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116-413: Sexism is prejudice or discrimination based on one's sex or gender . Sexism can affect anyone, but primarily affects women and girls . It has been linked to gender roles and stereotypes , and may include the belief that one sex or gender is intrinsically superior to another. Extreme sexism may foster sexual harassment , rape , and other forms of sexual violence . Discrimination in this context

232-571: A global security threat due to its use in scapegoating some populations and inciting others to commit violent acts towards them and how this can endanger individuals, countries, and the international community. The word prejudice has been used since Middle English around the year 1300. It comes from the Old French word préjudice, which comes from Latin praeiūdicium which comes from prae (before) and iūdicium (judgment). The first psychological research conducted on prejudice occurred in

348-453: A meta-analysis of 515 studies involving a quarter of a million participants in 38 nations to examine how intergroup contact reduces prejudice. They found that three mediators are of particular importance: Intergroup contact reduces prejudice by (1) enhancing knowledge about the outgroup, (2) reducing anxiety about intergroup contact, and (3) increasing empathy and perspective-taking. While all three of these mediators had mediational effects,

464-440: A patriarchal order . In her definition, sexism rationalizes and justifies patriarchal norms, in contrast with misogyny , the branch which polices and enforces patriarchal norms. Manne says that sexism often attempts to make patriarchal social arrangements seem natural, good, or inevitable so that there appears to be no reason to resist them. Evidence is lacking to support the idea that many pre-agricultural societies afforded women

580-554: A BA (Honours) in philosophy. She received her PhD in philosophy from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (2006–2011). Her dissertation, Not by reasons alone , argued in part that "the practical reason is not a suitable master concept in ethics, let alone the only ethical notion we need." From 2011 to 2013, Manne was a junior fellow at the Harvard Society of Fellows . Since 2013, she has been at

696-605: A cognitive-evolutionary account of human adaptation to social diversity that explains general resistance to multiculturalism, and offer a reorienting call for scholars and policy-makers who seek intervention-based solutions to the problem of prejudice. The contact hypothesis predicts that prejudice can only be reduced when in-group and out-group members are brought together. In particular, there are six conditions that must be met to reduce prejudice, as were cultivated in Elliot Aronson 's "jigsaw" teaching technique . First,

812-523: A critical stance on language that calls for a change in the way speakers use their language. One of the most common calls is for gender-neutral language. Many have called attention, however, to the fact that the English language is not inherently sexist in its linguistic system, but the way it is used becomes sexist and gender-neutral language could thus be employed. Romanic languages such as French and Spanish may be seen as reinforcing sexism, in that

928-453: A decrease in prejudice. Individuals or groups may be treated unfairly based solely on their use of language. This use of language may include the individual's native language or other characteristics of the person's speech, such as an accent or dialect , the size of vocabulary (whether the person uses complex and varied words), and syntax . It may also involve a person's ability or inability to use one language instead of another. In

1044-505: A difficult time assimilating or fitting into neurotypical standards and society may be label " low-functioning ". People with neurological disorders or conditions observed to have low intelligence, lack of self-control, suicidal behavior, or any number of factors may be discriminated on this basis. Institutions such as mental asylums, Nazi Concentration Camps , unethical pediatric research/care facilities, and eugenics labs have been used to carry out dangerous experiments or to torture

1160-436: A distinction between sexism and misogyny . Manne argues that "sexism is an ideology that supports patriarchal social relations". Sexism, then, accepts gender roles , and helps to reinforce them, by making them seem as if they were natural or given arrangements. In essence, sexism is a belief system. Misogyny can be understood as an effort to control and punish women "who challenge male dominance". On this definition, misogyny

1276-490: A distinguished professor at the University of California's Hastings College of Law, raised issues with its methodology, pointing out that the fictional female candidates it used were unusually well-qualified. Studies using more moderately qualified graduate students have found that male students are much more likely to be hired, offered better salaries, and offered mentorship. In Europe, studies based on field experiments in

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1392-408: A female as a "girl" rather than a "woman", implying that she is subordinate or not fully mature. Other examples include obscene language. Some words are offensive to transgender people, including "tranny", "she-male", or "he-she". Intentional misgendering (assigning the wrong gender to someone) and the pronoun "it" are also considered pejorative. The practice of using first names for individuals from

1508-612: A gender that does not align with their assigned sex at birth . Refusal to call them by their preferred pronouns, or claims that they are not the gender they identify as could be considered discrimination, especially if the victim of this discrimination has expressed repetitively what their preferred identity is. Gender identity is now considered a protected category of discrimination. Therefore, severe cases of this discrimination can lead to criminal penalty or prosecution in some countries , and workplaces are required to protect against discrimination based on gender identity. Nationalism

1624-530: A higher status than women today, however, historians are reasonably sure that women had roughly equal social power to men in many such societies. After the adoption of agriculture and sedentary cultures, the concept that one gender was inferior to the other was established; most often this was imposed upon women and girls. The status of women in ancient Egypt depended on their fathers or husbands, but they had property rights and could attend court, including as plaintiffs. Examples of unequal treatment of women in

1740-455: A natural resource or a threat to income. Symbolic threats arise from a perceived difference in cultural values between groups or a perceived imbalance of power (for example, an ingroup perceiving an outgroup's religion as incompatible with theirs). Intergroup anxiety is a feeling of uneasiness experienced in the presence of an outgroup or outgroup member, which constitutes a threat because interactions with other groups cause negative feelings (e.g.,

