143-658: 27°10′44.04″N 78°1′24.96″E / 27.1789000°N 78.0236000°E / 27.1789000; 78.0236000 Musamman Burj also known as the Saman Burj or the Shah-burj, is an octagonal tower standing close to the Shah Jahan 's private hall Diwan-e-Khas in Agra Fort . Musamman Burj was built by Shah Jahan for his beloved wife Mumtaz Mahal . It is said that at first a small marble palace built by Akbar
286-545: A vassal state of the Mughal Empire as a result of Mughal expedition of Mewar . In 1615, Khurram presented Kunwar Karan Singh, Amar Singh's heir to Jahangir. Khurram was sent to pay homage to his mother and stepmothers and was later awarded by Jahangir. The same year, his mansab was increased from 12000/6000 to 15000/7000, to equal that his brother Parvez's and was further increased to 20000/10000 in 1616. In 1616, on Khurram's departure to Deccan, Jahangir awarded him
429-740: A captive of his son Aurangzeb . He lay here on his death bed while gazing at the Taj Mahal in Agra . Shah Jahan Mirza Shahab-ud-Din Muhammad Khurram (5 January 1592 – 22 January 1666), commonly called Shah Jahan I ( Persian pronunciation: [ʃɑːh d͡ʒa.ˈhɑːn] ; lit. ' King of the World ' ), also called Shah Jahan the Magnificent , was Emperor of Hindustan from 1628 until his deposition in 1658. As
572-445: A close relationship. Jahangir stated that Akbar was very fond of Khurram and had often told him "There is no comparison between him and your other sons. I consider him my true son." When Khurram was born, Akbar considering him to be auspicious insisted the prince be raised in his household rather than Salim's and was thus entrusted to the care of Ruqaiya Sultan Begum . Ruqaiya assumed the primary responsibility for raising Khurram and
715-597: A country to which they were accustomed", according to Fazl. Akbar made clear that he would stay in India, reintroducing the historical legacy of the Timurid Renaissance , in contrast to his grandfather and father, who reigned as transient rulers. By 1559, the Mughals had launched a drive to the south into Rajputana and Malwa . However, Akbar's disputes with his regent, Bairam Khan, temporarily put an end to
858-461: A date chosen by court astrologers. The marriage was a happy one and Khurram remained devoted to her. They had fourteen children, out of whom seven survived into adulthood. Though there was genuine love between the two, Arjumand Banu Begum was a politically astute woman and served as a crucial advisor and confidante to her husband. Later on, as empress, Mumtaz Mahal wielded immense power, such as being consulted by her husband in state matters, attending
1001-417: A few Turki words and showed little interest in the study of the language as a child. Khurram was attracted to Hindi literature since his childhood, and his Hindi letters were mentioned in his father's biography, Tuzuk-e-Jahangiri . In 1605, as Akbar lay on his deathbed, Khurram, who at this point of time was 13, remained by his bedside and refused to move even after his mother tried to retrieve him. Given
1144-515: A hostage to the Mughal court. Yousuf Shah surrendered immediately to the Mughals, but another of his sons, Yaqub Shah , crowned himself as king, leading a resistance against the Mughal armies. In June 1589, Akbar travelled from Lahore to Srinagar to receive the surrender of Yaqub and his rebel forces. Baltistan and Ladakh , which were Tibetan provinces adjacent to Kashmir, pledged their allegiance to Akbar. The Mughals also moved to conquer Sindh in
1287-537: A key to holding the interior parts of Rajputana. Udai Singh retreated to the hills of Mewar, leaving two Rajput warriors, Jaimal and Patta , in charge of the defence of his capital. Chittorgarh fell in February 1568 after a siege of four months . The fall of Chittor was proclaimed by Akbar as "the victory of Islam over infidels [ i.e. , non-Muslims]." In his Fathnama (dispatches announcing victory) issued on 9 March 1575 conveying his news of victory, Akbar wrote: "With
1430-549: A rebellion by Prince Khusrau – Khurram remained distant from court politics and intrigues in the immediate aftermath of that event. Khurram left Ruqaiya's care and returned to his mother's care. As the third son, Khurram did not challenge the two major power blocs of the time, his father's and his half-brother's; thus, he enjoyed the benefits of imperial protection and luxury while being allowed to continue with his education and training. This relatively quiet and stable period of his life allowed Khurram to build his own support base in
1573-573: A rebellion by Afghan nobles supported by the Rajput ruler of Idar , as well as the renewed intrigues of the Mirzas , forced his return to Gujarat. Akbar crossed Rajputana and reached Ahmedabad in 11 days—a journey that normally took six weeks. The outnumbered Mughal army won a decisive victory on 2 September 1573. Akbar slew the rebel leaders and erected a tower out of their severed heads. The conquest and subjugation of Gujarat proved highly profitable for
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#17327754512611716-506: A show of vigour before proceeding to Áhmedábád, marched against Kánji, who fled to the village of Bhádar near Kheralu , sixty miles north-east of Áhmedábád. Ázam Khán pursued him so hotly that Kánji surrendered, handed over his plunder and guaranteed that he would not only cease to commit robberies but also pay an annual tribute of Rupees 10,000. Ázam Khán then built two fortified posts in the Koli's territory, naming one Ázamábád after himself, and
1859-435: A significant influence in the Mughal administration. As a result, several accusations of an incestual relationship between Shah Jahan and Jahanara were propagated. Such accusations have been dismissed by modern historians as gossip, as no witness of an incident has been mentioned. Historian K. S. Lal also dismisses such claims as rumors propagated by courtiers and mullahs . He cites Aurangzeb's confining of Jahanara in
2002-610: A unique 'mehrab' (lozenge) shaped coin. Akbar's portrait type gold coin (Mohur) is generally attributed to his son, Prince Salim (later Emperor Jahangir), who had rebelled and then sought reconciliation by minting and presenting his father with gold Mohurs bearing Akbar's portrait. During the latter part of Akbar's reign, coins portrayed the concept of Akbar's newly promoted religion, with the Ilahi type and Jalla Jalal-Hu types. Prior to Akbar's reign, marriages between Hindu princesses and Muslim kings failed to produce stable relations between
2145-459: Is noted to have raised Khurram affectionately. Jahangir noted in his memoirs that Ruqaiya had loved his son, Khurram, "a thousand times more than if he had been her own [son]." However, after the death of his grandfather Akbar in 1605, he returned to the care of his mother, Jagat Gosain whom he cared for and loved immensely. Although separated from her at birth, he had become devoted to her and had her addressed as Hazrat in court chronicles. On
2288-625: The mansabdari system, establishing a hierarchical scale of military and civil ranks. Organisational reforms were accompanied by innovations in cannons , fortifications , and the use of elephants . Akbar also took an interest in matchlocks and effectively employed them during various conflicts. He sought the help of the Ottomans , as well as Europeans, especially the Portuguese and Italians, in procuring advanced firearms and artillery. Akbar's vizier Abul Fazl once declared that "with
2431-572: The Agra Fort with the Royal prisoner and the talk of the low people magnifying a rumor. Several contemporary travelers have mentioned such accessions. Francois Bernier , a French physician, mentions rumors of an incestuous relationship being propagated in the Mughal Court. However, Bernier did not mention witnessing such a relationship. Niccolao Manucci , a Venetian traveler, dismisses such accusations by Bernier as gossip and "The talk of
2574-509: The Agra Fort . In addition to Shahryar, Shah Jahan executed most of his rival claimants to the throne. He commissioned many monuments, including the Red Fort , Shah Jahan Mosque and the Taj Mahal , where his favorite consort Mumtaz Mahal is entombed. In foreign affairs, Shah Jahan presided over the aggressive campaigns against the Deccan sultanates , the conflicts with the Portuguese , and
