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81-735: The Fox controlled the Fox River system. This river was vital for the fur trade between French Canada and the North American interior, because it allowed river travel from Green Bay in Lake Michigan to the Mississippi River . The French wanted the rights to use the river system to gain access to both the Mississippi and trade contacts with tribes to the west. The wars claimed thousands of lives and initiated

162-573: A National Estuarine Research Reserve . Among the wildlife in the Fox River Valley are birds such as mallard ducks and Canada geese , and fish such as walleye . Before the 1950s parts of the Fox River were used for recreational purposes. This only lasted for a short period of time as the water quality deteriorated, and the water was considered unhealthy. The Fox River region has been dominated by dairy farms that benefited from

243-617: A slave trade whereby Fox Indians were captured by native allies of New France and then sold as slaves to the French colonial population. Indeed, alliances between the French and other native groups (such as Ottawa , Miamis and Sioux ) as well as those between the Fox and other native groups (such as the Sauk , Mascoutens and Kickapoos ) were an important aspect of the Wars, influencing every stage of

324-723: A U.S. Superfund site, the Lower Fox River bottom has some sections contaminated with toxic chemicals. These contaminated sediments are the river's current environmental problem. One contaminant of special concern is a group of chemicals called Polychlorinated biphenyls or PCBs. The largest deposits of contaminated sediments are traceable to the local paper recycling mills. Beginning in the 1950s, many mills along to Fox River began producing and recycling carbonless copy paper . The Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources explains that carbonless copy paper caused PCB pollution in

405-696: A concrete and practical relationship with the French. As French colonizers sought to enlarge their influence in the West, they sought to ally themselves with the Indians as commercial and military partners. At the time, French imperial policy had already privileged certain aboriginal tribes, in particular the Ojibwa-Ottawa-Potawatimi confederacy and the Illini confederacy in the south, and the Sioux were

486-682: A member of the party of La Salle , it was also called the Kakaling River. Along the banks is a chain of cities and villages, including Oshkosh , Neenah , Menasha , Appleton , Little Chute , Kimberly , Combined Locks , and Kaukauna . Except for Oshkosh, located on the Upper Fox River near Lake Winnebago , these cities and villages identify as the Fox Cities . Farther north along the Lower Fox River, from its outlet from Lake Winnebago and before its mouth at Lake Michigan, are

567-653: A name that means "keepers of the fire" and refers to the council fire of three peoples. In the 19th century, some bands of Potawatomi were pushed to the west by European/American encroachment. In the 1830s the federal government removed most from their lands east of the Mississippi River to Indian Territory - first in Kansas, Nebraska, and last to Oklahoma. Some bands survived in the Great Lakes region and today are federally recognized as tribes, in addition to

648-578: A section of unpaved terrain that permits horseback riding. The Wiouwash State Trail runs concurrent with the Fox River from downtown Oshkosh to Lake Butte des Morts for about 4 miles (6 km). Fishing was a huge aspect of life on the water as many fisheries were set up along the river. This remained large for a short period of time but also was soon limited by water pollution and the depleted amount of fish. Restrictions were placed on how many and what kind of fish could be caught. The Fox River has produced multiple state records in fishing. Currently

729-457: A war chief, established villages in the area, including a fort with easy gunshot range of Portchartrain. The Fox outnumbered the French and Hurons. However, their luck changed with the arrival of 600 allied warrior under Ottawa war chief Saguima and Potawatomi chief Makisabé which reversed the fighting situation. Jacques-Charles Renaud Dubuisson , who wanted the Fox removed from their village, had ordered these reinforcements. For nineteen days,

810-486: A widespread effort to clean the Fox River. Dredging of the chemicals in the river began on April 28, 2009 and capping started soon after during the summer of 2009. The cleaning project concluded in 2020 and cost an estimated $ 1 billion. The Fox River will continue to be monitored by the Environmental Protection Agency and Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources for many years following