1856-568: A necessity to simplify social classifications because of limited brain capacity and at the same time can be mitigated through education is that the two contradict each other, the combination amounting to saying that the problem is a shortage of hardware and at the same time can be mitigated by stuffing even more software into the hardware one just said was overloaded with too much software. The distinction between men's hostility to outgroup men being based on dominance and aggression and women's hostility to outgroup men being based on fear of sexual coercion

1972-472: A particular political goal. Nationalism usually involves a push for conformity, obedience, and solidarity amongst the nation's people and can result not only in feelings of public responsibility but also in a narrow sense of community due to the exclusion of those who are considered outsiders. Since the identity of nationalists is linked to their allegiance to the state, the presence of strangers who do not share this allegiance may result in hostility. Classism

2088-454: A person or thing, prior to, or not based on, actual experience". Auestad (2015) defines prejudice as characterized by "symbolic transfer", transfer of a value-laden meaning content onto a socially-formed category and then on to individuals who are taken to belong to that category, resistance to change, and overgeneralization. The United Nations Institute on Globalization, Culture and Mobility has highlighted research considering prejudice as

2204-530: A person's sex , occurring in the workplace. One form of occupational sexism is wage discrimination . In 2008, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) found that while female employment rates have expanded and gender employment and wage gaps have narrowed nearly everywhere, on average women still have 20% less chance to have a job and are paid 17% less than men. The report stated: [In] many countries, labour market discrimination—i.e.

2320-509: A position analogous to that of the racist—I might call you, in this case, a 'sexist' ... Both the racist and the sexist are acting as if all that has happened had never happened, and both of them are making decisions and coming to conclusions about someone's value by referring to factors which are in both cases irrelevant." According to the Oxford English Dictionary , the first time the term sexism appeared in print

2436-498: A positive effect on people as far as prejudice is concerned. This difference in results may be attributed to the differences in religious practices or religious interpretations amongst the individuals. Those who practice "institutionalized religion", which focuses more on social and political aspects of religious events, are more likely to have an increase in prejudice. Those who practice "interiorized religion", in which believers devote themselves to their beliefs, are most likely to have

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2552-405: A preconceived notion about someone due to any characteristic they find to be unusual or undesirable. A few commonplace examples of prejudice are those based on someone's race, gender, nationality, social status, sexual orientation, or religious affiliation, and controversies may arise from any given topic. Transgender and non-binary people can be discriminated against because they identify with

2668-689: A profession that is predominantly female occurs in health care. Physicians are typically referred to using their last name, but nurses are referred to, even by physicians they do not know, by their first name. According to Suzanne Gordon , a typical conversation between a physician and a nurse is: "Hello Jane. I'm Dr. Smith. Would you hand me the patient's chart?" – Nursing Against the Odds: How Health Care Cost Cutting, Media Stereotypes, and Medical Hubris Undermine Nurses and Patient Care Occupational sexism refers to discriminatory practices, statements or actions, based on

2784-407: A progressive country in the region, arguing that discrimination against women remains very strong there. The World Organisation Against Torture (OMCT) has recognized the "independence and ability to leave an abusive husband" as crucial in stopping mistreatment of women. However, in some parts of the world, once married, women have very little chance of leaving a violent husband: obtaining a divorce

2900-517: A term for such hatred based upon one's sexual orientation is homophobia . However, more specific words for discrimination directed towards specific sexualities exist under other names, such as biphobia . Due to what social psychologists call the vividness effect, a tendency to notice only certain distinctive characteristics, the majority population tends to draw conclusions like gays flaunt their sexuality. Such images may be easily recalled to mind due to their vividness, making it harder to appraise

3016-777: A threat to comfortable interactions). Negative stereotypes are similarly threats, in that individuals anticipate negative behaviour from outgroup members in line with the perceived stereotype (for example, that the outgroup is violent). Often these stereotypes are associated with emotions such as fear and anger. ITT differs from other threat theories by including intergroup anxiety and negative stereotypes as threat types. Additionally, social dominance theory states that society can be viewed as group-based hierarchies. In competition for scarce resources such as housing or employment, dominant groups create prejudiced "legitimizing myths" to provide moral and intellectual justification for their dominant position over other groups and validate their claim over

3132-486: A wife may be ordered by court to return to her husband; if she fails to do so, she may be held in contempt of court . Other problems have to do with the payment of the bride price : if the wife wants to leave, her husband may demand the return of the bride price that he had paid to the woman's family; and the woman's family often cannot or does not want to pay it back. Laws, regulations, and traditions related to marriage continue to discriminate against women in many parts of

3248-401: A women's menu without prices left her feeling "humiliated and incensed". The owners of the restaurant defended the practice, saying it was done as a courtesy, like the way men would stand up when a woman enters the room. Even though the lawsuit was dropped, the restaurant ended its gender-based menu policy. A 2021 study found little evidence that levels of sexism had changed from 2004 to 2018 in

3364-417: Is a controversial and somewhat contemporary concept; with various disciplinary approaches promoting conflicting messages what normality constitutes, the degree of acceptable individual difference within that category, and the precise criteria for what constitutes medical disorder. This has been most prominent in the case of high-functioning autism, where direct cognitive benefits increasingly appear to come at