2717-627: The Khandesh Sultanate refused to relinquish Khandesh . Akbar then established the Subahs of Ahmadnagar, Berar, and Khandesh under Prince Daniyal. "By the time of his death in 1605, Akbar controlled a broad sweep of territory from the Bay of Bengal to Qandahar and Badakshan. He touched the western sea in Sind and at Surat and was well astride central India." Akbar's system of central government
2860-666: The Makran coast, became a part of the Mughal Empire. Kandahar (also known as the ancient Indian kingdom of Gandhara ) had connections with the Mughals from the time of the Empire's ancestor, Timur , the warlord who had conquered much of Western, Central, and parts of South Asia in the 14th century. However, the Safavids considered it to be an appanage of the Persian-ruled territory of Khorasan , and declared its association with
3003-569: The Marwari horse was introduced, becoming Shah Jahan's favorite, and various Mughal cannons were mass-produced in the Jaigarh Fort . Under his rule, the empire became a huge military machine and the nobles and their contingents multiplied almost fourfold, as did the demands for more revenue from their citizens. But due to his measures in the financial and commercial fields, it was a period of general stability – the administration
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#17327754512613146-531: The Mughal Empire to include much of the Indian subcontinent through Mughal military, political, cultural, and economic dominance. To unify the vast Mughal state, Akbar established a centralised system of administration and adopted a policy of conciliating conquered rulers through marriage and diplomacy. To preserve peace and order in a religiously and culturally diverse empire, he adopted policies that won him
3289-587: The Mughal–Safavid War . Shah Jahan also expanded the Mughal Empire to the west beyond the Khyber Pass to Ghazna and Kandahar. Shah Jahan launched an invasion of Central Asia from 1646 to 1647 against the Khanate of Bukhara . With an total army of 75,000, Shah Jahan and his sons Aurangzeb and Murad Bakhsh temporarily occupied the territories of Balkh and Badakhshan . However, they retreated from
3432-529: The Naqshbandi began to shape Mughal policies. He was born on 5 January 1592 in Lahore, present-day Pakistan, as the ninth child and third son of Prince Salim (later known as ' Jahangir ' upon his accession) by his wife, Jagat Gosain . The name Khurram ( Persian : خرم , lit. 'joyous') was chosen for the young prince by his grandfather, Emperor Akbar , with whom the young prince shared
3575-401: The mansabdari . Under this system, each officer in the army was assigned a rank (a mansabdar ) and assigned a number of cavalry , which he was required to supply to the imperial army. The mansabdars were divided into 33 classes. The top three commanding ranks, ranging from 7,000 to 10,000 troops, were normally reserved for princes. Ranks between 10 and 5,000 were assigned to other members of
3718-403: The wars with the Safavids . He also suppressed several local rebellions and dealt with the devastating Deccan famine of 1630–32 . In September 1657, Shah Jahan was ailing and appointed his eldest son Dara Shikoh as his successor. This nomination led to a succession crisis among his three sons, from which Shah Jahan's third son Aurangzeb ( r. 1658–1707 ) emerged victorious and became
3861-538: The Emperor of Persia, himself beleaguered by the Ottoman Turks, was unable to send reinforcements. In 1593, Akbar received the exiled Safavid prince, Rostam Mirza. Rostam Mirza pledged allegiance to the Mughals; he was granted a rank (mansab) of command over 5,000 men and received Multan as a jagir . The Safavid prince and governor of Kandahar, Mozaffar Hosayn, also agreed to defect to the Mughals. Hosayn, who
4004-410: The Emperor. Khurram relayed this information to Jahangir who praised him. Jahangir had Khurram weighed against gold, silver and other wealth at his mansion at Orta. Due to the long period of tensions between his father and his half-brother, Khusrau Mirza , Khurram began to drift closer to his father, and over time, started to be considered the de facto heir-apparent by court chroniclers. This status
4147-551: The Empire's holdings in Afghanistan; they were, according to Abul Fazl "afraid of the cold of Afghanistan". Likewise, Hindu officers in the Mughal army were inhibited by the traditional taboo against crossing the Indus . To encourage them, Akbar provided them with pay eight months in advance. In August 1581, Akbar seized Kabul and took up residence at Babur's old citadel . He stayed there for three weeks and his brother fled into
4290-703: The Indo-Gangetic plains. The Mughals had already established domination over parts of northern Rajputana in Mewat , Ajmer , and Nagor. Akbar sought to conquer Rajputana's heartlands, which had rarely previously submitted to the Muslim rulers of the Delhi Sultanate . Beginning in 1561, the Mughals actively engaged the Rajputs in warfare and diplomacy. Most Rajput states accepted Akbar's suzerainty; however,
4433-694: The Koli's activities. The Kolis of Kankrej in North Gujarat committed excesses and the Jam of Nawanagar refused to pay tribute to Shah Jahan. Soon, Ázam Khán was appointed in an effort to subdue the Kolis and bring order to the province. Ázam Khán marched against Koli rebels. When Ázam Khán reached Sidhpur , the local merchants complained bitterly of the outrages of one Kánji, a Chunvalia Koli, who had been especially daring in plundering merchandise and committing highway robberies. Ázam Khán, anxious to start with
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4576-563: The Low People". Prince Khurram showed extraordinary military talent. The first occasion for Khurram to test his military prowess was during the Mughal campaign against the Rajput state of Mewar , which had been a hostile force to the Mughals since Akbar's reign. After a year of a harsh war of attrition , Rana Amar Singh I surrendered conditionally to the Mughal forces and became
4719-675: The Maharana and that turban is still preserved in Pratap Museum, Udaipur (R V Somani 1976). It is believed that the mosaic work of Jagmandir inspired him to use mosaic work in the Taj Mahal of Agra . In November 1623, he found safe asylum in Bengal Subah after he was driven from Agra and the Deccan . He advanced through Midnapur and Burdwan . At Akbarnagar, he defeated and killed the then Subahdar of Bengal, Ibrahim Khan Fath-i-Jang , on 20 April 1624. He entered Dhaka and "all
4862-484: The Mirzas who, after offering token resistance, fled for refuge in the Deccan . Surat , the commercial capital of the region, and other coastal cities soon capitulated to the Mughals. The king, Muzaffar Shah III , was caught hiding in a corn field; he was pensioned off by Akbar with a small allowance. Akbar then returned to Fatehpur Sikiri, where he built the Buland Darwaza to commemorate his victories. But,
5005-762: The Mughal Army raised imperial banners and gained control over the Bandel region, and the garrison was punished . On 23 December 1635, Shah Jahan issued a farman ordering the Agra Church to be demolished. The Church was occupied by the Portuguese Jesuits. However the Emperor allowed the Jesuits to conduct their religious ceremonies in privacy. He also banned the Jesuits in preaching their religion and making converts from both Hindus and Muslims. Though in
5148-474: The Mughal capital in Bengal. Following his conquests of Gujarat and Bengal, Akbar was preoccupied with domestic concerns. He did not leave Fatehpur Sikri on a military campaign until 1581, when Punjab was again invaded by his brother, Mirza Muhammad Hakim. Akbar expelled his brother to Kabul and waged a campaign to remove him from power. At the same time, Akbar's nobles were resisting leaving India to administer
5291-437: The Mughal court, which would be useful later on in his life. Jahangir assigned Khurram to guard the palace and treasury while he went to pursue Khusrau. He was later ordered to bring Mariam-uz-Zamani , his grandmother and Jahangir's harem to him. During Khusrau's second rebellion, Khurram's informants informed him about Fatehullah, Nuruddin and Muhammad Sharif gathered around 500 men at Khusrau's instigation and lay await for