891-518: Is referred to as the Battle of Fort Dearborn . A Potawatomi chief named Mucktypoke ( Makdébki , Black Partridge), counseled his fellow warriors against the attack. Later he saved some of the civilian captives who were being ransomed by the Potawatomi. The French period of contact began with early explorers who reached the Potawatomi in western Michigan. They also found the tribe located along

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972-653: Is the translation of Rivière aux Renards (French for River of the Foxes ), given by explorers Louis Jolliet and Jacques Marquette because it went through the territory of the Meskwaki people, called Renards in French. In the Menominee language , the river is known as Meskwahkīw-Sīpiah , which means "Red Earth River". In the Ho-Chunk language (Winnebago, Hoocąk, Hocąk) , Fox River is known as Nionigera . According to

1053-525: The British . These ties continued to be significant as late as the War of 1812 , when many Sauk and Fox fought on the side of British North America . The financial situation of the colony before the first Fox War was a state of semi-bankruptcy. The War of Spanish Succession had taken a significant toll on the funds of France, and by extension, on the resources available to the colony of New France . Therefore,

1134-648: The Council of Three Fires . The word comes from "to tend the hearth-fire," which is bodewadm (without syncope: bodewadem ) in the Potawatomi language ; the Ojibwe and Ottawa forms are boodawaadam and boodwaadam , respectively. Alternatively, the Potawatomi call themselves Neshnabé (without syncope: Eneshenabé ; plural: Neshnabék ), a cognate of Ojibwe Anishinaabe (g) , meaning "original people." The Potawatomi teach their children about

1215-696: The Door Peninsula of Wisconsin. By the end of the French period, the Potawatomi had begun a move to the Detroit area, leaving the large communities in Wisconsin. The British period of contact began when France ceded its lands after its defeat by Britain in the French and Indian War (the North American front of the Seven Years' War ). Pontiac's Rebellion was an attempt by Native Americans to push

1296-649: The Neutral Confederacy , who were seeking expanded hunting grounds. It is estimated that the Potawatomi numbered around 3,000 in 1658,. As an important part of Tecumseh 's Confederacy, Potawatomi warriors took part in Tecumseh's War and the War of 1812 . Their alliances switched repeatedly between United Kingdom and the United States as power relations shifted between the nations, and they calculated effects on their trade and land interests. At

1377-588: The Potawatomi language , a member of the Algonquian family . The Potawatomi call themselves Neshnabé , a cognate of the word Anishinaabe . The Potawatomi are part of a long-term alliance, called the Council of Three Fires , with the Ojibwe and Odawa (Ottawa). In the Council of Three Fires, the Potawatomi are considered the "youngest brother". Their people are referred to in this context as Bodéwadmi ,

1458-633: The St. Joseph River , the Kankakee River , Tippecanoe and Wabash Rivers , the Illinois River and Lake Peoria, and the Des Plaines and Fox Rivers . The chiefs listed below are grouped by geographic area. The removal period of Potawatomi history began with the treaties of the late 1820s, when the United States created reservations. Billy Caldwell and Alexander Robinson negotiated for

1539-611: The Treaty of Paris , which ended the American Revolutionary War and established the United States' interest in the lower Great Lakes. It lasted until the treaties for Indian removal were signed. The US recognized the Potawatomi as a single tribe. They often had a few tribal leaders whom all villages accepted. The Potawatomi had a decentralized society, with several main divisions based on geographic locations: Milwaukee or Wisconsin area, Detroit or Huron River ,

1620-719: The " Trail of Death ". Potawatomi (also spelled Pottawatomie; in Potawatomi Bodéwadmimwen or Bodéwadmi Zheshmowen or Neshnabémwen ) is a Central Algonquian language and is spoken around the Great Lakes in Michigan and Wisconsin. It is also spoken by Potawatomi in Kansas , Oklahoma, and in southern Ontario . As of 2001, there were fewer than 1,300 people who speak Potawatomi as a first language, most of them elderly. The people are working to revitalize

