Herman Willem Daendels (21 October 1762 – 2 May 1818) was a Dutch military officer and colonial administrator who served as Governor-General of the Dutch East Indies from 1808 to 1811.
112-693: Semarang ( Javanese : ꦏꦸꦛꦯꦼꦩꦫꦁ ) is the capital and largest city of Central Java province in Indonesia . It was a major port during the Dutch colonial era , and is still an important regional center and port today. The city has been named as the cleanest tourist destination in Southeast Asia by the ASEAN Clean Tourist City Standard (ACTCS) for 2020–2022. It has an area of 373.78 km (144.32 sq mi) and had
224-430: A semivowel are written by adding a diacritic ( Javanese : ꦱꦤ꧀ꦝꦁꦔꦤ꧀ꦮꦾꦚ꧀ꦗꦤ , romanized: sandhangan wyanjana ) to the base syllable. The inherent vowel of each basic letter can be suppressed with the use of the virama , natively known as pangkon . However, the pangkon is not normally used in the middle of a word or sentence. For closed syllables in such positions, a conjunct form called pasangan (ꦥꦱꦔꦤ꧀)
336-506: A Chinese quarter, and a Dutch fortress. The fortress has a pentagonal form with only one gate in the south and five monitoring towers to protect the Dutch settlement from rebellion actions, segregating the spaces between Dutch settlement and other areas. In fact, the city of Semarang was only referred to the Dutch quarter while the other ethnic settlement were considered as villages outside the city boundary. The city, known as de Europeesche Buurt,
448-481: A Javanese movable type began to take place in order to mass-produce and quickly disseminate Javanese literary materials. One of the earliest attempts to create a movable Javanese type was by Paul van Vlissingen. His typeface was first put in use in the Bataviasche Courant newspaper's October 1825 issue. While lauded as a considerable technical achievement, many at the time felt that Vlissingen's design
560-521: A choice was made for printing in roman letter-type, which considerably simplifies matters for European users, and for interested Natives presents no difficulty at all, seeing that the Javanese language, just as has already been shown for Malay and Sundanese, can be rendered no less clearly in roman type than in the Javanese script. In this way the costs are about one third of printing in Javanese characters, seeing that printing in that type, which furthermore
672-581: A comprehensive road network with a primary route connecting Elmina and Kumasi in Ashanti . The Dutch government granted him considerable autonomy and a substantial budget to execute his plans. Simultaneously, Daendels viewed his governorship as an opportunity to establish a personal monopoly on business in the Dutch Gold Coast . In 1817, the British accused Daendels of supporting and facilitating
784-488: A generator of urban economic growth. After the departure of Herman Willem Daendels , Napoleonic governor of Java, the Dutch reorganized Java into Residencies , and Semarang became the seat of the new Semarang Residency in 1817. An important influence on urban growth was the Great Mail Road project in the 1847, which connected all the cities in the northern coast of Central and East Java and positioned Semarang as
896-432: A majority of the council to support its development. Changing tack, Tillema then worked to improve the existing kampongs in the city's malarial districts by improving drainage and providing more sanitary public toilets and public housing. A decade later, the town approved Thomas Karsten 's revised plan for the area, using it to build larger villas for the Dutch and wealthy Chinese and Javanese rather than allowing its use by
1008-558: A mayoral secretary; his mother was Josina Christina Tulleken. Daendels pursued a legal education at the university of Harderwijk and obtained his doctorate on 10 April 1783. In 1785, Daendels aligned himself with the Patriots , a faction gaining control in various Dutch cities. In September 1786, he unsuccessfully defended the town of Hattem against troops loyal to the stadholder . The following year, in September 1787, Daendels played
1120-835: A military college in Batavia. The Castle in Batavia was dismantled and replaced by a new fort in Meester Cornelis ( Jatinegara ). At the same time, Fort Lodewijk (Fort Ludwig) was built in Surabaya . Additionally, he relocated the central government from Old Batavia to Weltevreden and commissioned the construction of a palace in Paradeplaats . His most renowned achievement was the Great Post Road ( Indonesian : Jalan Raya Pos ) that spanned northern Java from Anyer to Panarukan . Today, this road serves as
1232-424: A number of additional letters used to write sounds found in words found in loanwords ( Javanese : ꦲꦏ꧀ꦱꦫ ꦫꦺꦏꦤ꧀ , romanized: aksara rékan ). These letters were initially developed to write Arabic loanwords, later adapted to write Dutch loanwords, and in contemporary usage are also used to write Indonesian and English loanwords. Most rékan letters are formed by adding the cecak telu diacritic to
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#17327656329511344-503: A population of 1,555,984 at the 2010 census and 1,653,524 at the 2020 census, making it Indonesia's ninth most populous city after Jakarta , Surabaya , Bekasi , Bandung , Medan , Depok , Tangerang and Palembang ; the official population estimate as at mid-2023 was 1,694,740, comprising 838,440 males and 856,310 females. The built-up urban area had 3,183,516 inhabitants at the 2010 census spread over two cities and 26 districts. The Semarang metropolitan area (a.k.a. Kedungsepur ) has
1456-700: A population of over 6 million in 2020 ( see Greater Semarang section ). The population of the city is predominantly Javanese with significant Chinese presence. [REDACTED] Demak Sultanate (1547–1554) [REDACTED] Kingdom of Pajang (1568–1587) [REDACTED] Mataram Sultanate (1587–1705) [REDACTED] Dutch East India Company (1705–1799) [REDACTED] Dutch East Indies (1800–1942) [REDACTED] Empire of Japan (1942–1945) [REDACTED] Dutch East Indies (1945–1949) [REDACTED] United States of Indonesia (1949–1950) [REDACTED] Indonesia (1950–present) The history of Semarang goes back to
1568-694: A reserve. In August, Victor received orders to march eastward, joining the Badeners in the Russian campaign 1812. Daendels arrived in Vilnius on 8 and 15 September, subsequently reaching Minsk. On 11 October, his division moved to Babinovichi , and on 20 October, they received orders to proceed to Vitebsk . By 27 October, they had occupied the nearby town of Beshankovichy . The following day, temperatures dropped below zero. The supplies in Vitebsk were lost when