5434-458: The Mughal emperors to be a usurpation. In 1558, while Akbar was consolidating his rule over northern India, Safavid Shah Tahmasp I seized Kandahar and expelled its Mughal governor. The recovery of Kandahar had not been a priority for Akbar, but after his military activity in the northern frontiers, he moved to restore Mughal control. At the time, the region was also under threat from the Uzbeks, but
5577-480: The Mughal governor of Bihar, was ordered to chastise Daud Khan. Eventually, Akbar himself set out to Bengal, and in 1574, the Mughals seized Patna from Daud Khan, who fled to Bengal. Akbar then returned to Fatehpur Sikri and left his generals to finish the campaign. The Mughal army was subsequently victorious at the Battle of Tukaroi in 1575, which led to the annexation of Bengal and parts of Bihar that had been under
5720-651: The Mughals and was able to retain most of his kingdom during Akbar's reign. Akbar's next military objectives were the conquest of Gujarat and Bengal, which connected India with the trading centres of Asia, Africa, and Europe through the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal . Gujarat had also been a haven for rebellious Mughal nobles. In Bengal, the Afghans still held considerable influence under their ruler, Sulaiman Khan Karrani . Akbar first moved against Gujarat, which lay in
5863-511: The Mughals. The outnumbered Mughal forces defeated the Sindhi forces at the Battle of Sehwan. After suffering further defeats, Jani Beg surrendered to the Mughals in 1591, and in 1593, paid homage to Akbar in Lahore. As early as 1586, about half a dozen Baluchi chiefs, under nominal Pani Afghan rule, had been persuaded to subordinate themselves to Akbar. In preparation for taking Kandahar from
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6006-417: The Mughals; after expenses, the territory yielded a revenue of more than five million rupees annually to Akbar's treasury. After conquering Gujarat, the remaining centre of Afghan power was Bengal. In 1572, Sulaiman Khan's son, Daud Khan , succeeded him. Daud Khan defined Mughal rule, assuming the insignia of royalty and ordering that the khutbah be proclaimed in his name, rather than Akbar's. Munim Khan ,
6149-615: The Punjab. In 1558, Akbar took possession of Ajmer , the aperture to Rajputana , after the defeat and flight of its Muslim ruler. The Mughals also besieged and defeated the Sur forces in control of Gwalior Fort , a stronghold north of the Narmada river. Royal begums (ladies), along with the families of Mughal amirs, were brought from Kabul to India at the time, "so that men might become settled and be restrained in some measure from departing to
6292-455: The Rajput kings had submitted to the Mughals; only the clans of Mewar continued to resist. Udai Singh's son and successor, Maharana Pratap , was later defeated by the Mughals at the Battle of Haldighati in 1576. Akbar would celebrate his conquest of Rajputana by laying the foundation of a new capital, 23 miles (37 km) west-southwest of Agra, in 1569. It was called Fatehpur Sikri , or the "City of Victory". Pratap Singh continued to attack
6435-579: The Rajputs. During this period of his reign, Akbar was still devoted to Islam and sought to impress the superiority of his faith over what were regarded by contemporaries as the most prestigious warriors in Hinduism. In 1567, Akbar attacked the Chittor Fort in Mewar. The fortress-capital of Mewar was of strategic importance as it lay on the shortest route from Agra to Gujarat and was also considered
6578-498: The Safavids, Akbar ordered the Mughal forces to conquer the rest of the Afghan-held parts of Baluchistan in 1595. The Mughal general Mir Masum led an attack on the stronghold of Sibi, which was northeast of Quetta , and defeated a coalition of local chieftains in battle. They were required to acknowledge Mughal supremacy and attend Akbar's court. As a result, the modern-day Pakistani and Afghan parts of Baluchistan, including
6721-680: The Sikhs led by Guru Hargobind took place and, in response, Shah Jahan ordered their destruction. Guru Hargobind defeated the Mughal's army in the Battle of Amritsar , Battle of Kartarpur , Battle of Rohilla , and the Battle of Lahira . Shah Jahan and his sons captured the city of Kandahar in 1638 from the Safavids , prompting the retaliation of the Persians led by their ruler Abbas II of Persia , who recaptured it in 1649. The Mughal armies were unable to recapture it despite repeated sieges during
6864-552: The Sur rulers, who had proclaimed himself Hindu emperor and expelled the Mughals from the Indo-Gangetic Plains . Urged by Bairam Khan, who re-marshalled the Mughal army before Hemu could consolidate his position, Akbar marched on Delhi to reclaim it. His army, led by Bairam Khan, defeated Hemu and the Sur army on 5 November 1556 at the Second Battle of Panipat , 50 miles (80 km) north of Delhi. Soon after
7007-742: The Uzbek invasion of Safavid-held Khorasan . In return, Abdullah Khan agreed to refrain from supporting, subsidising, or offering refuge to the Afghan tribes hostile to the Mughals. Akbar, in turn, began a series of campaigns to pacify the Yusufzais and other rebels. Akbar ordered Zain Khan to lead an expedition against the Afghan tribes. Raja Birbal , a renowned minister in Akbar's court, was also given military command. The expedition failed, and on their retreat from
7150-412: The World") and raised his military rank to 30000/20000 and allowed him a special throne in his Durbar , an unprecedented honor for a prince. Edward S. Holden writes, "He was flattered by some, envied by others, loved by none." In 1618, Shah Jahan was given the first copy of Tuzk-e-Jahangiri by his father who considered him "the first of all my sons in everything." Inheritance in the Mughal Empire
7293-857: The World", alluding to his pride in his Timurid roots and his ambitions. More epithets showed his secular and religious duties. He was also titled Hazrat Shahenshah ("His Imperial Majesty"), Hazrat-i-Khilafat-Panahi ("His Majesty the Refuge of the Caliphate"), Hazrat Zill-i-Ilahi ("His Majesty the Shadow of God"). His first act as ruler was to execute his chief rivals and imprison his stepmother Nur Jahan. Upon Shah Jahan's orders, several executions took place on 23 January 1628. Those put to death included his brother Shahryar; his nephews Dawar and Garshasp, sons of Shah Jahan's previously executed brother Prince Khusrau ; and his cousins Tahmuras and Hoshang , sons of
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#17327754512617436-716: The ambassador in June 1640. While he was encamped in Baghdad , Murad IV is known to have met ambassadors of the Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan, Mir Zarif and Mir Baraka, who presented 1000 pieces of finely embroidered cloth and even armor. Murad IV gave them the finest weapons, saddles and Kaftans and ordered his forces to accompany the Mughals to the port of Basra , where they set sail to Thatta and finally Surat . They exchanged lavish presents, but Shah Jahan
7579-471: The arts, letters, and learning. Timurid and Perso-Islamic culture began to merge and blend with indigenous Indian elements into a distinct style of Mughal arts, including painting and architecture . Disillusioned with orthodox Islam and perhaps hoping to bring about religious unity within his empire, Akbar promulgated Din-i Ilahi , a syncretic creed derived mainly from Islam and Hinduism as well as elements of Zoroastrianism and Christianity . Akbar
7722-406: The battle, Mughal forces occupied Delhi and then Agra. Akbar made a triumphant entry into Delhi, where he stayed for a month. Then, he and Bairam Khan returned to Punjab to deal with Sikandar Shah Suri, who had become active again. In the next six months, the Mughals won another major battle against Sikander, who fled east to Bengal . Akbar and his forces occupied Lahore and then seized Multan in