1701-462: The "Seven Grandfather Teachings" of wisdom, respect, love, honesty, humility, bravery, and truth toward each other and all creation. Each principle teaches the equality and importance of their fellow tribesmen and respect for all of nature's creations. The story that underlies these teaches the importance of patience and listening. It follows the Water Spider's journey to retrieve fire so that

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1782-516: The Bay, the largest tributary of Lake Michigan . The city of Green Bay , one of the first European settlements in the interior of North America , is on the river at its mouth on lower Green Bay. Hydrographers divide the Fox into two distinct sections, the Upper Fox River, flowing from its headwaters in south-central Wisconsin northeasterly into Lake Winnebago , and the Lower Fox River, flowing from Lake Winnebago northeasterly to lower Green Bay. Together,

1863-703: The British and other European settlers out of their territory. The Potawatomi captured every British frontier garrison but the one at Detroit. The Potawatomi nation continued to grow and expanded westward from Detroit, most notably in the development of the St. Joseph villages adjacent to the Miami in southwestern Michigan. The Wisconsin communities continued and moved south along the Lake Michigan shoreline. The United States treaty period of Potawatomi history began with

1944-538: The City of Appleton and Neenah-Menasha Sewerage Commission. Several settlements ensured that the responsible parties paid for a large sum of the cleaning project costs and other restoration efforts. A settlement, reached in 2019, required that NCR Corporation, P.H. Glatfelter Company, and Georgia-Pacific Consumer Products LP cover the cost of all future cleaning efforts. Since the late 19th century, dredging of river bottom sediments has been done to allow large ships to enter

2025-635: The Fox River and Lake Michigan. The federal government banned PCBs in 1979 due to their environmental threat to humans and other wildlife. The U.S. government and State of Wisconsin filed suit on October 14, 2010, against nine paper companies and two municipalities for their failure to pay for PCB cleanup actions. The companies named in the suit were NCR Corporation , Appleton Papers, CBC Coating, Kimberly-Clark , Menasha Corporation, NewPage Corporation , Glatfelter , U.S. Paper Mills ( Sonoco ) and WTM (Wisconsin Tissue Mills). The local agencies sued were

2106-408: The Fox River area as early as 7000 BC. Prior to European settlement in the late 17th century, the shores of the Fox River and Green Bay were home to roughly half the estimated 25,000 Native Americans who lived in what is today Wisconsin. The first Europeans to reach the Fox were French , beginning with explorer Jean Nicolet in 1634. In 1673 explorers Jacques Marquette and Louis Joliet canoed up

2187-436: The Fox River flows roughly south to north and descends through a height equal to that of Niagara Falls . As such, the Fox River was an ideal location for constructing powerful sawmills that made the Fox River area famous for its paper industry. A negative side effect of this industrialization was the dumping of hazardous material byproducts of the paper mills. To repair the ecological damage from this toxic waste, there has been

2268-434: The Fox River. The contaminated sediment has been used since the 1960s to fill local wetlands, causing adverse effects on wildlife and plants. After 1978 it was used to develop an off-shore engineered holding area called Renard Isle , also known as Kidney Island. Renard Isle was capped in 2015 and its ownership was transferred to Brown County in 2017. There have been several proposed plans for the land, including turning it into

2349-530: The Fox against the French and their native allies centered on the return of Fox captives, the most significant issue perpetuating the Fox Wars into subsequent decades." Yet, long after the conflicts, Fox slaves worked in domestic service, unskilled labour and fieldwork, among other tasks throughout New France. Despite the abolishment of slavery in New France in accordance with the 1709 ordinance, Fox slavery

2430-505: The Fox and French actually achieve peace. In the past, there had been several attempts to find peace, however, each one failing and causing the Fox to return to war. As a result, during this period, enslaved Fox (men, women and children) entered Canada through raids and became a dominant source of enslaved labour in the Saint Lawrence Valley . Fox defeat For the Fox, the start and the potential end to their conflict lay in

