Emirate of Herat
175-628: Supported by: [REDACTED] British Empire 20,000 total troops The Second Herat War (late March 1856–26 October 1856) was the invasion of the surrounding realm of Herat and the successful siege of its citadel by the Qajar army led by Hesam o-Saltaneh, Morad Mirza . The 1856 siege was part of the concerted Qajar effort to compensate the recent territorial losses in the Russo-Persian Wars of 1804–1813 and 1826–1828 by reconquering western Afghanistan, which had historically been
350-648: A public levee in honor of the occasion, during which the court chronicler recited the official records of the conquest as ascribed to Hesam o-Saltaneh. The document lists the administrative decisions taken in the aftermath of Herat's capture. In a symbolic move, the Shah's name was mentioned in the Friday sermon and the Shia adhan became the call to prayer. Similarly, the mint struck coins in Naser al-din's name. A public holiday
525-703: A certain number of days. The Persians also had to deal with bands of Turkmen and Jamshidi tribesmen seizing supplies. In May 1856 the main supply of the Persian ammunition accidentally blew up, killing over 300 men. Between the start of the siege and the final breakthrough into the citadel of Herat, the Qajar administration in Tehran dispatched several divisions of reinforcements to join Hesam ol-Saltaneh's expeditionary force. Most of these reinforcements were composed of reformed Nezam Infantry regiments from Iran's north. Of note,
700-403: A close, Hesam o-Saltaneh dispatched infantry squads to climb above the city's towers and broadcast the message: “ nasr men Allah va fath qarib “(victory from God and the conquest is nigh). This news signaled the defeat to the remaining Afghan defenders across the city's districts, prompting their surrender. The Persian army finally conquered Herat on 11 Safar 1273 (11 October 1856). Barricaded in
875-471: A contest of ideologies between the two nations. It was not only Britain's position on the world stage that was at risk: Napoleon threatened to invade Britain itself, just as his armies had overrun many countries of continental Europe . The Napoleonic Wars were therefore ones in which Britain invested large amounts of capital and resources to win. French ports were blockaded by the Royal Navy , which won
1050-629: A decisive victory over a French Imperial Navy - Spanish Navy fleet at the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805. Overseas colonies were attacked and occupied, including those of the Netherlands, which was annexed by Napoleon in 1810. France was finally defeated by a coalition of European armies in 1815. Britain was again the beneficiary of peace treaties: France ceded the Ionian Islands , Malta (which it had occupied in 1798), Mauritius , St Lucia ,
1225-646: A declaration of war on Persia from Calcutta on 1 November 1856. The Persian army would continue to occupy Herat and would only leave in compliance with the Treaty of Paris that ended the Anglo-Persian War. However, the Persian government managed to install Sultan Ahmad Khan as the puppet ruler of Herat prior to the ratification of the peace treaty with Britain. In 1818, the Sadozai tribe ruled Herat semi-independently, while Kabul and Qandahar were ruled by
1400-719: A dependency of the New South Wales colony. From 16 June 1840 New South Wales laws applied in New Zealand. This transitional arrangement ended with the Charter for Erecting the Colony of New Zealand on 16 November 1840. The Charter stated that New Zealand would be established as a separate Crown colony on 3 May 1841 with Hobson as its governor. During the 19th century, Britain and the Russian Empire vied to fill
1575-623: A form that attempted to be more inclusive by showcasing the empire as a family of newly birthed nations with common roots. The last decades of the 19th century saw concerted political campaigns for Irish home rule . Ireland had been united with Britain into the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland with the Act of Union 1800 after the Irish Rebellion of 1798 , and had suffered a severe famine between 1845 and 1852. Home rule
1750-581: A four-pronged assault on Ghurian's fort to commence at dawn. The Persian army mobilized and commenced the siege, which proceeded quickly. Commander Majid Khan, the ruler of Ghurian, interceded on behalf of the Afghan defenders. Carrying a copy of the Quran , he surrendered at the Persian camp. The news of the capture of Ghurian had an impact on the already-fractured resolve of the administration in Herat. Ataullah Khan,