7865-472: The capital was moved to Lahore in 1585. Historians have advanced several reasons for the move, including an insufficient or poor quality water supply at Fatehpur Sikri, Akbar's campaigns in the northwest areas of the Empire or loss of interest. In 1599, Akbar moved his capital back to Agra, where he ruled until his death. Akbar was a patron of the arts and culture. He had Sanskrit literature translated and participated in native festivals. Akbar established
8008-419: The command of his foster brother, Adham Khan , and a Mughal commander, Pir Muhammad Khan, began the Mughal conquest of Malwa. The Afghan ruler, Baz Bahadur , was defeated at the Battle of Sarangpur and fled to Khandesh for refuge, leaving behind his harem, treasure, and war elephants. Despite initial success, Akbar was ultimately displeased with the aftermath of the campaign; his foster brother retained all of
8151-536: The construction of the marvelous Taj Mahal , where she was later reburied. Khurram had taken other wives, among whom were Kandahari Begum (m. 28 October 1610) and another Persian Princess Izz un-Nisa Begum (m. 2 September 1617), the daughters of Prince Muzaffar Husain Mirza Safawi and Shahnawaz Khan, son of Abdul Rahim Khan-I-Khana , respectively. But according to court chroniclers, these marriages were more out of political consideration, and they enjoyed only
8294-561: The council ( shura or diwan ), and being responsible for the imperial seal , which allowed her to review official documents in their final draft. Shah Jahan also gave her the right to issue her own orders (hukums) and make appointments to him. Mumtaz Mahal died at the young age of 38 (7 June 1631), upon giving birth to Princess Gauhar Ara Begum in the city of Burhanpur , Deccan of a postpartum haemorrhage , which caused considerable blood-loss after painful labor of thirty hours. Contemporary historians note that Princess Jahanara, aged 17,
8437-504: The court could gaze out unseen. The decoration of the walls is pietra dura . The chamber has a marble dome on top and is surrounded by a verandah with a beautiful carved fountain in the center. The tower looks out over the River Yamuna and is traditionally considered to have one of the most poignant views of the Taj Mahal . It is here that Shah Jahan along with his favorite daughter Jahanara Begum had spent his last few years as
8580-404: The crook of the Mughal provinces of Rajputana and Malwa. Gujarat possessed areas of rich agricultural production in its central plain, an impressive output of textiles and other industrial goods, and the busiest seaports of India. Akbar intended to link the maritime state with the massive resources of the Indo-Gangetic plains. Akbar's ostensible casus belli for warring with Gujarat was that
8723-440: The death of Jagat Gosain in Akbarabad on 8 April 1619, he is recorded to be inconsolable by Jahangir and mourned for 21 days. For these three weeks of the mourning period, he attended no public meetings and subsisted on simple vegetarian meals. His consort Mumtaz Mahal personally supervised the distribution of food to the poor during this period. She led the recitation of the Quran every morning and gave her husband many lessons on
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#17327754512618866-446: The decree, he also granted 777 bighas of rent-free land to the Augustinian Fathers and the Christian community in Bandel, currently in West Bengal, shaping its Portuguese heritage for times to come. The Kolis of Gujarat rebelled against the rule of Shah Jahan. In 1622, Shah Jahan sent Raja Vikramjit, the Governor of Gujarat, to subdue the Kolis of Ahmedabad . Between 1632 and 1635, four viceroys were appointed in an effort to manage
9009-525: The devastation, Shah Jahan set up langar (free kitchens) for the victims of the famine. In 1632, Shah Jahan captured the fortress at Daulatabad, Maharashtra and imprisoned Husein Shah of the Nizam Shahi Kingdom of Ahmednagar . Golconda submitted in 1635 and then Bijapur in 1636. Shah Jahan appointed Aurangzeb as Viceroy of the Deccan, consisting of Khandesh, Berar, Telangana, and Daulatabad. During his viceroyalty, Aurangzeb conquered Baglana, then Golconda in 1656, and then Bijapur in 1657. A rebellion of
9152-415: The dominion of Daud Khan. Only Orissa was left in the hands of the Karrani dynasty , albeit as a fief of the Mughal Empire. A year later, however, Daud Khan rebelled and attempted to regain Bengal. He was defeated by the Mughal general Khan Jahan Quli and fled into exile. Daud Khan was later captured and executed by Mughal forces. His severed head was sent to Akbar, while his limbs were gibbeted at Tandah,
9295-402: The elephants, horses, and 4,000,000 rupees in specie belonging to the Government were delivered to him". After a short stay he then moved to Patna . His rebellion did not succeed in the end and he was forced to submit unconditionally after he was defeated near Allahabad . Although the prince was forgiven for his errors in 1626, tensions between Nur Jahan and her stepson continued to grow beneath
9438-472: The emperor for military appointments and promotion. The mir saman was in charge of the imperial household, including the harems, and supervised the functioning of the court and royal bodyguard. The judiciary was a separate organisation headed by a chief qazi , who was also responsible for religious beliefs and practices. Akbar reformed the administration land revenues by adopting a system that had been used by Sher Shah Suri . The village continued to remain
9581-584: The emperor had left all the burden of governance on her. She tried to weaken Khurram's position in the Mughal court by sending him on campaigns far in Deccan while ensuring several favours were being bestowed on her son-in-law. Khurram after sensing the danger posed to his status as heir-apparent rebelled against his father in 1622 but did not succeed and eventually lost the favour of his father. Several years before Jahangir's death in 1627, coins began to be struck containing Nur Jahan's name along with Jahangir's name; In fact, there were two prerogatives of sovereignty for
9724-462: The evening, he would have someone read to him. On 20 November 1551, Humayun's youngest brother, Hindal Mirza, died in a battle against Kamran Mirza's forces. Upon hearing the news of his brother's death, Humayun was overwhelmed with grief. About the time of nine-year-old Akbar's first appointment as governor of Ghazni , he married Hindal's daughter, Ruqaiya Sultan Begum , his first wife. Humayun gave Akbar command of Hindal's troops and conferred on
9867-401: The exception of Turkey, there is perhaps no country in which its guns has more means of securing the Government than [India]." Scholars and historians have used the term " gunpowder empire " to analyse the success of the Mughals in India. Akbar's father Humayun had regained control of the Punjab , Delhi , and Agra with Safavid support, but Mughal rule was still precarious when Akbar took
10010-411: The expansion. The young emperor, at the age of eighteen, wanted to take a more active part in managing the Empire's affairs. Urged on by his foster mother, Maham Anga , and other relatives, Akbar dismissed Bairam Khan following a dispute at court in the spring of 1560 and ordered him to leave on Hajj to Mecca . Bairam Khan left for Mecca, but on his way, was persuaded by his opponents to rebel. He
10153-460: The families involved; the women were lost to their families and did not return after marriage. Akbar departed from that practice, providing that the Hindu Rajputs who married their daughters or sisters to him would be treated equally to his Muslim fathers- and brothers-in-law, except that they would not be allowed to dine or pray with him or take Muslim wives. Akbar also made those Rajputs members of his court. Some Rajputs considered marriage to Akbar
10296-550: The fifth Mughal emperor , his reign marked the zenith of Mughal architectural and cultural achievements. The third son of Jahangir ( r. 1605–1627 ), Shah Jahan participated in the military campaigns against the Sisodia Rajputs of Mewar and the rebel Lodi nobles of the Deccan . After Jahangir's death in October 1627, Shah Jahan defeated his youngest brother Shahryar Mirza and crowned himself emperor in