2511-461: The Fox declared war on the French and all their Indian allies. For the next four years, the French invested a lot of money and, with their allies, descended on Fox villages with an extreme advantage. The French pursued destruction of the Fox to such an extent as to damage their relations with other tribes. The Sioux and the Iowa refused to grant the Fox sanctuary. By the summer of 1730, the Fox population

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2592-514: The Fox escaped their village and fled north. The French-allied Indians cornered them near the head of the Detroit River and inflicted four more days of fighting. By the end of the siege and pursuit, around 1,000 Fox and Mascouten men, women and children were killed (including many of the captives). The French lost 30 men, and their allies had 60 fatalities. It was not until 1726, with the arrival of Charles de Beauharnois de La Boische , that

2673-415: The Fox fought and kept their footing with the French. After several days, the Fox asked for a ceasefire and returned some hostages; however, no ceasefire was granted. Several days later, another parley occurred, as the Fox tried to seek protection for the women and children. Dubuisson chose to let his allies decide their course; they chose to grant no mercy. After nineteen days, during a nighttime thunderstorm,

2754-471: The Fox slaves in his possession. This agreement relied on certain conditions. The first request was that the Fox return their slaves to other Native groups. The second request was that new slaves be brought to the French in the following year. The French desire for slaves would lead the Fox into conducting more slave raids , and increasing tension between Native groups. The Illinois would persist during this period in denying their holding of any Fox slaves, but

2835-514: The Fox unsuccessful, but prior to 1701, many wars between aboriginal people, which also included the French, against the Iroquois were ravaging the aboriginal lands of the Pays d'en Haut . The Iroquoian wars brought fear and urgency for the French to attempt to save what was left of their trade alliances. Their alliances were in jeopardy, and also, in 1697 the western posts were closed as a result of

2916-498: The Fox-Wolf watershed drains an area of about 6,429 square miles (16,650 km ). The Fox had an average annual discharge of 5,200 ft /s (150 m /s) into Green Bay. The highest recorded flow on the Fox near its mouth was 33,800 ft /s (957 m /s) on June 3, 1990. Tributaries of the Fox River include East River, Fond du Lac River , Wolf River, White River, Mecan River, Grand River, and Montello River . The name

2997-453: The Fox. By accepting these slaves, French colonists had symbolically acknowledged their enmity against the Fox, implicitly committing military support to their allies in future disputes. Fox slavery in New France thus had a precarious symbolic power. On the one hand, the exchange of slaves signaled the possible end of conflict, while, on the other hand, it also served as a motive for inciting more conflict. In an early French manuscript describing

3078-578: The French were impotent to force the Illinois to return the slaves in their possession. This in turn caused tensions to boil over and spark the Second Fox War. By the end of the Second Fox War, France had lost a trading partner, and a certain amount of economic influence. Another aspect that was made apparent through these tensions was the lack of control over the trade that New France had found itself to be reliant on. This lack of control stemmed from

3159-533: The French were quick to establish a French protectorate in the Great Lakes region. Nevertheless, the question still remained as to how they would facilitate trade with their southern partners, when their main trading posts had been closed. From this point on, the Great Lakes region was going to be even more unstable. Fox defeat After the Peace Conference of 1701, Antoine de Lamothe Cadillac resolved

3240-705: The Indiana Potawatomi was documented by a Catholic priest, Benjamin Petit , who accompanied the Indians on the Potawatomi Trail of Death in 1838. Petit died while returning to Indiana in 1839. His diary was published in 1941, over 100 years after his death, by the Indiana Historical Society. Many Potawatomi found ways to remain, primarily those in Michigan. Others fled to their Odawa neighbors or to Canada to avoid removal to