1680-516: A result, many physical manuscripts that are available now are 18th or 19th century copies, though their contents can usually be traced to far older prototypes. Javanese script has been written with numerous media that have shifted over time. Kawi script, which is ancestral to Javanese script, is often found on stone inscriptions and copper plates. Everyday writing in Kawi was done in palm leaf form (ocally known as lontar ), which are processed leaves of
1792-575: A result, there is a huge variety of historical and local styles of Javanese writing throughout the ages. The great differences between regional styles make the "Javanese script" appear like a family of scripts. Javanese writing traditions were especially cultivated in the Kraton environment in Javanese cultural centers, such as Yogyakarta and Surakarta . However, Javanese texts are known to be made and used by various layers of society with varying usage intensities between regions. In West Java , for example,
1904-587: A role in the defense of Amsterdam against the invading Prussian army, which aimed to reinstate William V of Orange . Subsequently, when William V regained power, Daendels fled to French Flanders to evade a death sentence resulting from the Patriots' defeat. During this time, he closely observed the French Revolution unfolding. In 1794, Daendels returned to the Netherlands as a general in
2016-464: A series of northern Java mountain ranges that stretch from Banten to East Java. The hilly area in the city of Semarang is known as the upper city (Semarang Dhuwur). This hilly region is also the upstream area of the big rivers that flow in the city of Semarang. The upper city area is also near Mount Ungaran . Semarang features a tropical monsoon climate ( Köppen : Am ). The city features distinctly wetter and drier months, with June through August being
2128-407: A similar function to the colon . Pada rangkap is sometimes used as an iteration mark for reduplicated words (for example kata-kata ꦏꦠꦏꦠ → kata2 ꦏꦠꧏ) Several punctuation marks do not have Latin equivalents and are often decorative in nature with numerous variant shapes, for example the rerenggan which is sometimes used to enclose titles. In epistolary usage, several punctuations are used in
2240-505: A smooth surface and is quite durable against manuscript damage commonly associated with tropical climates, especially insect damage. Meanwhile, a coarse daluang has a bumpy surface and tends to break easily. Daluang is commonly used in manuscripts produced by Javanese kraton (palaces) and pesantren (Islamic boarding schools) between the 16th and 17th centuries. Most imported paper in Indonesian manuscripts came from Europe. In
2352-542: A version of Javanese script tailored to the Sundanese language , was officially used from the 16th to 20th centuries. Today, there are still several places which use cacarakan . Sundanese spelling has several differences from Javanese. In Sundanese, the letter /i/ is written with a series of letters with added diacritics. In Javanese, no special vowels are used for the sound /e/, while in Sundanese, an independent /e/
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#17327656329512464-836: A vital financial contribution to Indonesia due to the growing trade and industry and services. As a consequence, people's purchasing power increased, capital inflows, consumer confidence, and doing business indexes were relatively conducive to the development of several CBDs such as Simpang Lima City Center (SLCC) , Pemuda Central Business District (PCBD) , and Gajahmada Golden Triangle (GGT) . Major Indonesian and international financial and banking sectors alikes such as Bank Mandiri , BCA , BNI , BRI , Panin Bank , HSBC , Bank Permata , Standard Chartered , RaboBank , Citibank, DBS , UOB, OCBC NISP , KEB Hana Bank , CIMB Niaga , and Maybank have regional offices in Semarang. The western part of
2576-417: A white patch on its left belly is called Harvest Moon . It is a cat that brings good fortune and the fulfilment of all wishes. It is better if it is bobtailed. A dark striped cat with a long tail should not be kept as a pet. Such a cat is called Mourning Crow . You would encounter frequent arguments and limited wealth. But if it is bobtailed, then there is no problem. The closest relative to Javanese script
2688-840: A word-initial vowel is written by adding the appropriate diacritics to ⟨ ꦲ ⟩ , which serves as a null consonant, but in modern spelling, the independent vowels may also be used, especially to disambiguate whether ⟨ ꦲ ⟩ should be aspirated. As with the wyanjana letters, the modern Javanese language does not use the whole inventory of vowels. Only short vowels and vowel diacritics are taught and used in contemporary Javanese, while long vowels and their diacritics are used in Sanskrit and Kawi. Pa cerek ⟨ꦉ⟩ , pa cerek dirgha ⟨ꦉꦴ⟩ , nga lelet ⟨ꦊ⟩ , and nga lelet raswadi ⟨ꦋ⟩ are syllabic consonants that are primarily used in Sanskrit. When adapted to other languages,
2800-481: Is Islam with a significant Christian minority. Religion in Semarang 2023 Semarang has a large Chinese community. As in other regions of Java, especially in Central Java, they have mingled closely with the local population and use Javanese in communication for hundreds of years. About 3.5% of the city's population is ethnic Chinese, many residing in a Chinatown in the vicinity of Gang Pinggir. The Chinatown
2912-475: Is a city that has a unique topographic condition in the form of a narrow lowland area and hilly areas extending from the west side to the east side of Semarang City. The city is located about 558 km (347 miles) east of Jakarta and 312 km (194 miles) west of Surabaya. Lowland areas in Semarang City are very narrow. The lowland area in western Semarang only has a width of 4 km (2.5 miles) from
3024-433: Is an abugida writing system which consists of 20 to 33 basic letters, depending on the language being written. Like other Brahmic scripts , each letter (called an aksara ) represents a syllable with the inherent vowel /a/ or /ɔ/ which can be changed with the placement of diacritics around the letter. Each letter has a conjunct form called pasangan , which nullifies the inherent vowel of the previous letter. Traditionally,
3136-499: Is called "Kampong Pecinan Semawis" and expresses many aspects of traditional Chinese culture including foods, rituals, and houses of worship. Ethnic Groups in Semarang As the capital city of Central Java, and fifth largest city of Indonesia, the economy of Semarang is quite large. Semarang has transformed and changed dynamically towards a better direction. In a period of less than 10 years, Semarang Metropolitan continues to build