10439-424: The forces of his brother, Muhammad Hakim, who had marched into the Punjab with the intention of seizing the imperial throne. Following a brief confrontation, Muhammad Hakim accepted Akbar's supremacy and retreated back to Kabul. In 1564, Mughal forces began the conquest of Garha , a thinly populated, hilly area in central India that was of interest to the Mughals because of its herd of wild elephants. The territory
10582-522: The fruitless lands and Balkh and Badakhshan returned to Bukharan control. Shah Jahan sent an embassy to the Ottoman court in 1637. Led by Mir Zarif, it reached Sultan Murad IV the following year, while he was encamped in Baghdad. Zarif presented him with fine gifts and a letter which encouraged an alliance against Safavid Persia. The Sultan sent a return embassy led by Arsalan Agha. Shah Jahan received
10725-715: The heir in his place. This fear brought Prince Khurram to rebel against his father rather than fight against the Persians . In 1622, Prince Khurram raised an army and marched against his father and Nur Jahan. He was defeated at Bilochpur in March 1623. Later he took refuge in Udaipur Mewar with Maharana Karan Singh II . He was first lodged in Delwada Ki Haveli and subsequently shifted to Jagmandir Palace on his request. Prince Khurram exchanged his turban with
10868-480: The help of our blood-thirsty sword we have erased the signs of infidelity in their minds and destroyed the temples in those places and all over Hindustan." Akbar had the surviving defenders and 30,000 non-combatants massacred and their heads displayed upon towers erected throughout the region to demonstrate his authority. Akbar remained in Chittorgarh for three days, then returned to Agra, where, to commemorate
11011-556: The imperial couple all of Hindal's wealth. Akbar's marriage to Ruqaiya was solemnised in Jalandhar , Punjab, when they were both 14 years old. Following chaos over the succession of Sher Shah Suri's son Islam Shah , Humayun reconquered Delhi in 1555, leading an army partly provided by his Persian ally Tahmasp I . A few months later, Humayun died. Akbar's guardian, Bairam Khan , concealed his death to prepare for Akbar's succession. Akbar succeeded Humayun on 14 February 1556, while in
11154-686: The ladies of the imperial court, particularly his consort of later years Akbarabadi Mahal, to the care of Jahanara. After reciting the Kal'ma ( Laa ilaaha ill allah ) and verses from the Quran , Shah Jahan died, aged 74. Akbar Abu'l-Fath Jalal-ud-din Muhammad Akbar ( ( 1542-10-15 ) 15 October 1542 – ( 1605-10-27 ) 27 October 1605), popularly known as Akbar the Great , and also as Akbar I ( Persian pronunciation: [ak.baɾ] ),
11297-682: The late Prince Daniyal Mirza . This allowed Shah Jahan to rule his empire without contention. Evidence from the reign of Shah Jahan states that in 1648 the army consisted of 911,400 infantry, musketeers , and artillery men, and 185,000 Sowars commanded by princes and nobles. His cultural and political initial steps have been described as a type of the Timurid Renaissance , in which he built historical and political bonds with his Timurid heritage mainly via his numerous unsuccessful military campaigns on his ancestral region of Balkh . In various forms, Shah Jahan appropriated his Timurid background and grafted it onto his imperial legacy. During his reign
11440-503: The legitimacy of a Muslim monarchy (reading the Khutbah and the other being the right to mint coins ). After the death of Jahangir in 1627, a struggle developed between Khurram and his half-brother, Shahryar Mirza for the succession to the Mughal throne. Khurram won the battle of succession and became the fifth Mughal Emperor. Nur Jahan was subsequently deprived of her imperial stature, authority, privileges, honors and economic grants and
11583-643: The library of Fatehpur Sikri exclusively for women, and he decreed the establishment of schools for the education of both Muslims and Hindus throughout the realm. He also encouraged bookbinding to become a high art. Akbar's government prioritized commercial expansion, encouraging traders, providing protection and security for transactions, and levying a low custom duty to stimulate foreign trade. It also required that local administrators provide restitution to traders for goods stolen while in their territories. To minimise such incidents, bands of highway police called rahdars were enlisted to patrol roads and ensure
11726-401: The lower Indus valley. Since 1574, the northern fortress of Bhakkar had remained under imperial control. In 1586, the Mughal governor of Multan tried and failed to secure the capitulation of Mirza Jani Beg , the independent ruler of Thatta in southern Sindh. Akbar responded by sending a Mughal army to besiege Sehwan , the river capital of the region. Jani Beg mustered a large army to meet
11869-503: The midst of a war against Sikandar Shah to reclaim the Mughal throne. In Kalanaur, Punjab , the 14-year-old Akbar was enthroned by Bairam Khan on a newly constructed platform (which still stands ) and was proclaimed Shahanshah ( Persian for "King of Kings"). Bairam Khan ruled on his behalf until he came of age. Akbar's military campaigns consolidated Mughal rule in the Indian subcontinent . Akbar introduced organisational changes to
12012-487: The mountain fortress of the Gonds. The Mughals seized immense wealth, including an uncalculated amount of gold and silver, jewels, and 1,000 elephants. Kamala Devi, a younger sister of Durgavati, was sent to the Mughal harem. The brother of Durgavati's deceased husband was installed as the Mughal administrator of the region. As with Malwa, Akbar entered into a dispute with his vassals over the conquest of Gondwana. Asaf Khan
12155-588: The mountains, Birbal and his entourage were ambushed and killed by Afghans at the Malandarai Pass in February 1586. Akbar immediately fielded new armies to reinvade the Yusufzai lands under the command of Raja Todar Mal . Over the next six years, the Mughals contained the Yusufzai in the mountain valleys, forcing the submission of many chiefs in Swat and Bajaur. Dozens of forts were built and occupied to secure
12298-475: The mountains. Akbar left Kabul in the hands of his sister, Bakht-un-Nissa Begum , and returned to India. He then pardoned his brother, who took up de facto control of the Mughal administration in Kabul; Bakht-un-Nissa continued to be the official governor. In 1585, after Muhammad Hakim died, Kabul passed into the hands of Akbar and was officially incorporated as a province of the Mughal Empire. The Kabul expedition
12441-447: The next year, Akbar sent another Mughal army to invade and annexe the kingdom. Malwa became a province of the nascent imperial administration of Akbar's regime. Baz Bahadur survived as a refugee at various courts until, eight years later in 1570, he took service under Akbar. When Adham Khan confronted Akbar following another dispute in late 1561, the emperor threw him from a terrace into the palace courtyard at Agra. Still alive, Adham Khan
12584-519: The nobility. The empire's permanent standing army was small and the imperial forces mostly consisted of contingents maintained by the mansabdars . Persons were normally appointed to a low mansab and then promoted based on merit and the favour of the emperor. Each mansabdar was required to maintain a certain number of cavalrymen and twice that number of horses. The number of horses was greater because they had to be rested and rapidly replaced in times of war. Akbar employed strict measures to ensure that
12727-522: The northwestern frontiers of the Mughal Empire. The Uzbeks also subsidised Afghan tribes on the border that were hostile to the Mughals. The tribes felt challenged by the Yusufzai of Bajaur and Swat and were motivated by a new religious leader, Bayazid, the founder of the Roshaniyya sect. In 1586, Akbar negotiated a pact with Abdullah Khan in which the Mughals agreed to remain neutral during