3480-485: Is a sentiment based on common cultural characteristics that binds a population and often produces a policy of national independence or separatism . It suggests a "shared identity" amongst a nation's people that minimizes differences within the group and emphasizes perceived boundaries between the group and non-members. This leads to the assumption that members of the nation have more in common than they actually do, that they are "culturally unified", even if injustices within

3596-509: Is criticized with reference to the historical example that Hitler and other male Nazis believed that intergroup sex was worse than murder and would destroy them permanently which they did not believe that war itself would, i.e. a view of outgroup male threat that evolutionary psychology considers to be a female view and not a male view. Kate Manne Kate Alice Manne (born 1983) is an Australian philosopher , associate professor of philosophy at Cornell University , and author. Her work

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3712-427: Is defined as a negative affect towards members of a group, there are many groups against whom prejudice is acceptable (such as rapists, men who abandon their families, pedophiles, neo-Nazis, drink-drivers, queue jumpers, murderers etc.), yet such prejudices are not studied. It has been suggested that researchers have focused too much on an evaluative approach to prejudice, rather than a descriptive approach, which looks at

3828-453: Is defined as discrimination toward people based on their gender identity or their gender or sex differences. An example of this is workplace inequality . Sexism refers to violation of equal opportunities ( formal equality ) based on gender or refers to violation of equality of outcomes based on gender, also called substantive equality . Sexism may arise from social or cultural customs and norms. According to legal scholar Fred R. Shapiro ,

3944-481: Is defined by dictionary.com as "a biased or discriminatory attitude on distinctions made between social or economic classes". The idea of separating people based on class is controversial in itself. Some argue that economic inequality is an unavoidable aspect of society, so there will always be a ruling class. Some also argue that, even within the most egalitarian societies in history, some form of ranking based on social status takes place. Therefore, one may believe

4060-566: Is enhanced by the ability to analyze social costs and benefits so that humans can recognize and functionally respond to threats and opportunities, and that errors in judgment will be biased toward minimizing costs to reproductive fitness. In other words, human responses to social stimuli proceed from adaptations that motivate action in order to take advantage of opportunities and avoid or confront threats. Some proponents of this perspective believe that these responses can be measured by implicit association tests. One can be prejudiced against or have

4176-641: Is heavily inflected for gender, number, and case; nearly all nouns denoting the occupations or statuses of human beings are gender-differentiated. For more gender-neutral constructions, gerund nouns are sometimes used instead, as this eliminates the grammatical gender distinction in the plural, and significantly reduces it in the singular. For example, instead of die Studenten ("the men students") or die Studentinnen ("the women students"), one writes die Studierenden ("the [people who are] studying"). However, this approach introduces an element of ambiguity, because gerund nouns more precisely denote one currently engaged in

4292-403: Is influenced by evolutionary processes. These theorists argue that although psychological variation appears between individuals, the majority of our psychological mechanisms are adapted specifically to solve recurrent problems in our evolutionary history , including social problems. For example, James J. Gibson , a founder of ecological psychology , believes that human evolutionary success

4408-648: Is more emphasis on female candidates' personal qualities, such as their appearance and their personality, as females are portrayed as emotional and dependent. There is a widespread imbalance of lawmaking power between men and women. The ratio of women to men in legislatures is used as a measure of gender equality in the United Nations' Gender Empowerment Measure and its newer incarnation the Gender Inequality Index . Speaking about China, Lanyan Chen stated that, since men more than women serve as

4524-555: Is most often expressed toward women and girls. Sociology has examined sexism as manifesting at both the individual and the institutional level. According to Richard Schaefer, sexism is perpetuated by all major social institutions . Sociologists describe parallels among other ideological systems of oppression such as racism , which also operates at both the individual and institutional level. Early female sociologists Charlotte Perkins Gilman , Ida B. Wells , and Harriet Martineau described systems of gender inequality , but did not use

4640-402: Is natural and often quite rational. This is because prejudices are based on the human tendency to categorise objects and people based on prior experience. This means people make predictions about things in a category based on prior experience with that category, with the resulting predictions usually being accurate (though not always). Bloom argues that this process of categorisation and prediction

4756-420: Is necessary for survival and normal interaction, quoting William Hazlitt, who stated "Without the aid of prejudice and custom, I should not be able to find my way my across the room; nor know how to conduct myself in any circumstances, nor what to feel in any relation of life". In recent years, researchers have argued that the study of prejudice has been traditionally too narrow. It is argued that since prejudice

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4872-922: Is not necessarily about male hostility or hatred toward women, but more "the law enforcement branch of the patriarchy". According to Manne, "Misogyny is a way women are kept in (patriarchal) order, by imposing social costs for those breaking role or rank, and warning others not to." Manne coins the term " himpathy ", which she defines as "the inappropriate and disproportionate sympathy powerful men often enjoy in cases of sexual assault, intimate partner violence, homicide and other misogynistic behavior". Manne's second book, Entitled: How Male Privilege Hurts Women , explores male privilege . It proposes that male entitlement to sex, power, and knowledge has grave and deadly consequences for society at large and women more specifically. The book received mixed reviews. Nesrine Malik of The Guardian praised it, writing, "with perspicacity and clear, jargon-free language, Manne keeps elevating

4988-622: Is primarily in feminist philosophy , moral philosophy , and social philosophy . Born in Australia in 1983, Manne grew up in Cottles Bridge, Victoria . Her father Robert Manne was a political science professor at La Trobe University , and her mother Anne Manne (née Robinson) is an author. As an undergraduate , Manne studied philosophy , logic , and computer science , at the University of Melbourne (2001–2005), earning