1925-456: A hostage, along with two of the city's cannons. In return, the ruler of Herat requested that the Persian army fall back sufficiently from the city's walls so that the prince could safely visit the Iranian general in person. Contingent on Mohammad Yusuf's timely abdication, Hesam o-Saltaneh agreed to these terms and withdrew his forces seven farsangs from Herat. However, the government of Herat
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#17327916312692100-612: A looming rebellion against British rule. Muhammad Najaf had predicted the Indian Mutiny , and while the Shah found his suggestion compelling, the British declaration of war constrained his capacity to test such a prospect. The arrival of the British declaration of war in Iran coincided with the second public levee held on 25 November 1856, in commemoration of Herat's capture. British Empire The British Empire comprised
2275-588: A minor settlement, and other treaty ports including Shanghai . During the late 18th and early 19th centuries, the British Crown began to assume an increasingly large role in the affairs of the company. A series of Acts of Parliament were passed, including the Regulating Act of 1773 , Pitt's India Act of 1784 and the Charter Act of 1813 which regulated the company's affairs and established
2450-606: A multi-pronged attack on the Afghan front, managing to break their lines. The Persian general then ordered his artillery to relocate on a hillside overlooking the field and fire on the Herati defenders. After an arduous hour, the Afghan infantry finally wavered, retreating back to Herat's citadel. Despite the Persian victory, the standard of the Regiment of Nishapur was lost to the Afghans, and the standard-bearer who had been injured in
2625-674: A part of Persia's domain. The conflict was also a part of the broader Great Game between the British Empire and the Russian Empire . The Persian expedition into Herat was contrary to an agreement with the United Kingdom signed by Naser al-Din Shah in January 1853. According to this agreement, the Persian Government would refrain from sending troops to or interfering in the internal affairs of Herat. The siege
2800-558: A perceived violation of the guaranteed Rights of Englishmen . The American Revolution began with a rejection of Parliamentary authority and moves towards self-government. In response, Britain sent troops to reimpose direct rule, leading to the outbreak of war in 1775. The following year, in 1776, the Second Continental Congress issued the Declaration of Independence proclaiming the colonies' sovereignty from
2975-478: A range of dangerous prospects that were previously unforeseen. Hesam o-Saltaneh's success rekindled the Shah's youthful ambitions of eastward expansion into India reminiscent of Nader Shah's campaigns. Muhammad Najaf Mirza, a claimed cousin of Bahadur Shah , provided further encouragement to the Shah as he had taken refuge in the Qajar court. He voiced the anti-British rhetoric in India to Naser al-Din and assured him of
3150-472: A rapid escalation in the number of slaves transported. British ships carried a third of all slaves shipped across the Atlantic—approximately 3.5 million Africans —until the abolition of the trade by Parliament in 1807 (see § Abolition of slavery ). To facilitate the shipment of slaves, forts were established on the coast of West Africa, such as James Island , Accra and Bunce Island . In
3325-426: A republican emirate around Khwaja Abdullah Misri. Despite the ongoing siege, Isa Khan managed to overcome the internal rivalries and consolidate his control within Herat's walls. A major problem faced by the Persian army was the lack of discipline and an illiteracy of military operations by the Qajar troops. Rampant corruption was infamous among the ranks of Persia's military at the time and despite countless reforms ,
3500-536: A security threat to Great Britain or mark the beginning of the break-up of the empire. A second Home Rule bill was defeated for similar reasons. A third bill was passed by Parliament in 1914, but not implemented because of the outbreak of the First World War leading to the 1916 Easter Rising . By the turn of the 20th century, fears had begun to grow in Britain that it would no longer be able to defend