12870-730: The one at Attock near the crossing of the Grand Trunk Road and the Indus river . He also constructed a network of smaller forts called thanas throughout the frontier to secure the overland trade route with Persia and Central Asia. He also established an international trading business for his chief consort, Mariam-uz-Zamani , who ran an extensive trade of indigo, spices, and cotton to Gulf nations through merchant's vessels. Akbar introduced coins with decorative features, including floral motifs, dotted borders, and quatrefoil . The coins were issued in both round and square shapes, including
13013-527: The other Khalílábád after his son. Additionally, he forced the surrender of the Jam of Nawanagar. The next viceroy, Ísa Tarkhán, carried out financial reforms. In 1644, the Mughal prince Aurangzeb was appointed as the viceroy, who then proceeded to become engaged in religious disputes, such as the destruction of a Jain temple in Ahmedabad . Due to these disputes, he was replaced by Shaista Khan who failed to subdue Kolis. Subsequently, prince Murad Bakhsh
13156-423: The politically uncertain times immediately preceding Akbar's death, Khurram was in a fair amount of physical danger from political opponents of his father. He was at last ordered to return to his quarters by the senior women of his grandfather's household, namely Salima Sultan Begum and his grandmother Mariam-uz-Zamani as Akbar 's health deteriorated. In 1605, his father succeeded to the throne, after crushing
13299-573: The power equation between the two had now changed in favour of the Mughals. In 1593, Akbar began military operations against the Deccan Sultans, who had not submitted to his authority. He besieged Ahmednagar Fort in 1595, forcing Chand Bibi to cede Berar . A subsequent revolt forced Akbar to take the fort in August 1600. Akbar occupied Burhanpur and besieged Asirgarh Fort in 1599, and took it on 17 January 1601, when Miran Bahadur Shah of
13442-450: The primary unit of revenue assessment. Cultivated areas were measured and taxed through fixed rates—on the basis of prices prevailing the imperial court—based on the type of crop and productivity. This system burdened the peasantry because prices at the imperial court were often higher than those in the countryside. Akbar also introduced a decentralised system of annual assessment, which resulted in corruption among local officials. The system
13585-401: The quality of the armed forces was maintained at a high level; horses were regularly inspected and usually only Arabian horses were employed. The mansabdars were the highest paid military service in the world at the time. Akbar was a follower of Salim Chishti , a holy man who lived in the region of Sikri near Agra. Believing the area to be lucky, Akbar had a mosque constructed there for
13728-494: The rebel Mirzas, who had previously been driven out of India, were now operating out of a base in southern Gujarat. Moreover, Akbar had received invitations from cliques in Gujarat to oust the reigning king, which further served as justification for his military expedition. In 1572, Akbar moved to occupy Ahmedabad , the capital, and other northern cities, and was proclaimed the lawful sovereign of Gujarat. By 1573, he had driven out
13871-493: The rebellious leaders, hoping to conciliate them, but they rebelled again; Akbar quelled their second uprising. Following a third revolt, with the proclamation of Mirza Muhammad Hakim —Akbar's brother and the Mughal ruler of Kabul—several Uzbek chieftains were slain and the rebel leaders trampled to death under elephants. Simultaneously, the Mirzas, a group of Akbar's distant cousins who held important fiefs near Agra, rebelled and were defeated by Akbar. In 1566, Akbar moved to meet
14014-507: The region. Despite his pact with the Uzbeks, Akbar nurtured a secret hope of reconquering Central Asia, but Badakshan and Balkh remained firmly part of the Uzbek dominion. Abdullah Khan died in 1598 and the last of the rebellious Afghan tribes were subdued by 1600. The Roshaniyya movement was suppressed, its leaders were captured or driven into exile, and the Afridi and Orakzai tribes which had risen up under them were subjugated. Jalaluddin,
14157-592: The reign of Akbar . The family's patriarch was Mirza Ghiyas Beg , who was also known by his title I'timād-ud-Daulah or "Pillar of the State". He had been Jahangir's finance minister and his son, Asaf Khan – Arjumand Banu's father – played an important role in the Mughal court, eventually serving as Chief Minister. Her aunt Mehr-un-Nissa later became the Empress Nur Jahan , chief consort of Emperor Jahangir. The prince would have to wait five years before he
14300-560: The rulers of Mewar and Marwar— Udai Singh II and Chandrasen Rathore —remained outside the imperial fold. Udai Singh was descended from the Sisodia ruler, Rana Sanga , who had fought Babur at the Battle of Khanwa in 1527. As the head of the Sisodia clan , he possessed the highest ritual status of all the Rajput kings and chieftains in India. The Mughals viewed defeating Udai Singh as essential to asserting their imperial authority among
14443-529: The safety of traders. Other active measures taken included the construction and protection of routes of commerce and communications. Akbar made concerted efforts to improve roads to facilitate the use of wheeled vehicles through the Khyber Pass, the most popular route frequented by traders and travellers journeying from Kabul into Mughal India. He also strategically occupied the northwestern cities of Multan and Lahore in Punjab and constructed forts, such as
14586-673: The sixth emperor, executing all of his surviving brothers, including Crown Prince Dara Shikoh. After Shah Jahan recovered from his illness in July 1658, Aurangzeb imprisoned him in Agra Fort from July 1658 until his death in January 1666. He was laid to rest next to his wife in the Taj Mahal. His reign is known for doing away with the liberal policies initiated by his grandfather Akbar . During Shah Jahan's time, Islamic revivalist movements like
14729-531: The son of the Roshaniyya movement's founder, Bayazid, was killed in 1601 in a fight with Mughal troops near Ghazni . While Akbar was in Lahore dealing with the Uzbeks, he sought to subjugate the Indus valley to secure the frontier provinces. In 1585, he sent an army to conquer Kashmir in the upper Indus basin after Yousuf Shah , the reigning king of the Shia Chak dynasty , refused to send his son as
14872-549: The spoils and followed through with the Central Asian practice of slaughtering the surrendered garrison, their wives and children, and many Muslim theologians and Sayyids, who were descendants of Muhammad . Akbar personally rode to Malwa to confront Adham Khan and relieve him of command. Pir Muhammad Khan was then sent in pursuit of Baz Bahadur, but was beaten back by the alliance of the rulers of Khandesh and Berar . Baz Bahadur temporarily regained control of Malwa until, in
15015-459: The status of being royal wives. Khurram is also recorded to have married his maternal half-cousin, a Rathore Rajput Princess Kunwari Leelavati Deiji, daughter of Kunwar Sakat/Sagat or Shakti Singh son of Mota Raja Udai Singh and half brother of Raja Sur Singh of Marwar . The marriage took place at Jodhpur when Khurram was in rebellion against his father, emperor Jahangir. After Shah Jahan fell ill in 1658, his daughter Jahanara Begum had
15158-415: The substance of life and death and begged him not to grieve. As a child, Khurram received a broad education befitting his status as a Mughal prince, which included martial training and exposure to a wide variety of cultural arts, such as poetry and music , most of which was inculcated, according to court chroniclers, by Jahangir. According to his chronicler Qazvini, prince Khurram was only familiar with
15301-474: The support of his non-Muslim subjects, including abolishing the sectarian tax and appointing them to high civil and military posts. Under Akbar, Mughal India developed a strong and stable economy, which tripled in size and wealth, leading to commercial expansion and greater patronage of an Indo-Persian culture . Akbar's courts at Delhi , Agra , and Fatehpur Sikri attracted holy men of many faiths, poets, architects, and artisans, and became known as centres of