3321-472: The Lower Fox River is much cleaner than it was before 1972. However, according to other measures of pollution (e.g., phosphorus , estrogenic compounds, discarded pharmaceuticals ), the river waters are slightly more contaminated than before 1972. As a result, debate over the river's contamination continues between environmentalists, the paper industry, Indian tribes, and elected officials at the federal, state, and local levels. While not officially designated as

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3402-404: The Lower Fox River that produce more than five million tons of paper per year and employ around 50,000 people. The principal cities located in this valley are Green Bay, Appleton, Neenah, Menasha, De Pere, and Kaukauna. Although Oshkosh is a major city in the chain, active production of paper products is no longer located there. In the section between Lake Winnebago and Green Bay at Lake Michigan,

3483-563: The Mississippi River. During the French colonization of the Americas , this route was used frequently by fur traders . French-Canadian men who established homes on the Fox River married First Nation women, producing mixed-race descendants who were generally raised within the matrilineal cultures of their mothers and identified with the tribes. In Canada, the Metis of the Red River of

3564-809: The North are classified as a distinct ethnicity because of their shared culture. The Fox-Wisconsin Waterway's importance continued into the 1850s, when the Fox and Wisconsin Improvement Company built locks and dams on the Fox and the Portage Canal to connect it to the Wisconsin River at Portage. The company was hoping to establish Green Bay as a port city to rival Chicago by making the Fox-Wisconsin Waterway into

3645-581: The Potawatomi in Oklahoma. The English "Potawatomi" is derived from the Ojibwe Boodewaadamii(g) ( syncoped in the Ottawa as Boodewaadmii(g) ). The Potawatomi name for themselves ( autonym ) is Bodéwadmi (without syncope: Bodéwademi ; plural: Bodéwadmik ), a cognate of the Ojibwe form. Their name means "those who tend the hearth-fire," which refers to the hearth of

3726-619: The United Nations of Chippewa, Ottawa and Potowatomi in the Second Treaty of Prairie du Chien (1829), by which they ceded most of their lands in Wisconsin and Michigan. Some Potawatomi became religious followers of the "Kickapoo Prophet", Kennekuk . Over the years, the US reduced the size of the reservations under pressure for land by incoming European Americans. The final step followed the Treaty of Chicago , negotiated in 1833 for

3807-464: The area. Ottawa and Huron peoples established villages in the area, soon joined by the Potawatomi , Miamis , and Ojibwa. The population may have reached 6,000 at times. This was positive for the French, but their presence and the presence of the Fox would aggravate things in the region. Indigenous groups that were enemies lived fairly far apart, but in Detroit, they lived side by side competing for

3888-525: The cities of De Pere and Green Bay (located at the lake), and the villages of Ashwaubenon and Allouez ; although they are in the Fox River Valley, this grouping of cities and villages does not refer to themselves as Fox Cities. Since the recession of the glaciers that once covered much of Wisconsin , the Fox River has supported several Native American cultures, and has been important for its fisheries, waterfowl, wild rice , forests, and water. Archaeologists have claimed that indigenous peoples lived in

3969-577: The cleaning project's completion. The high concentration of paper mills and other industry along the Lower Fox has historically been the source of much pollution of the river. Public debate about this contamination began as early as 1923, but little was done to improve the river until the federal Clean Water Act was passed in 1972. Much effort has since been put into cleaning the Fox, but problems still exist. According to some measures of pollution (e.g. dissolved oxygen , pollution-tolerant worm counts),

4050-456: The colony had to maximize its profits and try to minimize its spending. This posed a particular problem in respect to the long-standing tensions with the Fox natives and their long-standing enemies, the Cree and Assiniboines natives. The financial justification for wanting to prevent war was very simple for the French. Periods of war slowed down the production of fur by the natives and New France