3248-529: Is called an aksara which represents a syllable. The aksara wyanjana (ꦲꦏ꧀ꦱꦫ ꦮꦾꦚ꧀ꦗꦤ) are consonant letters with an inherent vowel, either /a/ or /ɔ/. As a Brahmi-derived script , Javanese script originally had 33 wyanjana letters to write the 33 consonants found in Sanskrit and Kawi . The modern Javanese script only uses 20 consonants and 20 basic letters known as [ꦲꦏ꧀ꦱꦫ ꦔ꧀ꦭꦼꦒꦺꦤ] Error: {{Lang}}: invalid parameter: |3= ( help ) Modern Javanese script
3360-501: Is commonly arranged in the hanacaraka sequence, a pangram whose name is derived from its first five letters, similar to the word "alphabet" which comes from the first two letters of the Greek alphabet , alpha and beta . This sequence has been used at least the 15th century, when the island of Java started to receive significant Islamic influence. There are numerous interpretations on the supposed philosophical and esoteric qualities of
3472-529: Is connected to Solo by Semarang–Solo Toll Road . Semarang's largest bus terminals are Mangkang and Terboyo. The primary means of public transportation is by minibus, called " bis ". Ojek ( motorcycle taxis ), Angkot ( share-taxi ) micro-buses, taxi-cabs plays vital role in public transportation of the city. Go-Jek and Grab have online taxi and Ojek services. Semarang is served by bus rapid transit called Trans Semarang , which operates in six routes. Perum DAMRI also serves in six designated routes in
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3584-539: Is constructing Semarang River at Banjir Kanal Barat (Garang River) near Karangayu Bridge. In the middle of July 2011, gardens in river banks and some traditional boats are available to use. The project will be finished in 2013 with river gardens, trotoars, garden lighting, water activities, art sites, sport sites and balconies and stairs for sightseeing. In August 2011, a 421 m (1,380 ft) tunnel dodger at Kreo river has been finished and Jatibarang Dam construction can begin, with completion targeted for July 2013. The dam
3696-419: Is known as the lower town (Semarang Ngisor), as well as the center of the city's economic activity. Under these conditions, the lower city area is often hit by annual flooding and its peak during the rainy season. In a number of regions, especially North Semarang, floods are sometimes also caused by overflowing sea tides (tidal floods). The hilly area in Semarang stretches on the south side. These hills are part of
3808-430: Is located on the northern coast of Java. The city of Semarang is one of the most important cities located on the north coast of Java and is the main hub connecting Jakarta and Surabaya , and cities in the southern interior of Java Surakarta and Yogyakarta . Semarang City has a height ranging from 2 m (6.6 ft) below sea level up to 340 m (1,120 ft) above sea level with a slope of 0%–45%. Semarang City
3920-616: Is no difference in the use of aspirated and unaspirated consonants. In Javanese, every consonant carries an inherent /a/ or /ɔ/ vowel; in Madurese, the inherent vowel is /a/ or /ɤ/. Another difference is the use of the wignyan diacritic ⟨ ꦃ ⟩ , which in Javanese functions as an -h final consonant, but in Madurese represents a glottal stop. Javanese script was added to the Unicode Standard in October, 2009 with
4032-534: Is not readily available, is one and a half times to twice as expensive (and more time-consuming) than in roman type, also because it cannot be set on a setting-machine, and one page of Javanese type only contains about half the number of words on one page of the same text in roman script. Sanskrit and Kawi Sundanese Herman Willem Daendels Herman Willem Daendels was born on 21 October 1762 in Hattem , Netherlands . His father, Burchard Johan Daendels, served as
4144-537: Is one of Indonesia 's traditional scripts developed on the island of Java . The script is primarily used to write the Javanese language , but in the course of its development has also been used to write several other regional languages such as Sundanese and Madurese , the regional lingua franca Malay , as well as the historical languages Kawi and Sanskrit . It heavily influenced the Balinese script from which
4256-416: Is planned to release 230 m/s (8,100 cu ft/s) of flood water and will generate 1.5 MW of electricity, provide a drinking water resource and a boost to tourism. The largest ethnic group in Semarang is the Javanese , followed by minorities of Chinese, Arabs , Indian , and others (including local ethnicities such as Sundanese , Batak , Madura , Malay , Balinese etc.). The dominant religion
4368-577: Is served by a number of operators including AirAsia , Citilink , Batik Air , Garuda Indonesia , and Lion Air which provide services to Jakarta , Bali , Kuala Lumpur , and Singapore . In 2018, the airport terminal was relocated to a new and much larger site; the old terminal continues to be used for government and military flights. The main seaport is the Tanjung Mas seaport. Javanese script Javanese script (natively known as Aksara Jawa , Hanacaraka , Carakan , and Dentawyanjana )
4480-685: Is still taught as part of the local curriculum in Yogyakarta , Central Java , and the East Java Province . Several local newspapers and magazines have columns written in Javanese script, and the script can frequently be seen on public signage. However, many contemporary attempts to revive Javanese script are symbolic rather than functional; there are no longer, for example, periodicals like the Kajawèn magazine that publish significant content in Javanese script. Most Javanese people today know
4592-464: Is the Balinese script . As direct descendants of Kawi script, Javanese and Balinese still retain many similarities in terms of basic glyph shape for each letter. One noticeable difference between both scripts is in their orthography: modern Balinese orthography is more conservative in nature than its modern Javanese counterpart. Cacarakan ( Sundanese : ꦕꦫꦏ , ᮎᮎᮛᮊᮔ᮪ , romanized: cacarakan , lit. 'similar to carakan'),
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4704-1018: Is the scriptorium of Pakualaman in Yogyakarta. Excerpt from the Treatise on Cats ( Javanese : ꦱꦼꦫꦠ꧀ꦏꦠꦸꦫꦁꦒꦤ꧀ꦏꦸꦕꦶꦁ , romanized: Serat Katuranggan Kucing ), printed in 1871 with modern Javanese language and spelling. ꧅ꦭꦩꦸꦤ꧀ꦱꦶꦫꦔꦶꦔꦸꦏꦸꦕꦶꦁ꧈ ꦲꦮꦏ꧀ꦏꦺꦲꦶꦉꦁꦱꦢꦪ꧈ ꦭꦩ꧀ꦧꦸꦁꦏꦶꦮꦠꦺꦩ꧀ꦧꦺꦴꦁꦥꦸꦠꦶꦃ꧈ ꦊꦏ꧀ꦱꦤꦤ꧀ꦤꦶꦫꦥꦿꦪꦺꦴꦒ꧈ ꦲꦫꦤ꧀ꦮꦸꦭꦤ꧀ꦏꦿꦲꦶꦤꦤ꧀꧈ ꦠꦶꦤꦼꦏꦤꦤ꧀ꦱꦱꦼꦢꦾꦤ꧀ꦤꦶꦥꦸꦤ꧀꧈ ꦪꦺꦤ꧀ꦧꦸꦟ꧀ꦝꦼꦭ꧀ꦭꦁꦏꦸꦁꦲꦸꦠꦩ꧈ ꧅ꦲꦗꦱꦶꦫꦔꦶꦔꦸꦏꦸꦕꦶꦁ꧈ ꦭꦸꦫꦶꦏ꧀ꦲꦶꦉꦁꦧꦸꦤ꧀ꦠꦸꦠ꧀ꦥꦚ꧀ꦗꦁ꧈ ꦥꦸꦤꦶꦏꦲꦮꦺꦴꦤ꧀ꦭꦩꦠ꧀ꦠꦺ꧈ ꦱꦼꦏꦼꦭꦤ꧀ꦱꦿꦶꦁꦠꦸꦏꦂꦫꦤ꧀꧈ ꦲꦫꦤ꧀ꦝꦣꦁꦱꦸꦁꦏꦮ꧈ ꦥꦤ꧀ꦲꦢꦺꦴꦃꦫꦶꦗꦼꦏꦶꦤꦶꦥꦸꦤ꧀꧈ ꦪꦺꦤ꧀ꦧꦸꦟ꧀ꦝꦼꦭ꧀ꦤꦺꦴꦫꦔꦥꦲ꧈ Lamun sira ngingu kucing, awaké ireng sadaya, lambung kiwa tèmbong putih, leksan nira prayoga, aran wulan krahinan, tinekanan sasedyan nira ipun, yèn buṇḍel langkung utama. Aja sira ngingu kucing, lurik ireng buntut panjang, punika awon lamaté, sekelan sring tukaran, aran ḍaḍang sungkawa, pan adoh rijeki nipun, yèn buṇḍel nora ngapa. A completely black cat with