15444-448: The surface. Upon the death of Jahangir in 1627, the wazir Asaf Khan, who had long been a quiet partisan of Prince Khurram, acted with unexpected forcefulness and determination to forestall his sister's plans to place Prince Shahryar on the throne. He put Nur Jahan in close confinement. He obtained control of Prince Khurram's three sons who were under her charge. Asaf Khan also managed palace intrigues to ensure Prince Khurram's succession to
15587-562: The third son, gathered a well-trained army and became its chief commander. He faced Dara's army near Agra and defeated him during the Battle of Samugarh . Although Shah Jahan fully recovered from his illness, Aurangzeb declared him incompetent to rule and put him under house arrest in Agra Fort. Jahanara Begum Sahib , Mumtaz Mahal's eldest surviving daughter, voluntarily shared his 8-year confinement and nursed him in his dotage. In January 1666, Shah Jahan fell ill. Confined to bed, he became progressively weaker until, on 22 January, he commended
15730-602: The throne. Prince Khurram succeeded to the Mughal throne as Abu ud-Muzaffar Shihab ud-Din Mohammad Sahib ud-Quiran ud-Thani Shah Jahan Padshah Ghazi (Urdu: شهاب الدین محمد خرم), or Shah Jahan. His regnal name is divided into various parts. Shihab ud-Din , meaning "Star of the Faith", Sahib al-Quiran ud-Thani , meaning "Second Lord of the Happy Conjunction of Jupiter and Venus". Shah Jahan , meaning "King of
15873-480: The throne. When the Surs reconquered Agra and Delhi following the death of Humayun, Akbar's young age and the lack of military assistance from the Mughal stronghold of Kabul —which was in the midst of an invasion by the ruler of Badakhshan , Prince Mirza Suleiman—aggravated the situation. When his regent, Bairam Khan , called a council of war to marshall the Mughal forces, none of Akbar's chieftains approved. Bairam Khan
16016-483: The title Shah Sultan Khurram . In 1617, Khurram was directed to deal with the Lodis in the Deccan to secure the Empire's southern borders and to restore imperial control over the region. On his return 1617 after successes in these campaigns, Khurram performed koronush before Jahangir who called him to jharoka and rose from his seat to embrace him. Jahangir also granting him the title of Shah Jahan (Persian: "King of
16159-411: The use of the priest. Subsequently, he celebrated the victories over Chittor and Ranthambore by laying the foundations of a new walled capital, 23 miles (37 km) west of Agra in 1569, which was named Fatehpur ("Town of Victory") after the conquest of Gujarat in 1573, and subsequently came to be known as Fatehpur Sikri to distinguish it from other similarly named towns. The city was soon abandoned and
16302-568: The victory, he set up statues of Jaimal and Patta mounted on elephants at the gates of his fort. Thereafter, Udai Singh never ventured out of his mountain refuge in Mewar. The fall of Chittorgarh was followed up by a Mughal attack on the Ranthambore Fort in 1568. Ranthambore was held by the Hada Rajputs and reputed to be the most powerful fortress in India. However, it fell only after a couple of months. At that point, most of
16445-605: The world's largest. E. Dewick and Murray Titus, quoting Badshahnama , write that 76 temples in Benares were demolished on Shah Jahan's orders. A famine broke out in 1630–32 in Deccan, Gujarat and Khandesh as a result of three main crop failures. Two million died of starvation, grocers sold dogs' flesh and mixed powdered bones with flour. It is reported that parents ate their own children. Some villages were completely destroyed, their streets filled with human corpses. In response to
16588-404: The zamindars were given a hereditary right to collect a share of the produce. Peasants had a hereditary right to cultivate the land as long as they paid the land revenue. Revenue officials were guaranteed only three-quarters of their salary, with the remaining quarter dependent on their full realisation of the revenue assessed. Akbar organised his army and the nobility by means of a system called
16731-421: Was Asaf Khan's daughter and her marriage to Khurram consolidated Nur Jahan and Asaf Khan's positions in court. Court intrigues, however, including Nur Jahan's decision to have her daughter from her first marriage wed Prince Khurram's youngest brother Shahzada Shahryar and her support for his claim to the throne led to much internal division. Prince Khurram resented the influence Nur Jahan held over his father and
16874-471: Was abandoned in 1580 and replaced with the dahsala (also known as zabti ), under which revenue was calculated as one-third of the average produce of the previous ten years, to be paid to the state in cash. This system was later refined, taking into account local prices and grouping areas with similar productivity into assessment circles. Remission was given to peasants when the harvest failed during times of flood or drought. The dahsala system
17017-401: Was accused of keeping most of the treasures and sending back only 200 elephants to Akbar. When summoned to give accounts, he fled Gondwana. He went first to the Uzbeks, then returned to Gondwana where he was pursued by Mughal forces. Finally, he submitted and Akbar restored him to his previous position. In January 1564, an assassin shot an arrow at Akbar, which pierced his right shoulder, as he
17160-525: Was angered at having to play second fiddle to her favourite Shahryar, his half-brother and her son-in-law. When the Persians besieged Kandahar , Nur Jahan was at the helm of the affairs. She ordered Prince Khurram to march for Kandahar, but he refused. As a result of Prince Khurram's refusal to obey Nur Jahan's orders, Kandahar was lost to the Persians after a forty-five-day siege. Prince Khurram feared that in his absence Nur Jahan would attempt to poison his father against him and convince Jahangir to name Shahryar
17303-501: Was appointed as the viceroy in 1654. He restored order and defeated the Koli rebels. When Shah Jahan became ill in 1658, Dara Shikoh (Mumtaz Mahal's eldest son) assumed the role of regent in his father's stead, which swiftly incurred the animosity of his brothers. Upon learning of his assumption of the regency, his younger brothers, Shuja , Viceroy of Bengal, and Murad Baksh , Viceroy of Gujarat, declared their independence and marched upon Agra in order to claim their riches. Aurangzeb,
17446-448: Was based on the system that had evolved since the Delhi Sultanate . Akbar reorganised the sections with a detailed set of regulations. The revenue department was headed by a wazir , responsible for finances and management of jagir and inam land. The head of the military was called the mir bakshi , appointed from among the leading nobles of the court. The mir bakshi was in charge of intelligence gathering, and made recommendations to
17589-721: Was born to them the next year on 25 October 1542 (the fifth day of Rajab , 949 AH ) at the Rajput Fortress of Amarkot in Rajputana (in modern-day Sindh), where his parents had been given refuge by the local Hindu ruler Rana Prasad. During the extended period of Humayun's exile, Akbar was brought up in Kabul by his paternal uncles, Kamran Mirza and Askari Mirza , and aunts, in particular, Kamran Mirza's wife. He spent his youth learning to hunt, run, and fight, and although he never learned to read or write, when he retired in
17732-605: Was centralized and court affairs systematized. The Mughal Empire continued to expand moderately during his reign as his sons commanded large armies on different fronts. India at the time was a rich center of the arts, crafts and architecture, and some of the best of the architects, artisans, craftsmen, painters and writers of the world resided in Shah Jahan's empire. According to economist Angus Maddison , Mughal-era India's share of global gross domestic product (GDP) grew from 22.7% in 1600 to 24.4% in 1700, surpassing China to become
17875-463: Was considered to be the actual power behind the throne. Her near and dear relatives acquired important positions in the Mughal court, termed the Nur Jahan junta by historians. Khurram was in constant conflict with his stepmother, Nur Jahan who favoured her son-in-law Shahryar Mirza for the succession to the Mughal throne over him. In the last years of Jahangir's life, Nur Jahan was in full power, and