4131-448: The conflicts, including the causes, the fighting and the conclusion. The First Fox War (1712–1716) began with inter-alliance violence and ended with the surrender of a large group of Fox and the subsequent peace deal. As was custom, peace offerings required the exchange of goods and of prisoners to account for those who died in the conflict, acknowledging the importance of this exchange for establishing peace. The Second Fox War (1728–1733)

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4212-541: The construction of European-style dams after 1850, the river had many sizable rapids. The Lower Fox ends after flowing through the city of Green Bay and into Lake Michigan through Green Bay . The Fox River complex is one of only a few north-flowing river systems in North America east of the Mississippi River; the only other one is the Genesee River of Upstate New York and Pennsylvania . Altogether,

4293-420: The early 19th century, major portions of Potawatomi lands were seized by the US government. Following the Treaty of Chicago in 1833, by which the tribe ceded its lands in Illinois, most of the Potawatomi people were removed to Indian Territory, west of the Mississippi River. Many perished en route to new lands in the west on their journey through Iowa , Kansas, and Indian Territory, following what became known as

4374-419: The entry of Fox slaves into colonial New France in two ways: as spoils of French military officers or through direct trading. Beginning with the 1716 treaty, slavery became an ongoing element of the Fox-French relationship. As historian Brett Rushforth explains, The French received scores of Fox slaves during the previous four years, placing themselves in a difficult diplomatic position between their allies and

4455-474: The history of Green Bay , it is suggested that to gain peace with the Fox, it is more beneficial for opposing groups to simply return Fox captives than to take up arms against the Fox. "If this amnesty for slaves is not reached, and if the Fox do not maintain their promises for peace and "take up the hatchet anew, it will be necessary to reduce them by armed forces of both colonies acting in concert." Slaves were so commonly held that "every recorded complaint made by

4536-416: The language , as evidenced by recent efforts such as the online Potawatomi language Dictionary created by the Citizen Potawatomi Nation or the various resources available through the Pokagon Band of Potawatomi Indians . The Potawatomi language is most similar to the Odawa language ; it also has borrowed a considerable amount of vocabulary from Sauk . Like the Odawa language, or the Ottawa dialect of

4617-576: The mid-19th century, when Wisconsin was a leading producer of wheat , several flour mills were built along the river to harness its abundant water power. During the 1860s, as Wisconsin's wheat production declined, these flour mills were replaced by a growing number of paper mills , which processed the great amount of timber being harvested from the forests. The Lower Fox proved an ideal location for paper production, owing to its proximity to lumbering areas that could supply wood pulp to make paper. Several well-known paper companies were founded in cities along

4698-418: The next profitable alliance. The Wisconsin tribes (Fox, Sauk, Mascouten, Kickapoo and Winnebago), with the intention of dominating the post, prevented the French from having direct trade access to the Sioux. Concurrently, they would disrupt the lives of the Ottawas and Miamis near Detroit, as well as the French settlement. In the spring of 1712, a large group of Fox under Lamyma , a peace chief, and Pemoussa ,

4779-424: The other animals can survive the cold. As the other animals step forth one after another to proclaim that they shall be the ones to retrieve the fire, the Water Spider sits and waits while listening to her fellows. As they finish and wrestle with their fears, she steps forward and announces that she will be the one to bring fire back. As they laugh and doubt her, she weaves a bowl out of her web, using it to sail across

4860-441: The political nature of the slave trade and the adeptness at which Illinois natives had used it to anger the Fox and lock the French into alliances. As a result, this was another event that led to the decline of the French power in Great Lakes Region. Fox River (Wisconsin) The Fox River is a river in eastern Wisconsin in the Great Lakes region of the United States . It is the principal tributary of Green Bay , and via

4941-401: The principal shipping route between Lake Michigan and the Mississippi River. This goal was never achieved, as the Upper Fox remained too shallow for significant shipping even after damming and dredging. In addition, the lakes that the narrow, winding stream flows through were frozen solid for five months every year. The Lower Fox was developed instead as a center of riverfront industry. During