4816-486: Is used in between different cantos, and wasana pada ꧅ ꦆ ꧅ which is used in the end of the final canto. But due to the large variety of shapes between manuscripts, these three punctuations are essentially treated as a single punctuation in most Javanese manuscripts. Pepadan is one of the most prominent elements in a typical Javanese manuscript and they almost always highly decorative, incorporating calligraphy, coloring, and even gilding. In luxurious royal manuscripts,
4928-403: Is used instead. Every basic letter has a pasangan counterpart, and if a pasangan is attached to a base letter, the inherent vowel of the attached letter is nullified. Some of the original letters that originally represented sounds absent in modern Javanese have been repurposed as honorific letters ( Javanese : ꦲꦏ꧀ꦱꦫ ꦩꦸꦂꦢ , romanized: aksara murda ) which are used for in writing
5040-587: Is weer te geven. Daarbij zijn de kosten daarmede ongeveer 1 ⁄ 3 van druk in Javaansch karakter, aangezien drukwerk in dat type, dat bovendien niet ruim voorhanden is, 1 + 1 ⁄ 2 à 2 x kostbaarder (en tijdroovender) uitkomt dan in Latijnsch type, mede doordat het niet op de zetmachine kan worden gezet, en een pagina Javaansch type sleechts ongeveer de helft aan woorden bevat van een pagina van denzelfden tekst in Latijnsch karakter. Furthermore,
5152-399: Is written as a ⟨ ꦄ ⟩ plus a pepet diacritic ⟨ ꦄꦼ ⟩ . An independent /ɨ/ is written the same way, with an additional tarung ⟨ ꦄꦼꦴꦵ ⟩ or ⟨ ꦄꦼꦵ ⟩ . Carakan Madhurâ , 'Maduran carakan' or carakan Jhâbân , 'script from Javanese' is very similar to Javanese hanacakara . However, in the Madurese language, there
5264-616: The Battle of Berezina . From February 1813 until December 1813, General Daendels commanded Polish forces defending the Modlin Fortress , located northwest of Warsaw. It was the final French stronghold along the Vistula to surrender. Following the downfall of Napoleon , concerns arose within the Dutch government, including King William I , regarding the potential influence and oppositional leadership of Daendels. To prevent this, he
5376-599: The British and Dutch military completely. Semarang city administration is headed by mayor, with a legislative assembly. Both mayor and the 50 members of legislative assembly are elected by direct vote. The government of Semarang City had implemented the smart city concept since 2013. Juridically, Semarang City is a municipality (second level area) consisting of 16 districts ( kecamatan ), which are again divided into 177 urban villages ( kelurahan ). The districts are tabulated below with their areas and their populations at
5488-687: The Cerita Panji is a loose collection of numerous tales with various versions bound together by the common thread of the Panji character. Literature genres with the longest attested history are Sanskrit epics such as the Ramayana and the Mahabharata , which have been recomposed since the Kawi period and introduced hundreds of familiar characters in Javanese wayang stories today, including Arjuna , Srikandi , Ghatotkacha and many others. Since
5600-631: The Dutch East India Company (VOC) as a part of a debt payment. In 1682, the Semarang state was founded by the Dutch colonial power. On 5 October 1705 after years of occupations, Semarang officially became a VOC city when Susuhunan Pakubuwono I made a deal to give extensive trade rights to the VOC in exchange of wiping out Mataram 's debt. The VOC, and later, the Dutch East Indies government, established tobacco plantations in
5712-685: The Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies beginning in 1942. Some writers attribute this sudden decline to prohibitions issued by the Japanese government banning the use of native script in the public sphere, though no documentary evidence of such a ban has yet been found. Nevertheless, the use of Javanese script did decline significantly during the Japanese occupation and it never recovered its previous widespread use in post-independence Indonesia. In contemporary usage, Javanese script
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#17327656329515824-562: The Kajawèn [ id ] magazine which was entirely printed in Javanese in all of its articles and columns. In government administration, Javanese script was part of the multilingual legal text on the Netherlands Indies gulden banknotes circulated by the Bank of Java . As literacy rates and the demand for reading materials increased at the beginning of the 20th century, Javanese publishers paradoxically began to decrease
5936-633: The Kingdom of Holland into France in 1810, Daendels returned to Holland and resided in Paris by November 1811. He was appointed as a divisional general ( major general ) and assumed command of the 26th Division of the Grande Armée . This division consisted of troops from Baden, Hesse-Darmstadt, and Berg. In mid-March 1812, Daendels was appointed as the commander of the 26th Division, serving under Marshal Victor as part of IX Corps , which acted as
6048-570: The Pallava script in Southern and Southeast Asia between the 6th and 8th centuries. The Pallava script, in turn, evolved into Kawi script, which was actively used throughout Indonesia's Hindu-Buddhist period between the 8th and 15th centuries. In various parts of Indonesia, Kawi script would then evolve into Indonesia's various traditional scripts, one of them being Javanese script. The modern Javanese script seen today evolved from Kawi script between
6160-495: The hanacaraka sequence, and it is often linked to the myth of Aji Saka . Javanese vowel letters can be used to represent independent or word-initial vowels. A vowel sound following a consonant is written by adding ta diacritic, or dependent form of a vowel to a basic syllable ( Javanese : ꦱꦤ꧀ꦝꦔꦤ꧀ , romanized: sandhangan ), which modifies the letter's inherent vowel sound. Vowel diacritics are known as sandhangan swara ( Javanese : ꦱꦤ꧀ꦝꦁꦔꦤ꧀ꦱ꧀ꦮꦫ ). Conventionally,
6272-564: The 13th century, paper began to be used in the Malay Archipelago . This introduction is related to the spread of Islam in the region, since Islamic writing traditions were supported by the use of paper and codex manuscript. As Java began to receive significant Islamic influence in the 15th century, coinciding with the period in which Kawi script began to transition into the modern Javanese script, paper became widespread in Java while