5104-584: Is still debate over whether race actually exists, making the discussion of race a controversial topic. Even though the concept of race is still being debated, the effects of racism are apparent. Racism and other forms of prejudice can affect a person's behavior, thoughts, and feelings, and social psychologists strive to study these effects. While various religions teach their members to be tolerant of those who are different and to have compassion, throughout history there have been wars , pogroms and other forms of violence motivated by hatred of religious groups. In

5220-712: Is still partially in force in present-day Eswatini ). Restrictions on married women's rights were common in Western countries until a few decades ago: for instance, French married women obtained the right to work without their husband's permission in 1965, and in West Germany women obtained this right in 1977. During the Franco era, in Spain, a married woman required her husband's consent (called permiso marital ) for employment, ownership of property and traveling away from home;

5336-418: Is the first crucial step towards achieving substantive equality between women and men. Personal issues—such as when, how and with whom they choose to have sex, and when, how and with whom they choose to have children—are at the heart of living a life in dignity. Gender has been used as a tool for discrimination against women in the political sphere. Women's suffrage was not achieved until 1893, when New Zealand

5452-425: Is the perception that members of an out-group are more similar (homogenous) than members of the in-group. Social psychologists Quattrone and Jones conducted a study demonstrating this with students from the rival schools Princeton University and Rutgers University . Students at each school were shown videos of other students from each school choosing a type of music to listen to for an auditory perception study. Then

5568-514: Is to claim that the victim's sexual orientation, body movement patterns (such as their walking patterns or how they dance), or appearance that is associated with a minority sexual orientation provoked a violent reaction in the defendant. This is not a proven disorder, is no longer recognized by the DSM , and, therefore, is not a disorder that is medically recognized, but it is a term to explain certain acts of violence. Research shows that discrimination on

5684-518: Is very difficult in many jurisdictions because of the need to prove fault in court. While attempting a de facto separation (moving away from the marital home) is also impossible because of laws preventing this. For instance, in Afghanistan , a wife who leaves her marital home risks being imprisoned for "running away". In addition, many former British colonies, including India , maintain the concept of restitution of conjugal rights , under which

5800-673: The Democratic Republic of Congo , the Family Code states that the husband is the head of the household; the wife owes her obedience to her husband; a wife has to live with her husband wherever he chooses to live; and wives must have their husbands' authorization to bring a case in court or initiate other legal proceedings. Abuses and discriminatory practices against women in marriage are often rooted in financial payments such as dowry , bride price , and dower . These transactions often serve as legitimizing coercive control of

5916-427: The permiso marital was abolished in 1975. In Australia, until 1983, a married woman's passport application had to be authorized by her husband. Women in parts of the world continue to lose their legal rights in marriage. For example, Yemeni marriage regulations state that a wife must obey her husband and must not leave home without his permission. In Iraq , the law allows husbands to legally "punish" their wives. In

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6032-414: The 1920s. This research attempted to prove white supremacy . One article from 1925 which reviewed 73 studies on race concluded that the studies seemed "to indicate the mental superiority of the white race". These studies, along with other research, led many psychologists to view prejudice as a natural response to races believed to be inferior. In the 1930s and 1940s, this perspective began to change due to

6148-417: The 20th century, U.S. and English law observed the system of coverture , where "by marriage, the husband and wife are one person in law; that is the very being or legal existence of the woman is suspended during the marriage". U.S. women were not legally defined as "persons" until 1875 ( Minor v. Happersett , 88 U.S. 162). A similar legal doctrine, called marital power , existed under Roman Dutch law (and

6264-915: The Sage School of Philosophy, Cornell University, where she is an associate professor. Prospect Magazine named Manne one of the world's top 50 thinkers of 2019. On 16 May 2024, Manne and David Livingstone Smith of the University of New England were awarded the Lebowitz Prize by Phi Beta Kappa and the American Philosophical Association for an as yet unpublished presentation titled "Dehumanization and its Discontents". Manne has written articles in moral philosophy and metaethics , as well as three books, Down Girl: The Logic of Misogyny (2017), Entitled: How Male Privilege Hurts Women (2020), and Unshrinking: How to face Fatphobia (2024). Down Girl proposes

6380-512: The United States, the female-to-male earnings ratio was 0.77 in 2009; female full-time, year-round (FTYR) workers earned 77% as much as male FTYR workers. Women's earnings relative to men's fell from 1960 to 1980 (56.7–54.2%), rose rapidly from 1980 to 1990 (54.2–67.6%), leveled off from 1990 to 2000 (67.6–71.2%) and rose from 2000 to 2009 (71.2–77.0%). As of the late 2010s, it has decreased back to around 1990 to 2000 levels (68.6-71.1%). When

6496-410: The United States, women are still represented using gender stereotypes in the press. Multiple authors have shown that gender differences in the media are less evident today than they used to be in the 1980s, but are still present. Certain issues (e.g., education) are likely to be linked with female candidates, while other issues (e.g., taxes) are likely to be linked with male candidates. In addition, there

6612-462: The United States. Gender stereotypes are widely held beliefs about the characteristics and behavior of women and men. Empirical studies have found widely shared cultural beliefs that men are more socially valued and more competent than women in a number of activities. Dustin B. Thoman and others (2008) hypothesize that "[t]he socio-cultural salience of ability versus other components of the gender-math stereotype may impact women pursuing math". Through