3675-848: A series of Anglo-Mysore wars in Southern India with the Sultanate of Mysore under Hyder Ali and then Tipu Sultan . Defeats in the First Anglo-Mysore war and stalemate in the Second were followed by victories in the Third and the Fourth . Following Tipu Sultan's death in the fourth war in the Siege of Seringapatam (1799) , the kingdom became a protectorate of the company. The East India Company fought three Anglo-Maratha Wars with
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#17327916312693850-683: A suitable breach. Upon receiving the news, Hesam o-Saltaneh briefed Sam Khan Ilkhani and Hossein Khan Yuz-Bashi on his plans for an assault. The night of the coalition's information, Hossein Khan enforced the general's strict command that no regiment was to mobilize and that all soldiers should remain at their posts. Hossein Khan then visited the trenches of the Gerrus regiment managed by Hassan Ali Khan and Col. Mohammadreza Khan. Hossein Khan instructed those commanders to mobilize their troops at dawn with
4025-566: A total of 50 casualties in the assault. According to Champagne, the number was closer to 250. Mohammad Yusuf reports 74 Iranian troops, 120 Qizilbash/Shi'i, and 125 Afghans were killed. Nobody attempted to bury the Shi'i casualties for three days, and the Afghans began to pillage their homes. Aqa Sayyid Mohammad, a Shi'a chaplain , was cut to pieces and his body was thrown into a cast metal pot and eaten. Shi'is who had marriage relations with Sunnis were spared. The Afghan forces, believing they could route
4200-675: A way station for its ships travelling to and from its colonies in the East Indies . Britain formally acquired the colony, and its large Afrikaner (or Boer ) population in 1806, having occupied it in 1795 to prevent its falling into French hands during the Flanders Campaign . British immigration to the Cape Colony began to rise after 1820, and pushed thousands of Boers , resentful of British rule, northwards to found their own—mostly short-lived— independent republics , during
4375-561: Is seen by some historians as the event defining the transition between the first and second empires, in which Britain shifted its attention away from the Americas to Asia, the Pacific and later Africa. Adam Smith 's Wealth of Nations , published in 1776, had argued that colonies were redundant, and that free trade should replace the old mercantilist policies that had characterised the first period of colonial expansion, dating back to
4550-467: The 1837 campaign , the Persian army withdrew from Herat in January 1852. The subsequent Sheil-Nuri agreement of 1853 was aimed at curtailing Persia's influence over Herat. Following the agreement, Sayed Mohammad Khan tilted his foreign policy away from Tehran in favor of the British. But with the backing of Persia, Mohammad Yusuf Sadozai replaced and later executed Sayed Mohammad in September 1855. With
4725-673: The Acts of Union 1707 . The 18th century saw the newly united Great Britain rise to be the world's dominant colonial power, with France becoming its main rival on the imperial stage. Great Britain, Portugal, the Netherlands, and the Holy Roman Empire continued the War of the Spanish Succession, which lasted until 1714 and was concluded by the Treaty of Utrecht . Philip V of Spain renounced his and his descendants' claim to
4900-671: The American War of Independence towards the end of the 18th century, has been referred to by some historians as the "First British Empire". England's early efforts at colonisation in the Americas met with mixed success. An attempt to establish a colony in Guiana in 1604 lasted only two years and failed in its main objective to find gold deposits. Colonies on the Caribbean islands of St Lucia (1605) and Grenada (1609) rapidly folded. The first permanent English settlement in
5075-858: The Americas and Asia . A series of wars in the 17th and 18th centuries with the Netherlands and France left Britain the dominant colonial power in North America . Britain became a major power in the Indian subcontinent after the East India Company 's conquest of Mughal Bengal at the Battle of Plassey in 1757. The American War of Independence resulted in Britain losing some of its oldest and most populous colonies in North America by 1783. While retaining control of British North America (now Canada ) and territories in and near
5250-564: The Barakzais and Mohammadzais , respectively. Herat had effectively been Independent since 1801. Persia had made several previous attempts to reconquer Herat with limited success. In 1807, 1811, 1814, and 1817 various attempts were made to conquer Herat, as it supported a rebellion in Khorasan at the time. The British ministers in Tehran had been vocal against the persistent efforts to conquer Herat in 1833, 1837 , and 1852. Growing discontent