6384-447: The 14th and 15th centuries, a period in which Java began to receive significant Islamic influence. From the 15th until the mid-20th centuries, Javanese script was actively used by the Javanese people for writing day-to-day and literary texts spanning a wide range of themes. Javanese script was used throughout the island at a time when there was no easy means of communication between remote areas and no impulse towards standardization. As
6496-497: The 15th century until the mid-20th century, Javanese script was used by all layers of Javanese society for writing day-to-day and literary texts with a wide range of theme and content. Due to the significant influence of oral tradition, reading in pre-independence Javanese society was usually a performance; Javanese literature texts are almost always composed in metrical verses that are designed to be recited, thus Javanese texts are not only judged by their content and language, but also by
6608-1235: The 2010 census and 2020 census, together with the official estimates as at mid 2023. The table also includes the number and names of the urban administrative villages in each district. ( Javanese : ꦩꦶꦗꦺꦤ꧀ , romanized: Mijèn ) ( Javanese : ꦒꦸꦤꦸꦁꦥꦛꦶ , romanized: Gunungpathi ) ( Javanese : ꦧꦚꦸꦩꦤꦶꦏ꧀ , romanized: Banyumanik ) ( Javanese : ꦒꦗꦃꦩꦸꦁꦏꦸꦂ , romanized: Gajah Mungkur ) ( Javanese : ꦱꦼꦩꦫꦁꦏꦶꦢꦸꦭ꧀ , romanized: Sěmarang Kidul ( Javanese : ꦕꦤ꧀ꦝꦶꦱꦫꦶ , romanized: Candhisari ) ( Javanese : ꦠꦼꦩ꧀ꦧꦭꦁ , romanized: Tĕmbalang ) ( Javanese : ꦥꦼꦢꦸꦫꦸꦔꦤ꧀ , romanized: Pědurungan ) ( Javanese : ꦒꦼꦤꦸꦏ꧀ , romanized: Genuk ) ( Javanese : ꦒꦪꦩ꧀ꦱꦫꦶ , romanized: Gayamsari ) ( Javanese : ꦱꦼꦩꦫꦁꦮꦺꦠꦤ꧀ , romanized: Sěmarang Wétan ) ( Javanese : ꦱꦼꦩꦫꦁꦭꦺꦴꦂ , romanized: Sěmarang Lor ) ( Javanese : ꦱꦼꦩꦫꦁꦩꦢꦾ , romanized: Sěmarang Madyå ) ( Javanese : ꦱꦼꦩꦫꦁꦏꦸꦭꦺꦴꦤ꧀ , romanized: Sěmarang Kulon ) ( Javanese : ꦠꦸꦒꦸ , romanized: Tugu ) ( Javanese : ꦔꦭꦶꦪꦤ꧀ , romanized: Ngaliyan ) Semarang
6720-487: The 9th century, when it was known as Bergota. At the end of the 15th century, appointed by the demak sultanate an islamic scholar named Ki Ageng Pandan Arang [ id ] founded a village and an Islamic school in this fishing village. On 2 May 1547, Sultan Hadiwijaya of Pajang declared Pandan Arang as the first bupati (mayor) of Semarang, thus creating Semarang administratively and politically. In 1678, Sunan Amangkurat II promised to give control of Semarang to
6832-491: The Dutch East Indies in 1807. Daendels arrived in Batavia (now Jakarta ) on 5 January 1808 after a lengthy voyage, assuming the role previously held by Albertus Henricus Wiese . His primary objective was to expel the British from Java . During his tenure, Daendels undertook various infrastructure projects. He established new hospitals and military barracks, constructed arms factories in Surabaya and Semarang , and founded
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#17327656329516944-576: The French revolutionary army, serving under General Charles Pichegru and commanding the Batavian Legion . He actively supported the elevation of unitarian politician Pieter Vreede to power through a coup d'état on 25 January 1798. This move was motivated by dissatisfaction with the conservative-moderate majority in parliament, which hindered the development of a more democratic and centralized constitution. However, Vreede's rule did not yield
7056-459: The Russian army captured the city, and it began to snow on 29 October. On 11 November, Daendels and the rearguard arrived in Chashniki , approximately 90 km southwest of their previous location. On 14 November, during the battle of Smoliani , the French suffered the loss of 3,000 men against General Peter Wittgenstein , and heavy snowfall of about 1.5 meters occurred that day. Four days later,
7168-469: The amount of Javanese script publication due to a practical and economic consideration: printing any text in Javanese script at the time required twice the amount of paper compared to the same text rendered in the Latin alphabet , making Javanese texts more expensive and time-consuming to produce. In order to lower production costs and keep book prices affordable to the general populace, many publishers (such as
7280-616: The anticipated outcomes, leading to another coup d'état against him on 14 June 1798, in which Daendels played a role. In the Batavian Republic , Daendels held various political positions but was compelled to resign after failing to avert the Anglo-Russian invasion of Holland in 1799. He later pursued farming in Heerde , Gelderland . Louis Bonaparte appointed Daendels as colonel-general in 1806 and Governor-general of
7392-406: The area was used for rice cultivation and the only small improvement was the development of a surrounding fortress. Although less developed, Semarang is a fairly well organized city, in which urban activities were concentrated along the river and the settlement is linked to a market where different ethnic groups met to trade. The existence of the market, in the later years, become a primary element and
7504-468: The beginning of last month, a large Spanish ship was four days at anchor in Elmina roads, receiving water and bartering dollars for goods suited for the purchase of slaves." None of Daendels' infrastructure plans came to fruition, as he succumbed to malaria on 2 May 1818 while in the castle of St. George d'Elmina , which served as the Dutch seat of government. His body was interred in the central tomb at
7616-649: The beginning of letters and may also be used to indicate the social status of the letter writer; from the lowest pada andhap , to middle pada madya , and the highest pada luhur . Pada guru is sometimes used as a neutral option without social connotation, while pada pancak is used to end a letter. However this is a generalized function. In practice, similar to rerenggan these epistolary punctuation marks are often decorative and optional with various shape used in different regions and by different scribes. When errors occurred during manuscript copying, several Kraton scribes used special correction marks instead of crossing out
7728-486: The beginning, only a few scribes were able to use European paper due to its high price—paper made using European methods at the time could only be imported in limited numbers. In colonial administration, the use of European paper had to be supplemented with Javanese daluang and imported Chinese paper until at least the 19th century. As the paper supply increased due to growing imports from Europe, scribes in palaces and urban settlements gradually opted to use European paper as
