds are Sunni, in Iran they were roughly evenly split between Sunnis, Shias, and Shia splinter groups like the Sufis . Because of this preoccupation with religion over ethnicity, in practice Kurds were treated as part of the majority and enjoyed extensive citizenship rights. Unlike
23023-518: Was benefiting Arab peasants in areas Kurds would predominantly benefit until 1971. From the 1970s on there was a relaxation of official treatment of Kurds, but the late 1980s saw renewed widespread denial of Syrian citizenship status to Syrian Kurds, especially in refusing national identity documents such as passports. Since the beginning of the Syrian Civil War , Syrian government forces have abandoned many Kurdish-populated areas, leaving
23184-605: Was bolstered because the Qajars appointed many tribal chiefs to government positions in exchange for internal security assurances. Within this system many Kurds reached prominent military, political, and diplomatic positions. Exceptional in Iran during the 19th century and early 20th was that the nationalist reform movement did not develop a radical, exclusionary, ethnic-based conception of nationality but developed an Iranian identity that did not define itself as ethnically Persian . The existing beneficial social framework changed with
23345-537: Was central to the forging of a distinct Kurdish identity. It took advantage of period of political liberalization in during the Second Constitutional Era (1908–1920) of Turkey to transform a renewed interest in Kurdish culture and language into a political nationalist movement based on ethnicity. Around the start of the 20th century Russian anthropologists encouraged this emphasis on Kurds as
23506-451: Was created for the vernacular. Sorani also gained a kurdified vocabulary by the 1950s. The British began publishing periodicals in the language to mobilize Kurds, since the Sorani-speaking contingent of Iraq was more urbanized, better educated, and more inclined towards Kurdish nationalism than the Kurmanji -speaking population around Duhok . Such nationalism was promoted to prevent any Turkish takeover of Kirkuk and Mosul . To this end,
23667-451: Was created for the vernacular. Sorani also gained a kurdified vocabulary by the 1950s. The British began publishing periodicals in the language to mobilize Kurds, since the Sorani-speaking contingent of Iraq was more urbanized, better educated, and more inclined towards Kurdish nationalism than the Kurmanji -speaking population around Duhok . Such nationalism was promoted to prevent any Turkish takeover of Kirkuk and Mosul . To this end,
23828-516: Was dominant to the detriment of other languages. A decree issued by the government in 1935 suppressed Kurdish and marked its end as a written language. Only a dozen handwritten poetic manuscripts in Sorani exist from this period, including works by Hassan Saifulquzzat, Said Kamil Imani, and Khalamin Barzanji. By the 1940s, the Silêmanî variant of Sorani had become the standard variant of Sorani and even Kurds in Iran accepted this. The 1940s also saw
23989-459: Was dominant to the detriment of other languages. A decree issued by the government in 1935 suppressed Kurdish and marked its end as a written language. Only a dozen handwritten poetic manuscripts in Sorani exist from this period, including works by Hassan Saifulquzzat, Said Kamil Imani, and Khalamin Barzanji. By the 1940s, the Silêmanî variant of Sorani had become the standard variant of Sorani and even Kurds in Iran accepted this. The 1940s also saw
24150-465: Was established in Baghdad in 1968 which devoted a significant part of their job to develop neologisms , grammar books, writing style guide-lines, a modified orthography and research in linguistics subjects. The Kurdistan Democratic Party and its media also used Sorani as their official language despite its leader Mustefa Barzanî being a Kurmanji-speaker. Despite the deterioration of relations between
24311-411: Was established in Baghdad in 1968 which devoted a significant part of their job to develop neologisms , grammar books, writing style guide-lines, a modified orthography and research in linguistics subjects. The Kurdistan Democratic Party and its media also used Sorani as their official language despite its leader Mustefa Barzanî being a Kurmanji-speaker. Despite the deterioration of relations between
24472-400: Was forcibly suppressed by Tehran, with thousands of Kurdish rebels and civilians killed as a result. The new theocratic government developed a new exclusionary conception of nationalism based on very conservative Shia Islam. Once Khomeini consolidated power he expelled Sunni Kurds from government office, placed restrictions on freedom of expression, and militarized Kurdish regions as part of
24633-522: Was founded by a group of Kurdish intellectuals in Paris in 1918. These intellectuals saw the period following World War I as ripe for organizing a movement aimed at securing a Kurdish nation-state out of the ruins of the recently defeated Ottoman Empire . After the cataclysm of World War I, the Paris Peace Conference offered the opportunity for a new world. The optimism and idealism promoted by U.S. President Woodrow Wilson aimed for
24794-663: Was published. Iran After the ousting of Reza Shah in 1941 and the Anglo-Soviet occupation of Iran , nationalist movements among Kurds gained strength and Sorani became the formal language again, especially in Mukriyan where the Komeley Jiyanewey Kurd (KJK) used it as their official language. Sorani was also introduced in schools, administration and in mosques. Kurds in Iraq aided with this, for example by exporting school books to Iran. Language planning
24955-473: Was published. Iran After the ousting of Reza Shah in 1941 and the Anglo-Soviet occupation of Iran , nationalist movements among Kurds gained strength and Sorani became the formal language again, especially in Mukriyan where the Komeley Jiyanewey Kurd (KJK) used it as their official language. Sorani was also introduced in schools, administration and in mosques. Kurds in Iraq aided with this, for example by exporting school books to Iran. Language planning
25116-521: Was religious with Sunni Islam being the top in the hierarchy (millet-i hakimiye). While the Ottoman Empire embarked on a modernization and centralization campaign known as the Tanzimat (1829–1879), Kurdish regions retained much of their autonomy and tribal chiefs their power. The Sublime Porte made little attempt to alter the traditional power structure of "segmented, agrarian Kurdish societies" – agha , beg , sheikh , and tribal chief . Because of
25277-602: Was signed which made no mention of the Kurds. The once politically unified Ottoman Kurdistan was then divided into the different administrative and political systems in Iraq, Turkey and Syria. The first Kurdish political party originated in the Kurdish diaspora rather than from within Kurdistan . The organization known as Khoybun or in Kurdish Xoybûn (also known as the Kurdish League), or "Independence,"
25438-470: Was slow in Iran and faced many challenges. The earliest use of the language was during the Simko Shikak revolt of 1918 to 1922, which saw the use of Sorani side by side with Kurmanji as official languages in the area controlled by the rebels. After the defeat of the revolt, formal use of Sorani ceased until 1946. During the rule of Reza Shah from 1925 to 1941, Iran was extremely centralist and Persian
25599-410: Was slow in Iran and faced many challenges. The earliest use of the language was during the Simko Shikak revolt of 1918 to 1922, which saw the use of Sorani side by side with Kurmanji as official languages in the area controlled by the rebels. After the defeat of the revolt, formal use of Sorani ceased until 1946. During the rule of Reza Shah from 1925 to 1941, Iran was extremely centralist and Persian
25760-457: Was the necessity. The only chance that a Kurdish state would be formed was the revolt against the newly emerged Turkish Republic was Skeikh Ubeydullah but this was short lived, because the revolt was never strategic nor unified in a Kurdistan sense. The Kurdish nationalist struggle first emerged in the late 19th century when a unified movement demanded the establishment of a Kurdish state. Revolts occurred sporadically, but only decades after
25921-487: Was written into the peace treaty. The "Kurdistan" specified in the treaty did not include all of the Kurdish territories, but it contained a large portion of Ottoman Kurdistan. Some groups formerly under Ottoman dominion desired reclamation of lands they perceived as their own. Greek irredentism gained the support of the British, thus enabling them to land Greek forces at Izmir . However, the Greeks became too covetous toward
#405594