5425-629: The Battle of Vimy Ridge in a similar light. The important contribution of the Dominions to the war effort was recognised in 1917 by British prime minister David Lloyd George when he invited each of the Dominion prime ministers to join an Imperial War Cabinet to co-ordinate imperial policy. Mirza Malkam Khan Too Many Requests If you report this error to the Wikimedia System Administrators, please include
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5600-652: The British economy . Added to this was the cost of suppressing regular slave rebellions . With support from the British abolitionist movement, Parliament enacted the Slave Trade Act in 1807, which abolished the slave trade in the empire. In 1808, Sierra Leone Colony was designated an official British colony for freed slaves. Parliamentary reform in 1832 saw the influence of the West India Committee decline. The Slavery Abolition Act , passed
5775-860: The Caribbean in the British West Indies , British colonial expansion turned towards Asia, Africa , and the Pacific . After the defeat of France in the Napoleonic Wars (1803–1815), Britain emerged as the principal naval and imperial power of the 19th century and expanded its imperial holdings. It pursued trade concessions in China and Japan, and territory in Southeast Asia . The " Great Game " and " Scramble for Africa " also ensued. The period of relative peace (1815–1914) during which
5950-809: The First Anglo-Afghan War was a disaster for Britain. When Russia invaded the Ottoman Balkans in 1853, fears of Russian dominance in the Mediterranean and the Middle East led Britain and France to enter the war in support of the Ottoman Empire and invade the Crimean Peninsula to destroy Russian naval capabilities. The ensuing Crimean War (1854–1856), which involved new techniques of modern warfare ,
6125-529: The French envoy in Tehran. Soltan Morad Mirza was an ideal candidate to lead the Qajar army. One of Abbas Mirza's 26 sons, Morad Mirza was a notably proud Qajar Prince. Of note among his characteristics, Soltan Morad Mirza's anti-British sentiments supported his candidacy given Tehran's diplomatic fallout with London at the time. He was a seasoned commander in the aftermath of the Revolt of Hasan Khan Salar . Amid
6300-683: The Government of India Act 1858 , establishing the British Raj , where an appointed governor-general administered India and Queen Victoria was crowned the Empress of India . India became the empire's most valuable possession, "the Jewel in the Crown", and was the most important source of Britain's strength. A series of serious crop failures in the late 19th century led to widespread famines on
6475-458: The Great Trek of the late 1830s and early 1840s. In the process the Voortrekkers clashed repeatedly with the British, who had their own agenda with regard to colonial expansion in South Africa and to the various native African polities, including those of the Sotho people and the Zulu Kingdom . Eventually, the Boers established two republics that had a longer lifespan: the South African Republic or Transvaal Republic (1852–1877; 1881–1902) and
6650-422: The Khedivate of Egypt into the 20th century, it was officially a vassal state of the Ottoman Empire and not part of the British Empire. The French were still majority shareholders and attempted to weaken the British position, but a compromise was reached with the 1888 Convention of Constantinople , which made the Canal officially neutral territory. With competitive French, Belgian and Portuguese activity in
6825-414: The Mahdist Army in 1896 and rebuffed an attempted French invasion at Fashoda in 1898. Sudan was nominally made an Anglo-Egyptian condominium , but a British colony in reality. British gains in Southern and East Africa prompted Cecil Rhodes , pioneer of British expansion in Southern Africa , to urge a " Cape to Cairo " railway linking the strategically important Suez Canal to the mineral-rich south of
7000-447: The Maratha Confederacy . The First Anglo-Maratha War ended in 1782 with a restoration of the pre-war status quo . The Second and Third Anglo-Maratha wars resulted in British victories. After the surrender of Peshwa Bajirao II on 1818, the East India Company acquired control of a large majority of the Indian subcontinent. Britain was challenged again by France under Napoleon, in a struggle that, unlike previous wars, represented