7840-509: The capital of Central Java on 18 August 1945, headed by Mr. Moch.Ichsan. It also became the site of a battle (Five days battle, Pertempuran lima hari ) between the new Indonesian military and Japanese soldiers in October 1945. Shortly after that, what had been the Indonesia-conducted Ambarawa , Magelang , and Ungaran offensives reached Semarang city on 15 December 1945, causing an 87-day battle that swept away
7952-419: The city had doubled in size and expanded to the south by the 1920s, creating a nucleus of a metropolis where multi-ethnic groups lived and traded in the city. The villages in the suburbs such as Jomblang and Jatingaleh steadily became the satellite towns of Semarang, more populated with a bigger market area. Before the invasion of Japan in 1942, Semarang had already become the capital of Central Java province, as
8064-622: The city has many industrial parks and factories. Like other metropolitan cities within Indonesia, due to a developing economy and increasing income, Semarang has many shopping malls. Semarang is on the Indonesian National Route 1 road, which connects it to Merak and Ketapang ( Banyuwangi ). Indonesian National Route 14 toward Bawen starts here. Semarang has a toll road, the Semarang Toll Road . The city
8176-673: The city in the 1870s. Hospitals, churches, hotels, and mansions were built along the new main roads of Mataram Street, Bojongscheweg, and Pontjolscheweg. The Javanese quarters of town known as kampongs grew increasingly densely populated, reaching as many as 1000 inhabitants per hectare and degrading living conditions. Mortality remained high into the early 20th century, with newcomers, overcrowding, and poor hygiene triggering cholera and tuberculous outbreaks. Dysentery , typhoid , and malaria were also rife. The city doctor Willem T. de Vogel advocated strenuously for reducing overcrowding and improving living conditions by extending Semarang into
8288-580: The city. Semarang was connected to Surakarta (Solo) by a rail line in 1870. At present there are two large train stations in Semarang: Semarang Poncol and Semarang Tawang . Semarang is connected to Bandung , Jakarta , and Surabaya by inter-city train services. Kedungsepur commuter rail connects Semarang Poncol Station eastward to Ngrombo Station in Grobogan Regency . Semarang's Ahmad Yani International Airport
8400-467: The coastline, while in the eastern Semarang, the low-lying area has a width of 11 km (6.8 miles) from the coastline. This lowland area is a flood plain from the large rivers that flow in Semarang City, such as Kali Garang (West Flood Canal), Pengkol River, and Bringin River. This low-lying area stretches on the northern side of Semarang and covers almost 40% of the total area of Semarang. This lowland area
8512-437: The driest months. However, the average monthly rainfall does not fall below 60 mm (2.4 in), hence the tropical rainforest categorization. Semarang on average sees approximately 2,800 mm (110 in) of rain annually. Average temperatures in the city are relatively consistent, hovering around 28 °C (82 °F). Diurnal temperature variation slightly increases in the dry season. Like Singapore River, Semarang
8624-520: The erroneous parts: tirta tumétès normally found in Yogyakarta manuscripts, and isèn-isèn found in Surakarta manuscripts. These correction marks are directly applied following the erroneous part before the scribe continued writing. For example, if a scribe wanted to write pada luhur ꦥꦢꦭꦸꦲꦸꦂ but accidentally wrote pada hu ꦥꦢꦲꦸ before realizing the mistake, this word may be corrected into pada hu···luhur ꦥꦢꦲꦸ꧞꧞꧞ꦭꦸꦲꦸꦂ or ꦥꦢꦲꦸ꧟꧟꧟ꦭꦸꦲꦸꦂ. Other than
8736-615: The exact same glyph as several basic letters, for example the numeral 1 ꧑ and wyanjana letter ga ꦒ, or the numeral 8 ꧘ and murda letter pa ꦦ. To avoid confusion, numerals that are used in the middle of sentences must be surrounded by pada pangkat ⟨ ꧇ ꧇ ⟩ or pada lingsa ⟨ ꧈ ꧈ ⟩ . For example, tanggal 17 Juni ("the date 17 June") is written ꦠꦁꦒꦭ꧀ ꧇ ꧑꧗ ꧇ ꦗꦸꦤꦶ or ꦠꦁꦒꦭ꧀ ꧈ ꧑꧗ ꧈ ꦗꦸꦤꦶ . Traditional Javanese texts are written with no spaces between words ( scriptio continua ) with several punctuation marks called pada (ꦥꦢ). In contemporary teaching,
8848-627: The existence of the script and recognize a few letters, but it is rare to find someone who can read and write it meaningfully. Therefore, as recently as 2019, it is not uncommon to see Javanese script signage in public places with numerous misspellings and basic mistakes. Several hurdles in revitalizing the use of Javanese script includes information technology equipment that does not support correct rendering of Javanese script, lack of governing bodies with sufficient competence to consult on its usage, and lack of typographical explorations that may intrigue contemporary viewers. Nevertheless, attempts to revive
8960-539: The function and pronunciation of these letters tend to vary. In modern Javanese, pa cerek and nga lelet are mandatory shorthand for combinations of ra + e ⟨ꦫ + ◌ ꦼ → ꦉ⟩ and la + e ⟨ꦭ + ◌ ꦼ → ꦊ⟩ . Both letters are usually re-categorized into their own class called aksara gantèn in modern tables. Closed syllables are written by adding diacritics to base syllables ( Javanese : ꦱꦤ꧀ꦝꦁꦔꦤ꧀ꦥꦚꦶꦒꦼꦒꦶꦁ ꦮꦤ꧀ꦢ , romanized: sandhangan panyigeging wanda ). Consonant clusters containing
9072-583: The government-owned Balai Pustaka ) gradually prioritized publications in the Latin alphabet. However, the Javanese population at the time maintained the use of Javanese script in various aspects of everyday life. It was, for example, considered more polite to write a letter using Javanese script, especially one addressed toward an elder or superior. Many publishers, including Balai Pustaka, continued to print books, newspapers, and magazines in Javanese script due to sufficient, albeit declining, demand. The use of Javanese script only started to drop significantly during
9184-488: The introduction of Islam, characters of Middle-Eastern provenance such as Amir Hamzah and the Prophet Joseph have also been frequent subjects of writing. There are also local characters, usually set in Java's semi-legendary past, such as Prince Panji , Damar Wulan , and Calon Arang . When studies of Javanese language and literature began to attract European attention in the 19th century, an initiative to create
9296-438: The less malarial hill country to its south; his fellow councilman Hendrik Tillema had campaigned on a platform of combatting malaria and joined De Vogel's scheme, broadening it into a "village improvement" ( Dutch : kampongverbetering ) movement. Purchasing land in the heights with their own money, the two men and some friends passed it on to the city with an initial zoning plan by KPC de Bazel in 1907 but could never convince