6728-410: The accused in court cases, that defense lawyers may use to justify their client's hate crime against someone that the client thought was LGBT. The controversy comes when defense lawyers use the victim's minority status as an excuse or justification for crimes that were directed against them. This may be seen as an example of victim blaming . One method of this defense, homosexual panic disorder ,

6844-613: The activity, rather than one who routinely engages in it as their primary occupation. In Chinese , some writers have pointed to sexism inherent in the structure of written characters. For example, the character for man is linked to those for positive qualities like courage and effect while the character for wife is composed of a female part and a broom, considered of low worth. Gender-specific pejorative terms intimidate or harm another person because of their gender. Sexism can be expressed in language with negative gender-oriented implications, such as condescension . For example, one may refer to

6960-511: The actual psychological mechanisms behind prejudiced attitudes. It is argued that this limits research to targets of prejudice to groups deemed to be receiving unjust treatment, while groups researchers deem treated justly or deservedly of prejudice are overlooked. As a result, the scope of prejudice has begun to expand in research, allowing a more accurate analysis of the relationship between psychological traits and prejudice. Some researchers had advocated looking into understanding prejudice from

7076-484: The ancient world include written laws preventing women from participating in the political process; for instance, women in ancient Rome could not vote or hold political office . Another example is scholarly texts that indoctrinate children in female inferiority; women in ancient China were taught the Confucian principles that a woman should obey her father in childhood, husband in marriage, and son in widowhood. On

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7192-552: The basis of sexual orientation is a powerful feature of many labor markets. For example, studies show that gay men earn 10–32% less than heterosexual men in the United States, and that there is significant discrimination in hiring on the basis of sexual orientation in many labor markets. Racism is defined as the belief that physical characteristics determine cultural traits, and that racial characteristics make some groups superior. By separating people into hierarchies based upon their race, it has been argued that unequal treatment among

7308-430: The book which played a major role in the witch hunts and trials, the author argues that women are more likely to practice witchcraft than men, and writes that: Witchcraft remains illegal in several countries, including Saudi Arabia , where it is punishable by death . In 2011, a woman was beheaded in that country for "witchcraft and sorcery". Murders of women after being accused of witchcraft remain common in some parts of

7424-459: The case. Some research has connected dark triad personality traits ( Machiavellianism , grandiose narcissism , and psychopathy ) with being more likely to hold racist, sexist, xenophobic, homophobic, and transphobic views. Some evolutionary theorists consider prejudice as having functional utility in evolutionary process. A number of evolutionary psychologists in particular posit that human psychology, including emotion and cognition ,

7540-489: The desire to express prejudice and the desire to maintain a positive self-concept . This conflict causes people to search for justification for disliking an out-group, and to use that justification to avoid negative feelings ( cognitive dissonance ) about themselves when they act on their dislike of the out-group. The realistic conflict theory states that competition between limited resources leads to increased negative prejudices and discrimination. This can be seen even when

7656-431: The different groups of people is just and fair due to their genetic differences. Racism can occur amongst any group that can be identified based upon physical features or even characteristics of their culture. Though people may be lumped together and called a specific race, everyone does not fit neatly into such categories, making it hard to define and describe a race accurately. Scientific racism began to flourish in

7772-405: The discussion to show how male privilege isn't just about securing and hoarding spoils from women, but an entire moral framework." Writing for The Chronicle of Higher Education , Anastasia Berg criticized Manne for poorly interpreting the incel phenomenon. Berg argued that to claim that incels police the norms of the patriarchal order is "a gross simplification" since they perceive themselves as

7888-419: The eighteenth century and was greatly influenced by Charles Darwin 's evolutionary studies, as well as ideas taken from the writings of philosophers like Aristotle ; for example, Aristotle believed in the concept of " natural slaves ". This concept focuses on the necessity of hierarchies and how some people are bound to be on the bottom of the pyramid. Though racism has been a prominent topic in history, there

8004-405: The entire situation. The majority population may not only think that homosexuals flaunt their sexuality or are "too gay", but may also erroneously believe that homosexuals are easy to identify and label as being gay or lesbian when compared to others who are not homosexual. The idea of heterosexual privilege has been known to flourish in society. Research and questionnaires are formulated to fit

8120-437: The existence of social classes is a natural feature of society. Others argue the contrary. According to anthropological evidence, for the majority of the time the human species has been in existence, humans have lived in a manner in which the land and resources were not privately owned. Also, when social ranking did occur, it was not antagonistic or hostile like the current class system. This evidence has been used to support

8236-402: The expectation that one's professional capacity may be judged by the quality of ones social interaction, which can in such cases be an inaccurate and discriminatory metric for employment suitability. Since there are moves by some experts to have these higher-functioning extremes reclassified as extensions of human personality, any legitimisation of discrimination against these groups would fit

8352-588: The expense of social intelligence. Discrimination may also extend to other high functioning individuals carrying pathological phenotypes, such as those with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and bipolar spectrum disorders . In these cases, there are indications that perceived (or actual) socially disadvantageous cognitive traits are directly correlated with advantageous cognitive traits in other domains, notably creativity and divergent thinking, and yet these strengths might become systematically overlooked. The case for "neurological discrimination" as such lies in