18018-466: Was defeated by the Mughal army in the Punjab and forced to submit. Akbar forgave him and gave him the option of either continuing in his court or resuming his pilgrimage; Bairam chose the latter. Bairam Khan was assassinated on his way to Mecca, by a group of Afghans led by Mubarak Khan Lohani, whose father had been killed while fighting with the Mughals at the Battle of Machhiwara in 1555. In 1560, Akbar resumed military operations. A Mughal army under
18161-467: Was displeased with Sultan Murad's return letter, the tone of which he found discourteous. Sultan Murad's successor, Sultan Ibrahim , sent Shah Jahan another letter encouraging him to wage war against the Persians, but there is no record of a reply. Shah Jahan gave orders in 1631 to Qasim Khan, the Mughal viceroy of Bengal, to drive out the Portuguese from their trading post at Port Hoogly . The post
18304-462: Was dragged up and thrown to the courtyard once again by Akbar to ensure his death. After Adham Khan's death, Akbar distributed authority among specialised ministerial posts relating to different aspects of imperial governance to prevent any one noble from becoming too powerful. When a powerful clan of Uzbek chiefs broke out in rebellion in 1564, Akbar routed them in Malwa and then Bihar . He pardoned
18447-526: Was given official sanction when Jahangir granted the sarkar of Hissar-e-Feroza , which had traditionally been the fief of the heir-apparent, to Khurram in 1608. After her marriage to Jahangir in the year 1611, Nur Jahan gradually became an active participant in all decisions made by Jahangir and gained extreme powers in administration, so much so that it was obvious to everyone both inside and outside that most of his decisions were actually hers. Slowly, while Jahangir became more indulgent in wine and opium, she
18590-482: Was heavily armed with cannons, battleships , fortified walls, and other instruments of war. The Portuguese were accused of trafficking by high Mughal officials and due to commercial competition the Mughal-controlled port of Saptagram began to slump. Shah Jahan was particularly outraged by the activities of Jesuits in that region, notably when they were accused of abducting peasants. On 25 September 1632,
18733-527: Was in an adversary relationship with his overlord, Shah Abbas , was granted a rank of 5,000 men, and his daughter Kandahari Begum was married to Akbar's grandson, the Mughal prince Khurram . Kandahar was secured in 1595 with the arrival of a garrison headed by the Mughal general, Shah Bayg Khan. The reconquest of Kandahar did not overtly disturb Mughal-Persian relations. Akbar and the Persian Shah continued to exchange ambassadors and presents. However,
18876-449: Was married in 1612 (1021 AH), on a date selected by the court astrologers as most conducive to ensuring a happy marriage. This was an unusually long engagement for the time. However, Shah Jahan first married a Persian Princess (name not known) entitled Kandahari Begum , the daughter of a great-grandson of the great Shah Ismail I of Persia , with whom he had a daughter, his first child. In 1612, aged 20, Khurram married Mumtaz Mahal, on
19019-524: Was not determined through primogeniture, but by princely sons competing to achieve military successes and consolidating their power at court. This often led to rebellions and wars of succession. As a result, a complex political climate surrounded the Mughal court in Shah Jahan's formative years. In 1611 his father married Nur Jahan , the widowed daughter of a Persian noble. She rapidly became an important member of Jahangir's court and, together with her brother Asaf Khan , wielded considerable influence. Arjumand
19162-563: Was put under house arrest on the orders of Khurram and led a quiet and comfortable life till her death. In 1607, Khurram became engaged to Arjumand Banu Begum (1593–1631), who is also known as Mumtaz Mahal ( Persian lit. ' The Exalted One of the Palace ' ). They were about 14 and 15 when they were engaged, and five years later, got married. The young girl belonged to an illustrious Persian noble family that included Abu'l-Hasan Asaf Khan , who had been serving Mughal emperors since
19305-479: Was returning from a visit to the Dargah of Hazrat Nizamuddin near Delhi. The Emperor ordered the apprehended assassin, a slave of Mirza Sharfuddin—a noble in Akbar's court whose recent rebellion had been suppressed—to be beheaded. Having established Mughal rule over northern India, Akbar turned his attention to the conquest of Rajputana , which was strategically important as it was a rival centre of power that flanked
19448-470: Was ruled over by Raja Vir Narayan, a minor, and his mother, Durgavati , a Rajput warrior queen of the Gonds. Akbar did not personally lead the campaign because he was preoccupied with the Uzbek rebellion, leaving the expedition in the hands of Asaf Khan, the Mughal governor of Kara. Durgavati committed suicide after her defeat at the Battle of Damoh, while Raja Vir Narayan was slain at the Fall of Chauragarh,
19591-550: Was set out by Raja Todar Mal , who also served as a revenue officer under Sher Shah Suri, in a detailed memorandum submitted to the emperor in 1582–1583. Other local methods of assessment continued in some areas. Lands which were fallow or uncultivated were assessed at concessional rates. Akbar also encouraged the improvement and extension of agriculture. Zamindars were required to provide loans and agricultural implements in times of need, and to encourage farmers to plough as much land as possible and sow high-quality seeds. In turn,
19734-407: Was situated at this site, which was later demolished by Jehangir to erect new buildings. Shah Jahan in his turn chose this site to erect the multi-storied marble tower inlaid with precious stones for Mumtaz Mahal . It was built between 1631 and 1640 and offers exotic views of the famous Taj Mahal . The Musamman Burj is made of delicate marble lattices with ornamental niches so that the ladies of
19877-490: Was so distressed by her mother's pain that she started distributing gems to the poor, hoping for divine intervention, and Shah Jahan was noted as being "paralysed by grief" and weeping fits. Her body was temporarily buried in a walled pleasure garden known as Zainabad, originally constructed by Shah Jahan's uncle Prince Daniyal along the Tapti River . Her death had a profound impact on Shah Jahan's personality and inspired
20020-435: Was succeeded as emperor by his son, Prince Salim, later known as Jahangir . After Mughal Emperor Humayun was defeated at Chausa (1539) and Kannauj (1540) by the forces of Sher Shah Suri , Humayun fled westward to modern-day Sindh . There, he met and married the 14-year-old Hamida Banu Begum , daughter of Shaikh Ali Akbar Jami, a Persian teacher of Humayun's younger brother Hindal Mirza . Jalal ud-din Muhammad Akbar
20163-489: Was the beginning of a long period of activity over the northern frontiers of the empire. For thirteen years, beginning in 1585, Akbar remained in the north, shifting his capital to Lahore while he dealt with challenges from Uzbek tribes, which had driven his grandfather, Babur, out of Central Asia. The Uzbeks were organised under Abdullah Khan Shaybanid , a military chieftain who had seized Badakhshan and Balkh from Akbar's distant Timurid relatives, and whose troops challenged
20306-428: Was the third Mughal emperor , who reigned from 1556 to 1605. Akbar succeeded his father, Humayun , under a regent, Bairam Khan , who helped the young emperor expand and consolidate Mughal domains in the Indian subcontinent . He is generally considered one of the greatest emperors in Indian history and led a successful campaign to unify the various kingdoms of Hindūstān or India proper . Akbar gradually enlarged
20449-405: Was ultimately able to prevail over the nobles and it was decided that the Mughals would march against the strongest of the Sur rulers, Sikandar Shah Suri , in Punjab. Delhi was left under the regency of Tardi Baig Khan . Sikandar Shah Suri, his army weakened by earlier lost battles, withdrew to avoid combat as the Mughal army approached. Akbar also faced Hemu , a minister and general of one of
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