9408-515: The letters that are considered closest-sounding to the foreign sound in question. For example, ⟨ ꦥ꦳ ⟩ (fa) is formed by adding a cecak telu diacritic ⟨ ꦳ ⟩ to ⟨ ꦥ ⟩ (pa). The combination of wyanjana letter and corresponding foreign sounds for each rékan may be different between sources. Javanese script has its own numerals ( Javanese : ꦲꦁꦏ , romanized: angka ) that behave similarly to Arabic numerals . However, most Javanese numerals has
9520-522: The lower city and transportation slow or expensive, few of the lower classes were interested in moving to the district but it set a pattern that was followed with three more successful housing plans between 1916 and 1919. The population grew by 55%, adding 45,000 Javanese, 8500 Chinese, and 7000 Europeans. Karsten's approach to town planning emphasized its aesthetic, practical, and social requirements articulated in economic terms rather than purely racial ones. Driven by economic growth and spatial city planning,
9632-434: The main choice to print any Javanese text. From then, reading materials in printed Javanese using Roorda's typeface became widespread among the Javanese populace and were widely used in materials other than literature. The establishment of print technology gave rise to a printing industry which, for the next century, produced various materials in printed Javanese, from administrative papers and school books, to mass media such as
9744-432: The main thoroughfare on the island, known as Jalur Pantura . Notably, the construction of this thousand-kilometer road in a single year resulted in the deaths of numerous Javanese forced laborers. Daendels adopted a stern stance towards Javanese rulers, causing them to align themselves with the British against the Dutch. He also imposed forced labor ( Rodi ) on the population of Java, which sparked rebellious incidents like
9856-472: The merit of their melody and rhythm during recitation sessions. Javanese poets are not expected to create new stories and characters; instead the role of the poet is to rewrite and recompose existing stories into forms that cater to local taste and prevailing trends. As a result, Javanese literary works such as the Cerita Panji do not have a single authoritative version referenced by all others; instead,
9968-409: The most frequently used punctuations are pada adeg-adeg , pada lingsa , and pada lungsi , which are used to open paragraphs (similar to pillcrows ), separating sentences (similar to commas ), and ending sentences (similar to full stops ). Pada adeg and pada pisélèh may be used to indicate insertion in the middle of sentences similar to parentheses or quotation marks , while pada pangkat has
10080-632: The next syllable that does can be written as a murda . Highly respected names may be written completely in murda , or with as many murda as possible, but in essence, the use of murda is optional and may be inconsistent in traditional texts. For example, the name Gani can be spelled as ꦒꦤꦶ (without murda ), ꦓꦤꦶ (with a murda on the first syllable), or ꦓꦟꦶ with every syllable as a murda . The remaining letters that are not classified as nglegéna or repurposed as murda are aksara mahaprana , letters that are used in Sanskrit and Kawi texts but obsolete in modern Javanese. Javanese script includes
10192-530: The ones in Cadas Pangeran, West Java . Opinions differ regarding the extent to which Daendels improved the efficiency of the local bureaucracy and curbed corruption, although he accumulated personal wealth during his time in office. Despite his efforts to bolster defenses, Daendels was unsuccessful in halting the British invasion of the Spice Islands in 1810. During the incorporation of
10304-413: The poetic metre. Major pada are used to demarcate a change of canto (which includes a change of the metre, rhythm, and mood of the recitation) occurring every 5 to 10 pages, though this may vary considerably depending on the structure of the text. Javanese guides often list three kinds of major pada : purwa pada ꧅ ꦧ꧀ꦖ ꧅ which is used in the beginning of the first canto, madya pada ꧅ ꦟ꧀ꦢꦿ ꧅ which
10416-403: The poor. This area became known as Candi Baru ( Dutch : Nieuw Tjandi ) and forms the core of the present-day Candisari District. Although it remained highly stratified by class, Candi Baru had less ethnic segregation than the older area of town and incorporated public squares, athletic facilities, and places for public bathing and washing that could be used communally. With most work remaining in
10528-556: The primary medium for writing, while daluang paper was increasingly associated with pesantren and rural manuscripts. Alongside the increase of European paper supply, attempts to create Javanese printing type began, spearheaded by several European figures. With the establishment of printing technology in 1825, materials in Javanese script could be mass-produced and became increasingly common in various aspects of pre-independence Javanese life, from letters, books, and newspapers, to magazines, and even advertisements and paper currency. From
10640-486: The region and built roads and railroads, making Semarang an important colonial trading centre. The historic presence of a large Indo (Eurasian) community in the area of Semarang is also reflected by the fact a creole mix language called Javindo existed there. Semarang was handed by the Sultan of Mataram to the Dutch East Indies in 1678. The city was pictured as a small settlement with a pious Muslim area called Kauman ,
10752-524: The regular punctuation, one of Javanese texts' distinctive characteristics is pepadan ( ꦥꦼꦥꦢꦤ꧀ ), a series of highly ornate verse marks. The series of punctuation marks that forms pepadan have numerous names in traditional texts. Behrend (1996) divides pepadan into two general groups: the minor pada which consist of a single mark, and the major pada which are composed of several marks. Minor pada are used to indicate divisions of poetic stanzas, which usually appear every 32 or 48 syllables depending on
10864-565: The release of version 5.2. The Unicode block for Javanese is U+A980–U+A9DF. There are 91 code points for Javanese script: 53 letters, 19 punctuation marks, 10 numbers, and 9 vowels: Bovendien is voor den druk het Latijnsche lettertype gekozen, hetgeen de zaak voor Europeesche gebruikers aanzienlijk vergemakkelijkt, voor Inlandsche belangstellended geenszins een bezwaar oplevert, aangezien de Javaansche taal, evenals bereids voor het Maleisch en het Soendaneesch gebleken is, zeker niet minder duidelijk in Latijnsch type dan in het Javaansche schrift