8468-427: The experiment comparing the math outcomes of women under two various gender-math stereotype components, which are the ability of math and the effort on math respectively, Thoman and others found that women's math performance is more likely to be affected by the negative ability stereotype, which is influenced by sociocultural beliefs in the United States, rather than the effort component. As a result of this experiment and

8584-562: The female diner would not know the prices of the items. In 1980, Kathleen Bick took a male business partner out to dinner at L'Orangerie in West Hollywood. After she was given a women's menu without prices and her guest got one with prices, Bick hired lawyer Gloria Allred to file a discrimination lawsuit, on the grounds that the women's menu went against the California Civil Rights Act. Bick stated that getting

8700-399: The first Equal Pay Act was passed in 1963, female full-time workers earned 48.9% as much as male full-time workers. Prejudice The word "prejudice" can also refer to unfounded or pigeonholed beliefs and it may apply to "any unreasonable attitude that is unusually resistant to rational influence". Gordon Allport defined prejudice as a "feeling, favorable or unfavorable, toward

8816-415: The form of sexual violence. Victims of such violence are often accused of promiscuity and held responsible for their fate, while infertile women are rejected by husbands, families and communities. In many countries, married women may not refuse to have sexual relations with their husbands, and often have no say in whether they use contraception   ... Ensuring that women have full autonomy over their bodies

8932-404: The gatekeepers of policy making, this may lead to women's needs not being properly represented. In this sense, the inequality in lawmaking power also causes gender discrimination. Until the early 1980s, some high-end restaurants had two menus : a regular menu with the prices listed for men and a second menu for women, which did not have the prices listed (it was called the "ladies' menu"), so that

9048-414: The idea that the existence of a social class system is unnecessary. Overall, society has neither come to a consensus over the necessity of the class system, nor been able to deal with the hostility and prejudice that occurs because of the class system. Individuals with non-heterosexual sexual attraction, such as homosexuals and bisexuals , may experience hatred from others due to their sexual orientation;

9164-667: The importance of the contact hypothesis . This theory posits that contact between different (ethnic) groups can reduce prejudices against those groups. Allport acknowledges the importance of the circumstances in which such contact occurs. He has attached conditions to it to promote positive contact and reduce prejudices. In the 1970s, research began to show that prejudice tends to be based on favoritism towards one's own groups , rather than negative feelings towards another group. According to Marilyn Brewer , prejudice "may develop not because outgroups are hated, but because positive emotions such as admiration, sympathy, and trust are reserved for

9280-488: The in- and out-groups must have a degree of mutual interdependence. Second, both groups need to share a common goal. Third, the two groups must have equal status. Fourth, there must be frequent opportunities for informal and interpersonal contact between groups. Fifth, there should be multiple contacts between the in- and the out-groups. Finally, social norms of equality must exist and be present to foster prejudice reduction. Academics Thomas Pettigrew and Linda Tropp conducted

9396-542: The increasing concern about anti-Semitism due to the ideology of the Nazis . At the time, theorists viewed prejudice as pathological and they thus looked for personality syndromes linked with racism . Theodor Adorno believed that prejudice stemmed from an authoritarian personality ; he believed that people with authoritarian personalities were the most likely to be prejudiced against groups of lower status. He described authoritarians as "rigid thinkers who obeyed authority, saw

9512-534: The individuals involved. Most discrimination today is characterized by individuals making comments towards low-functioning individuals or by harming them physically by themselves, but some institutions practice unsafe activities on these individuals. Humans have an evolved propensity to think categorically about social groups, manifested in cognitive processes with broad implications for public and political endorsement of multicultural policy, according to psychologists Richard J. Crisp and Rose Meleady. They postulated

9628-573: The ingroup". In 1979, Thomas Pettigrew described the ultimate attribution error and its role in prejudice. The ultimate attribution error occurs when ingroup members "(1) attribute negative outgroup behavior to dispositional causes (more than they would for identical ingroup behavior), and (2) attribute positive outgroup behavior to one or more of the following causes: (a) a fluke or exceptional case, (b) luck or special advantage, (c) high motivation and effort, and (d) situational factors"/ Young-Bruehl (1996) argued that prejudice cannot be treated in

9744-695: The labor market, provide evidence for no severe levels of discrimination based on female gender. However, unequal treatment is still measured in particular situations, for instance, when candidates apply for positions at a higher functional level in Belgium, when they apply at their fertile ages in France, and when they apply for male-dominated occupations in Austria. Studies have concluded that on average women earn lower wages than men worldwide. Some people argue that this results from widespread gender discrimination in

9860-427: The labor market. It also found that although almost all OECD countries, including the U.S., have established anti-discrimination laws, these laws are difficult to enforce. Women who enter predominantly male work groups can experience the negative consequences of tokenism : performance pressures, social isolation, and role encapsulation. Tokenism could be used to camouflage sexism, to preserve male workers' advantage in

9976-494: The limited resources. Legitimizing myths, such as discriminatory hiring practices or biased merit norms, work to maintain these prejudiced hierarchies. Prejudice can be a central contributing factor to depression. This can occur in someone who is a prejudice victim, being the target of someone else's prejudice, or when people have prejudice against themselves that causes their own depression. Paul Bloom argues that while prejudice can be irrational and have terrible consequences, it

10092-458: The majority; i.e., heterosexuals . The status of assimilating or conforming to heterosexual standards may be referred to as " heteronormativity ", or it may refer to ideology that the primary or only social norm is being heterosexual. In the US legal system , all groups are not always considered equal under the law . The gay or queer panic defense is a term for defenses or arguments used to defend