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5022-419: The records for Striped bass , Shortnose gar and Northern hogsucker have all been caught in the river. Potawatomi The Potawatomi / p ɒ t ə ˈ w ɒ t ə m i / , also spelled Pottawatomi and Pottawatomie (among many variations ), are a Native American people of the Great Plains , upper Mississippi River , and western Great Lakes region . They traditionally speak

5103-405: The rich soil and plentiful water supply. The 25-mile (40 km) Fox River State Recreational Trail is part of the Brown County Park System. The trailhead is in the city of Green Bay where 7 miles (11 km) of paved trail follow the Fox River south through the city of De Pere . Biking, walking, jogging, and rollerblading are among the most popular activities on the trail. The trail also has

5184-418: The river as far as Portage. Here they made the short portage from the Fox to the Wisconsin River and then canoed on toward the Mississippi River . They established an important water route between the Great Lakes and the Mississippi River known as the Fox–Wisconsin Waterway . It was likely long used by Native Americans prior to European encounter, as they had extensive cross-country trading routes related to

5265-473: The river, including Kimberly-Clark , Northern Paper Mills (makers of Quilted Northern), and the Hoberg Paper Company (manufacturer of Charmin ). The Volcan Street Plant on the Fox river in Appleton was the first Edison hydroelectric station and one of the first in the world. It was put into service in 1882 within the building of the Appleton Paper and Pulp Company. The Lower Fox remains a major area for paper production . There are 24 paper and pulp mills along

5346-499: The root of Uvularia grandiflora with lard and use it as salve to massage sore muscles and tendons. They use Symphyotrichum novae-angliae as a fumigating reviver. Vaccinium myrtilloides is part of their traditional cuisine, and is eaten fresh, dried, and canned. They also use the root bark of the plant for an unspecified ailment. The Potawatomi first lived in Lower Michigan, then moved to northern Wisconsin and eventually settled into northern Indiana and central Illinois. In

5427-429: The slave trade. The Fox were still willing to return to the French alliance if they could secure the return of their captives. In fact, all they wanted was to be considered as allies and kin, not enemies. However, the French officials supported the Illinois, Ottawa, Ojibwa, and Huron, who were against the Fox. As a result, the peace treaty from 1726 was annulled in the summer of 1727. With this peace treaty being annulled,

5508-430: The tensions surrounding the Second Fox War. This demonstrated a distinct lack of control by the French over the trade that they depended upon in the early years of New France. After the First Fox War, there were tensions between the Fox and the French in Detroit, for holding slaves. Always wanting to secure French trade agreements, the Governor General of Canada , General Philippe de Rigaud de Vaudreuil , agreed to return

5589-461: The termination by Louis XIV of the fur trade west of Montreal . Historian Richard White illustrates central Wisconsin at the end of the seventeenth century as "a vast refugee center, its situation constantly changing, nations socializing, cooperating, feuding, fighting, constantly adjusting their strategies to shift in French trading policy, which was always the dominant reality." Thus, when the Peace Conference of 1701 finally took place in Montreal,

5670-484: The time of the War of 1812, a band of Potawatomi inhabited the area near Fort Dearborn , where Chicago developed. Led by the chiefs Blackbird and Nuscotomeg (Mad Sturgeon), a force of about 500 warriors attacked the United States evacuation column leaving Fort Dearborn. They killed most of the civilians and 54 of Captain Nathan Heald 's force, and wounded many others. George Ronan , the first graduate of West Point to be killed in combat, died in this ambush. The incident

5751-430: The trade issue by establishing a new fort, Fort Pontchartrain , at Detroit. This location was strategic, as it allowed access to the water trade routes, which were more accessible than Montreal, and the warpaths of the Great Lakes region. Despite enabling access to this region by establishing a fort, the French could not survive without the help of the aboriginal people. Governor Cadillac invited numerous tribes to settle in