10976-405: The respected personal names of respected figures, be they legendary, such as ꦨꦶꦩ , Bima or real, such as Javanese : ꦦꦑꦸꦨꦸꦮꦟ , romanized: Pakubuwana . Of the 20 basic letters, only nine have corresponding murda forms. Because of this, the use of murda is not identical to the capitalization of proper names . If the first syllable of a name does not have a murda form,
11088-539: The result of trade and industrial success and spatial planning. The Japanese military occupied the city, along with the rest of Java, in 1942, during the Pacific War of World War II . During that time, Semarang was headed by a military governor called a Shiko, and two vice governors known as Fuku Shiko. One of the vice governors was appointed from Japan , and the other was "chosen" from the local population. After Indonesian independence in 1945, Semarang became
11200-453: The script are still being conducted by several communities and public figures who encourage the use of Javanese script in the public sphere, especially with digital devices. Javanese script contains around 45 letters. Over the course of its development, some letters have become obsolete and are only used in certain contexts. As such, it is common to divide the letters in several groups based on their function. A basic letter in Javanese script
11312-466: The script is written without spaces between words ( scriptio continua ) but is interspersed with a group of decorative punctuation . Javanese script's evolutionary history can be traced fairly well because significant amounts of inscriptional evidence left behind allowed for epigraphical studies to be carried out. The oldest root of Javanese script is the Tamil-Brahmi script which evolved into
11424-563: The script was mainly used by the Sundanese nobility ( ménak ) due to the political influence of the Mataram kingdom . However, most Sundanese people within the same time period more commonly used the Pegon script which was adapted from the Arabic alphabet . Javanese writing tradition also relied on periodic copying due to the deterioration of writing materials in the tropical Javanese climate; as
11536-489: The shape of the pepadan may even contain visual puns that gave clues to the readers regarding the canto of the text; a pepadan with wings or bird figure resembling a crow (called dhandhang in Javanese) indicates the dhandhanggula metre, while pepadan with elements of a goldfish indicates the maskumambang metre (literally "gold floating on water"). One of the scribal centers with the most elaborate and ornate pepadan
11648-673: The slave trade, despite its prohibition by both the British and Dutch authorities, from his position at the Elmina fort, which was then under Dutch control. On 5 March 1817, the British governor of Cape Coast, John Smith, wrote to the African Committee in Parliament in London, stating, "We deem it our duty to inform you of the conduct of General Daendels, who is acting independent of his Government. Portuguese vessels were furnished with canoes, and Spaniards were supplied with water. At
11760-520: The supplies in Minsk were also lost when Pavel Chichagov captured the city. On 24 November, Daendels skirmished with some Russians but reunited with the rest of the French army near Bobr. Subsequently, all the French soldiers proceeded to Borisov , where the Russian army destroyed a crucial bridge crossing the Berezina River. Daendels' division, consisting of 4,000 men, played a decisive role in
11872-562: The system for Sasak developed. Javanese script was actively used by the Javanese people for writing day-to-day and literary texts from at least the mid-16th century CE until the mid-20th century CE, before it was gradually supplanted by the Latin alphabet. Today, the script is taught in the Yogyakarta Special Region as well as the provinces of Central Java and East Java as part of the local curriculum, but with very limited function in everyday use. Javanese script
11984-416: The tal palm ( Borassus flabellifer ). Each lontar leaf has the shape of a slim rectangle 2.8 to 4 cm in width and varies in length between 20 and 80 cm. Each leaf can only accommodate around 4 lines of writing, which are incised horizontally with a small knife and then blackened with soot to increase readability. This media has a long history of attested use all over South and Southeast Asia. In
12096-558: The trade centre of agricultural production. The project was soon followed by the development of the Staatsspoorwegen Railway and the connecting roads into the inner city of Semarang at the end of the 19th century. Colombijn (2002) marked the development as the shift of urban functions, from the former river orientation to all services facing the roads. The Dutch East Indies ' mail and railway projects improved communication and transportation, bringing an economic boom to
12208-460: The use of lontar only persisted in a few regions. There are two kinds of paper that are commonly used in Javanese manuscript: locally produced paper called daluang , and imported paper. Daluang (also spelled dluwang ) is a paper made from the beaten bark of the saéh tree ( Broussonetia papyrifera ). Visually, daluang can be easily differentiated from regular paper by its distinctive brown tint and fibrous appearance. A well made daluang has
12320-446: Was a coarse copy of the fine Javanese hand used in literary texts, and so this early attempt was further developed by numerous other people to varying degrees of success as the study of Javanese developed over the years. In 1838, Taco Roorda completed his typeface, known as Tuladha Jejeg , based on the hand of Surakartan scribes with some European typographical elements mixed in. Roorda's font garnered positive feedback and soon became
12432-613: Was appointed as the Governor-general of the Dutch Gold Coast (now part of Ghana ) and effectively prohibited from returning to the Netherlands. After the abolition of the Atlantic slave trade , Daendels aimed to revitalize the neglected Dutch territories into an African plantation colony focused on legitimate business. Leveraging his experience from the East Indies, he devised ambitious infrastructure projects, such as
12544-422: Was built in classical European style with church located in the centre, wide boulevards, streets and villas. According to Purwanto (2005), the urban and architectural form of this settlement is very similar to the design principles applied in many Dutch cities. Due to the long and costly Java War, there was not much funding from the Dutch East Indies government, and this affected Semarang's development. Most land in
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