10208-571: The masculine form is the default. The word " mademoiselle ", meaning " miss ", was declared banished from French administrative forms in 2012 by Prime Minister François Fillon . Current pressure calls for the use of the masculine plural pronoun as the default in a mixed-sex group to change. As for Spanish, Mexico's Ministry of the Interior published a guide on how to reduce the use of sexist language. German speakers have also raised questions about how sexism intersects with grammar. The German language

10324-423: The mediational value of increased knowledge was less strong than anxiety reduction and empathy. In addition, some individuals confront discrimination when they see it happen, with research finding that individuals are more likely to confront when they perceive benefits to themselves, and are less likely to confront when concerned about others' reactions. One problem with the notion that prejudice evolved because of

10440-752: The mid-1980s, linguist Tove Skutnabb-Kangas captured this idea of discrimination based on language as the concept of linguicism. Kangas defined linguicism as the ideologies and structures used to "legitimate, effectuate, and reproduce unequal division of power and resources (both material and non-material) between groups which are defined on the basis of language". Broadly speaking, attribution of low social status to those who do not conform to neurotypical expectations of personality and behaviour. This can manifest through assumption of 'disability' status to those who are high functioning enough to exist outside of diagnostic criteria, yet do not desire to (or are unable to) conform their behaviour to conventional patterns. This

10556-465: The modern world, researchers in western, educated, industrialized, rich and democratic countries have done various studies exploring the relationship between religion and prejudice; thus far, they have received mixed results. A study done with US college students found that those who reported religion to be very influential in their lives seem to have a higher rate of prejudice than those who reported not being religious. Other studies found that religion has

10672-402: The nation based on differences like status and race exist. During times of conflict between one nation and another, nationalism is controversial since it may function as a buffer for criticism when it comes to the nation's own problems since it makes the nation's own hierarchies and internal conflicts appear to be natural. It may also serve a way of rallying the people of the nation in support of

10788-628: The other hand, women of the Anglo-Saxon era were commonly afforded equal status. Sexism may have been the impetus that fueled the witch trials between the 15th and 18th centuries. In early modern Europe , and in the European colonies in North America, claims were made that witches were a threat to Christendom . The misogyny of that period played a role in the persecution of these women. In Malleus Maleficarum by Heinrich Kramer ,

10904-408: The participants were asked to guess what percentage of the videotaped students' classmates would choose the same. Participants predicted a much greater similarity between out-group members (the rival school) than between members of their in-group. The justification-suppression model of prejudice was created by Christian Crandall and Amy Eshleman. This model explains that people face a conflict between

11020-399: The perspective of collective values than just as biased psychological mechanism and different conceptions of prejudice, including what lay people think constitutes prejudice. This is due to concerns that the way prejudice has been operationalised does not fit its psychological definition and that it is often used to indicate a belief is faulty or unjustified without actually proving this to be

11136-486: The realistic conflict theory and symbolic racism . It also uses the social identity theory perspective as the basis for its validity; that is, it assumes that individuals operate in a group-based context where group memberships form a part of individual identity. ITT posits that outgroup prejudice and discrimination is caused when individuals perceive an outgroup to be threatening in some way. ITT defines four threats: Realistic threats are tangible, such as competition for

11252-585: The resource is insignificant. In the Robber's Cave experiment, negative prejudice and hostility was created between two summer camps after sports competitions for small prizes. The hostility was lessened after the two competing camps were forced to cooperate on tasks to achieve a common goal. Another contemporary theory is the integrated threat theory (ITT), which was developed by Walter G Stephan. It draws from and builds upon several other psychological explanations of prejudice and ingroup/outgroup behaviour, such as

11368-533: The semantic rule in operation in language of the male-as-norm . This results in sexism as the male becomes the standard and those who are not male are relegated to the inferior. Sexism in language is considered a form of indirect sexism because it is not always overt. Examples include: Various 20th century feminist movements, from liberal feminism and radical feminism to standpoint feminism , postmodern feminism and queer theory , have considered language in their theorizing. Most of these theories have maintained

11484-405: The singular; one should rather speak of different prejudices as characteristic of different character types. Her theory defines prejudices as being social defences, distinguishing between an obsessional character structure, primarily linked with anti-semitism, hysterical characters, primarily associated with racism, and narcissistic characters, linked with sexism. The out-group homogeneity effect

11600-516: The sociocultural beliefs in the United States, Thoman and others concluded that individuals' academic outcomes can be affected by the gender-math stereotype component that is influenced by the sociocultural beliefs. Sexism in language exists when language devalues members of a certain gender. Sexist language, in many instances, promotes male superiority. Sexism in language affects consciousness, perceptions of reality, encoding and transmitting cultural meanings and socialization. Researchers have pointed to

11716-551: The term ambivalent sexism to describe how stereotypes about women can be both positive and negative, and that individuals compartmentalize the stereotypes they hold into hostile sexism or benevolent sexism. Feminist author bell hooks defines sexism as a system of oppression that results in disadvantages for women. Feminist philosopher Marilyn Frye defines sexism as an "attitudinal-conceptual-cognitive-orientational complex" of male supremacy , male chauvinism , and misogyny. Philosopher Kate Manne defines sexism as one branch of