7175-542: The Middle East . Increasing degrees of autonomy were granted to its white settler colonies , some of which were formally reclassified as Dominions by the 1920s. By the start of the 20th century, Germany and the United States had begun to challenge Britain's economic lead. Military, economic and colonial tensions between Britain and Germany were major causes of the First World War , during which Britain relied heavily on its empire. The conflict placed enormous strain on its military, financial, and manpower resources. Although
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7350-409: The Orange Free State (1854–1902). In 1902 Britain occupied both republics, concluding a treaty with the two Boer Republics following the Second Boer War (1899–1902). In 1869 the Suez Canal opened under Napoleon III , linking the Mediterranean Sea with the Indian Ocean . Initially the Canal was opposed by the British; but once opened, its strategic value was quickly recognised and became
7525-411: The Royal African Company was granted a monopoly on the supply of slaves to the British colonies in the Caribbean. The company would transport more slaves across the Atlantic than any other, and significantly grew England's share of the trade, from 33 per cent in 1673 to 74 per cent in 1683. The removal of this monopoly between 1688 and 1712 allowed independent British slave traders to thrive, leading to
7700-500: The Saint John and Saint Croix river valleys, then part of Nova Scotia , felt too far removed from the provincial government in Halifax , so London split off New Brunswick as a separate colony in 1784. The Constitutional Act of 1791 created the provinces of Upper Canada (mainly English speaking ) and Lower Canada (mainly French-speaking ) to defuse tensions between the French and British communities, and implemented governmental systems similar to those employed in Britain, with
7875-443: The Seychelles , and Tobago ; Spain ceded Trinidad ; the Netherlands ceded Guiana , Ceylon and the Cape Colony , while the Danish ceded Heligoland . Britain returned Guadeloupe , Martinique , French Guiana , and Réunion to France; Menorca to Spain; Danish West Indies to Denmark and Java and Suriname to the Netherlands. With the advent of the Industrial Revolution , goods produced by slavery became less important to
8050-441: The Treaty of Paris of 1763 had important consequences for the future of the British Empire. In North America, France's future as a colonial power effectively ended with the recognition of British claims to Rupert's Land, and the ceding of New France to Britain (leaving a sizeable French-speaking population under British control) and Louisiana to Spain. Spain ceded Florida to Britain. Along with its victory over France in India,
8225-417: The Victorian gold rush , making its capital Melbourne for a time the richest city in the world. The British also expanded their mercantile interests in the North Pacific. Spain and Britain had become rivals in the area, culminating in the Nootka Crisis in 1789. Both sides mobilised for war, but when France refused to support Spain it was forced to back down, leading to the Nootka Convention . The outcome
8400-454: The War of 1812 , and invaded Canadian territory. In response, Britain invaded the US, but the pre-war boundaries were reaffirmed by the 1814 Treaty of Ghent , ensuring Canada's future would be separate from that of the United States. Since 1718, transportation to the American colonies had been a penalty for various offences in Britain, with approximately one thousand convicts transported per year. Forced to find an alternative location after
8575-426: The Zaferanlu cavalry similarly charged the Afghan riders, while the Persian cannons fired to break the enemy's formation. Under artillery fire and pressure from the Persian cavalry, the remaining forces under Ahmad Khan eventually fled eastward. Simultaneously on the 20th of Rajab (27 March 1856), Hassan Ali Khan Garroosy led his veteran Regiment of Gerrus to the Persian camp. That same day, Hesam o-Saltaneh ordered
8750-399: The dominions , colonies , protectorates , mandates , and other territories ruled or administered by the United Kingdom and its predecessor states. It began with the overseas possessions and trading posts established by England in the late 16th and early 17th centuries. At its height in the 19th and early 20th centuries, it was the largest empire in history and, for a century, was