5832-492: The tribes by Caldwell and Robinson. In return for land cessions, the US promised new lands, annuities and supplies to enable the peoples to develop new homes. The Illinois Potawatomi were removed to Nebraska and the Indiana Potawatomi to Kansas , both west of the Mississippi River. Often annuities and supplies were reduced, or late in arrival, and the Potawatomi suffered after their relocations. Those in Kansas were later removed to Indian Territory (now Oklahoma ). The removal of

5913-475: The two sections give the Fox River a length of 182 miles (293 km). Counting the distance through Lake Winnebago gives a total of 200 miles (322 km). The river's name is the English translation of the French name for the Meskwaki people in the 17th century. The river was part of the famous 1673–74 expedition of Jolliet and Marquette , in which they went on to become the first Europeans to traverse

5994-486: The upper Mississippi River . A particular set of cities on the lower Fox River identify themselves as the " Fox Cities ". The Upper Fox River begins as a small stream northeast of Pardeeville . It flows west by southwest towards Portage and comes within 2 miles (3 km) of the Wisconsin River before turning north. However, the Fox River and the Wisconsin River are connected via the Portage Canal , which

6075-514: The water to retrieve the fire. She brings back a hot coal out of which the animals make fire, and they celebrate her honor and bravery. The Potawatomi are first mentioned in French records, which suggest that in the early 17th century, they lived in what is now southwestern Michigan . During the Beaver Wars they fled to the area around Green Bay to escape attacks by both the Iroquois and

6156-518: The west. There are several active bands of Potawatomi. Federally recognized Potawatomi tribes in the United States: La Chauvignerie (1736) and Morgan (1877) mention among the Potawatomi doodems (clans) being: They regard Epigaea repens as their tribal flower and consider it to have come directly from their divinity. Allium tricoccum is consumed in traditional Potawatomi cuisine. They mix an infusion of

6237-543: Was far more destructive than the first, and ended with the near annihilation of the Fox population. The Fox Indians were living in eastern Wisconsin at the time of their first contacts with the French around 1670. The Fox unsuccessfully sought to establish themselves as middlemen between the French and the Sioux , one of their two traditional enemies, the other being the Ojibwas (Chippewas) in northern Wisconsin. Not only were

6318-567: Was in no position to lose any more money that had already been spent elsewhere. This lack of funds made the French dependent on their allies for furs. Large scale expeditions could not be carried out by French voyageurs , instead the voyageurs would travel into native hunting grounds to make their trades and maintain relationships. These relationships were vital to French economic success, but this also bound them to act as diplomatic partners, becoming embroiled in conflicts between Native groups as part of their trade agreements. The Fox Wars facilitated

6399-623: Was the first waterway between the Great Lakes and the Mississippi River . After flowing past Montello , the river goes northeast until reaching Lake Butte des Morts . Here it is joined by the tributary Wolf River before entering the west side of Lake Winnebago at Oshkosh . The Upper Fox flows for a total of 142 miles (229 km). The Lower Fox begins at the north end of Lake Winnebago, where it flows north past Neenah , Menasha , and Appleton as it begins its 40-mile (64 km) course northeast towards Lake Michigan. The river drops around 164 feet (50 m) over this short stretch. Prior to

6480-498: Was weakening and continued to be attacked until the Sauk finally granted them sanctuary. The Sauk and Fox fought off the French with the help of western Indians, who were aware of Beauharnois' plan for decimation. This final push would cause Beauharnois to grant a "General Pardon" in 1738 and for peace to be restored. Their historical feuds with New France encouraged many Sauk and Fox warriors to develop kinship ties with France's rivals,

6561-539: Was widespread. This pattern of slavery is evidence that intercultural experience in New France was sometimes vicious. After the First Fox War, roughly 1,000 Fox slaves were taken by the coalition of Native groups who were fighting the Fox (namely the Illinois ). In addition, some were taken and sold to the French in Detroit and in return, they received goods and credit. The impact of these slave holdings tied into

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