11832-408: The term sexism , which was coined later. Sociologists who adopted the functionalist paradigm, e.g. Talcott Parsons , understood gender inequality as the natural outcome of a dimorphic model of gender. Psychologists Mary Crawford and Rhoda Unger define sexism as prejudice held by individuals that encompasses "negative attitudes and values about women as a group." Peter Glick and Susan Fiske coined

11948-544: The term "sexism" was most likely coined on November 18, 1965, by Pauline M. Leet during a "Student-Faculty Forum" at Franklin and Marshall College . Specifically, the word sexism appears in Leet's forum contribution "Women and the Undergraduate", and she defines it by comparing it to racism, stating in part, "When you argue ... that since fewer women write good poetry this justifies their total exclusion, you are taking

12064-538: The unequal treatment of equally productive individuals only because they belong to a specific group—is still a crucial factor inflating disparities in employment and the quality of job opportunities [...] Evidence presented in this edition of the Employment Outlook suggests that about 8   percent of the variation in gender employment gaps and 30 percent of the variation in gender wage gaps across OECD countries can be explained by discriminatory practices in

12180-497: The very definition of prejudice, as medical validation for such discrimination becomes redundant. Recent advancements in behavioural genetics and neuroscience have made this a very relevant issue of discussion, with existing frameworks requiring significant overhaul to accommodate the strength of findings over the last decade. Assumptions may be made about the intelligence or value of individuals who have or exhibit behaviors of mental disorders or conditions. Individuals who have

12296-427: The victims of the patriarchal hierarchies that exclude them. Berg also questioned Manne's "perception of continuity from mansplainer to murderer" and compared her pessimism and her injunction not to bother trying to convince those who are not already "of a similar mind" to the attitudes expressed on incel forums. Manne's 2024 book Unshrinking: How to Face Fatphobia is a history of the stigmatization of fat people in

12412-514: The wife by her husband and in giving him authority over her; for instance Article 13 of the Code of Personal Status (Tunisia) states that, "The husband shall not, in default of payment of the dower, force the woman to consummate the marriage", implying that, if the dower is paid, marital rape is permitted. In this regard, critics have questioned the alleged gains of women in Tunisia , and its image as

12528-528: The workplace. No link exists between the proportion of women working in an organization/company and the improvement of their working conditions. Ignoring sexist issues may exacerbate women's occupational problems. In the World Values Survey of 2005, responders were asked if they thought wage work should be restricted to men only. In Iceland, the percentage that agreed was 3.6%, whereas in Egypt it

12644-569: The workplace. Others argue that the wage gap results from different choices by men and women, such as women placing more value than men on having children, and men being more likely than women to choose careers in high paying fields such as business, engineering, and technology. Eurostat found a persistent, average gender pay gap of 27.5% in the 27 EU member states in 2008. Similarly, the OECD found that female full-time employees earned 27% less than their male counterparts in OECD countries in 2009. In

12760-528: The world as black and white , and enforced strict adherence to social rules and hierarchies". In 1954, Gordon Allport , in his classic work The Nature of Prejudice , linked prejudice to categorical thinking. Allport claimed that prejudice is a natural and normal process for humans. According to him, "The human mind must think with the aid of categories... Once formed, categories are the basis for normal prejudgment. We cannot possibly avoid this process. Orderly living depends upon it." In his book, he emphasizes

12876-478: The world, and to contribute to the mistreatment of women, in particular in areas related to sexual violence and to self-determination regarding sexuality , the violation of the latter now being acknowledged as a violation of women's rights . In 2012, Navi Pillay , then High Commissioner for Human Rights , stated that: Women are frequently treated as property, they are sold into marriage, into trafficking, into sexual slavery. Violence against women frequently takes

12992-537: The world; for example, in Tanzania , about 500 elderly women are murdered each year following such accusations. When women are targeted with accusations of witchcraft and subsequent violence, it is often the case that several forms of discrimination interact – for example, discrimination based on gender with discrimination based on caste , as is the case in India and Nepal, where such crimes are relatively common. Until

13108-410: Was 94.9%. Research has repeatedly shown that mothers in the United States are less likely to be hired than equally qualified fathers and if hired, receive a lower salary than male applicants with children. One study found that female applicants were favored; however, its results have been met with skepticism from other researchers, since it contradicts most other studies on the issue. Joan C. Williams,

13224-551: Was forced to do so by the Federal Supreme Court of Switzerland . French women were granted the right to vote in 1944. In Greece, women obtained the right to vote in 1952. In Liechtenstein , women obtained the right to vote in 1984, through the women's suffrage referendum of 1984 . While almost every woman today has the right to vote, there is still progress to be made for women in politics. Studies have shown that in several democracies including Australia, Canada, and

13340-733: Was in Caroline Bird ’s speech "On Being Born Female", which was delivered before the Episcopal Church Executive Council in Greenwich, Connecticut , and subsequently published on November 15, 1968, in Vital Speeches of the Day (p. 6). Sexism may be defined as an ideology based on the belief that one sex is superior to another. It is discrimination, prejudice, or stereotyping based on gender, and

13456-430: Was the first country to grant women the right to vote. Saudi Arabia is the most recent country, as of August 2015, to extend the right to vote to women in 2011. Some Western countries allowed women the right to vote only relatively recently. Swiss women gained the right to vote in federal elections in 1971, and Appenzell Innerrhoden became the last canton to grant women the right to vote on local issues in 1991, when it

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