8925-545: The metropole and the entirety of the empire while at the same time maintaining the policy of "splendid isolation". Germany was rapidly rising as a military and industrial power and was now seen as the most likely opponent in any future war. Recognising that it was overstretched in the Pacific and threatened at home by the Imperial German Navy , Britain formed an alliance with Japan in 1902 and with its old enemies France and Russia in 1904 and 1907, respectively. Britain's fears of war with Germany were realised in 1914 with
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#17327916312699100-413: The privateers John Hawkins and Francis Drake to engage in slave-raiding attacks against Spanish and Portuguese ships off the coast of West Africa with the aim of establishing an Atlantic slave trade . This effort was rebuffed and later, as the Anglo-Spanish Wars intensified, Elizabeth I gave her blessing to further privateering raids against Spanish ports in the Americas and shipping that
9275-440: The protectionism of Spain and Portugal. The growth of trade between the newly independent United States and Britain after 1783 seemed to confirm Smith's view that political control was not necessary for economic success. The war to the south influenced British policy in Canada, where between 40,000 and 100,000 defeated Loyalists had migrated from the new United States following independence. The 14,000 Loyalists who went to
9450-399: The spice trade of the East Indies archipelago to the Netherlands and the textiles industry of India to England, but textiles soon overtook spices in terms of profitability. Peace between England and the Netherlands in 1688 meant the two countries entered the Nine Years' War as allies, but the conflict—waged in Europe and overseas between France, Spain and the Anglo-Dutch alliance—left
9625-475: The "Sugar Revolution" transformed the Caribbean economy in the mid-17th century. Large sugarcane plantations were first established in the 1640s on Barbados, with assistance from Dutch merchants and Sephardic Jews fleeing Portuguese Brazil . At first, sugar was grown primarily using white indentured labour , but rising costs soon led English traders to embrace the use of imported African slaves. The enormous wealth generated by slave-produced sugar made Barbados
9800-480: The "jugular vein of the Empire". In 1875, the Conservative government of Benjamin Disraeli bought the indebted Egyptian ruler Isma'il Pasha 's 44 per cent shareholding in the Suez Canal for £4 million (equivalent to £480 million in 2023). Although this did not grant outright control of the strategic waterway, it did give Britain leverage. Joint Anglo-French financial control over Egypt ended in outright British occupation in 1882. Although Britain controlled
9975-428: The 1730s. This trade, illegal since it was outlawed by China in 1729, helped reverse the trade imbalances resulting from the British imports of tea, which saw large outflows of silver from Britain to China. In 1839, the confiscation by the Chinese authorities at Canton of 20,000 chests of opium led Britain to attack China in the First Opium War , and resulted in the seizure by Britain of Hong Kong Island , at that time
10150-438: The 7th Savadkuh Regiment was dispatched to Herat under Brigadier General Ali Khan Savadkuhi . Abbas Ali Khan, Reza Shah 's father, had served as a Major and First Lieutenant of this regiment in the 1856 siege of Herat. Morad Ali Khan, Reza Shah 's grandfather had served and died as part of the same regiment in the failed siege of Herat in 1848 . Inside the city, Amir Abbas Herati, a prominent courtier whose loyalties lay with
10325-407: The Afghan messenger's hands and ears to be severed and sent back to Herat. The Persian army returned to its positions and revitalized the effort to breach Herat. Once preparations for a final breach of Herat ended, Hesam o-Saltaneh ordered a two-pronged assault. First, the Shaqaqi Informants and Torshiz regiments charged and captured the Abdullah Misri tower. Simultaneously, the general ordered
10500-409: The Afshar Regiment of Urmia, the New Regiment of Maragheh, the Regiment of Qazvin, and the Regiment of Khoy. At the parade's vanguard, 600 cavalry guards carried the standards of the regiments and battle flags into the city. Reza Qoli Khan Hedayat , the author of the Rozat ol-Safay-e Naseri , chronicled the parade. Hedayat highlights that Hesam o-Saltaneh entered the city through the Qanadahr gate. He
10675-531: The Americas the following year but did not return; it is unknown what happened to his ships. No further attempts to establish English colonies in the Americas were made until well into the reign of Queen Elizabeth I , during the last decades of the 16th century. In the meantime, Henry VIII 's 1533 Statute in Restraint of Appeals had declared "that this realm of England is an Empire". The Protestant Reformation turned England and Catholic Spain into implacable enemies. In 1562, Elizabeth I encouraged
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#173279163126910850-414: The Americas was founded in 1607 in Jamestown by Captain John Smith , and managed by the Virginia Company ; the Crown took direct control of the venture in 1624, thereby founding the Colony of Virginia . Bermuda was settled and claimed by England as a result of the 1609 shipwreck of the Virginia Company's flagship , while attempts to settle Newfoundland were largely unsuccessful. In 1620, Plymouth
11025-420: The Bozchalo Regiment to attack the Iraq gate and the Gray Tower. Najmi states that the Persian army also initiated a frontal assault on the Afghan positions outside the citadel. On the ninth day of the initiative, all remaining Afghan defenders manning the exterior defenses retreated into the fort. Amid the battle, waves of refugees deserted the city for the Persian camp. Once the battle within Herat's walls drew to
11200-479: The British Caribbean, the percentage of the population of African descent rose from 25 per cent in 1650 to around 80 per cent in 1780, and in the Thirteen Colonies from 10 per cent to 40 per cent over the same period (the majority in the southern colonies). The transatlantic slave trade played a pervasive role in British economic life, and became a major economic mainstay for western port cities. Ships registered in Bristol , Liverpool and London were responsible for
11375-443: The British Empire as the new United States of America . The entry of French and Spanish forces into the war tipped the military balance in the Americans' favour and after a decisive defeat at Yorktown in 1781, Britain began negotiating peace terms. American independence was acknowledged at the Peace of Paris in 1783. The loss of such a large portion of British America , at the time Britain's most populous overseas possession,
11550-416: The British Empire became the global hegemon was later described as Pax Britannica (Latin for "British Peace"). Alongside the formal control that Britain exerted over its colonies, its dominance of much of world trade, and of its oceans, meant that it effectively controlled the economies of, and readily enforced its interests in, many regions , such as Asia and Latin America . It also came to dominate
11725-425: The British defeated the Nawab of Bengal and his French allies, left the British East India Company in control of Bengal and as a major military and political power in India. France was left control of its enclaves but with military restrictions and an obligation to support British client states , ending French hopes of controlling India. In the following decades the British East India Company gradually increased
11900-409: The Chronicles of the Conquest ( Fathnameh ), false rumors of Hesam o-Saltaneh's death spread across Tehran from an uncertain source. The rumors were troublesome and created much confusion in the Iranian government concerning the situation in Herat. However, the rumors were soon put to rest and the general's letters confirmed that he had indeed survived the battle. Gholam Hossein Khan Yuz-Bashi Shahsavan,
12075-452: The English a stronger colonial power than the Dutch, who were forced to devote a larger proportion of their military budget to the costly land war in Europe. The death of Charles II of Spain in 1700 and his bequeathal of Spain and its colonial empire to Philip V of Spain , a grandson of the King of France , raised the prospect of the unification of France, Spain and their respective colonies, an unacceptable state of affairs for England and
12250-462: The French throne, and Spain lost its empire in Europe. The British Empire was territorially enlarged: from France, Britain gained Newfoundland and Acadia , and from Spain, Gibraltar and Menorca . Gibraltar became a critical naval base and allowed Britain to control the Atlantic entry and exit point to the Mediterranean . Spain ceded the rights to the lucrative asiento (permission to sell African slaves in Spanish America ) to Britain. With
12425-399: The Māori population. The UK government finally decided to act, dispatching Captain William Hobson with instructions to take formal possession after obtaining native consent. There was no central Māori authority able to represent all New Zealand so, on 6 February 1840, Hobson and many Māori chiefs signed the Treaty of Waitangi in the Bay of Islands; most other chiefs signing in stages over
12600-716: The Netherlands as a colonial power, in the short term the Netherlands' more advanced financial system and the three Anglo-Dutch Wars of the 17th century left it with a stronger position in Asia. Hostilities ceased after the Glorious Revolution of 1688 when the Dutch William of Orange ascended the English throne, bringing peace between the Dutch Republic and England. A deal between the two nations left
12775-468: The Pacific between 1769 and 1777, James Cook visited New Zealand . He was followed by an assortment of Europeans and Americans which including whalers, sealers, escaped convicts from New South Wales, missionaries and adventurers. Initially, contact with the indigenous Māori people was limited to the trading of goods, although interaction increased during the early decades of the 19th century with many trading and missionary stations being set up, especially in
12950-675: The Pacific for the extension of the North American fur trade . Alexander Mackenzie of the North West Company led the first, starting out in 1792, and a year later he became the first European to reach the Pacific overland north of the Rio Grande , reaching the ocean near present-day Bella Coola . This preceded the Lewis and Clark Expedition by twelve years. Shortly thereafter, Mackenzie's companion, John Finlay , founded
13125-641: The Persian army appear unwavering at Herat. In anticipation of Herat's fall, Chancellor Nuri delayed his response to the first warning until September. Clarendon issued a second warning to Iran on 10 October, two weeks before Herat's fall. This ultimatum reached Tehran by 19 November, bringing much anxiety to the Qajar court as it outlined that an expedition had been dispatched to the Persian Gulf to await orders for an invasion should Iran provoke further retaliation. The Persian victory at Herat went against all of Britain's regional plans, but it also set into motion
13300-430: The Persian army as 24,000 strong, with 14,000 infantry and the rest being matchlockmen and irregular cavalry. He also cites Morad Mirza's forces as being in possession of 26 cannons. Mohammad Yusuf cites the Persian army as 25,000 strong with 30 cannons. The Persian cannons had little effect on the siege however, since they got stuck in Herat's mud walls. Persian Army General Hesam o-Saltaneh, Soltan Morad Mirza Amid
13475-559: The Persian army with 2,000 Afghan cavalry. Hesam o-Saltaneh ordered Sam Khan Ilkhani to lead the Cavalry of Khorasan and Cavalry of Hazara Afghans and Sofrali Khan at the head of the Shahsavan Cavalry and Cavalry Regiment of Torshiz with two artillery pieces to form against the encroaching enemy. The next day, the Afghan riders under Ahmad Khan engaged Sam Khan Ilkhani's cavalry at Zendeh Jan . The Cavalry Regiment of Torshiz and
13650-450: The Persian cannons. Once the Persian detachments reached Sang-e Sefid, an Afghan infantry contingent sortied from Herat's keep. Armed with rifles and arquebuses , they fired on the Qajar troops from elevated ground. Once the Persian force was within range, the Afghan artillery bombarded their positions from Herat's towers. The Persian detachment responded with their own volleys and engaged the Afghan infantry in melee combat. The remainder of
13825-399: The Persian embassy should find a diplomatic solution and maintain friendship between Iran and Britain. Britain was overtly concerned with the Persian campaign against Herat. Lord Palmerston issued his first warning to the Shah on 24 May 1856. Naser al-din Shah did not interpret the message as London intended and was rather inclined that Britain would concede more favorable concessions should
14000-494: The Persian force had also reached the field and Hesam o-Saltaneh orchestrated the Persian regiments to advance on the left and right flanks. Once the scrimmage at the front line turned critical for the Qajar troops, Hesam o-Saltaneh ordered Hassan Ali Khan Garroosy to group with Abolfath Khan leading the Shaqaqi Regiment and Regiment of Nishapur. A veteran cavalry squadron followed this division. This detachment launched
14175-456: The Qajar government, made a covert visit to the Persian camp. Under the orders of Sartip Heidar Qoli Khan and Mirza Hossein, the Mostofi of Herat, Amir Abbas was to deliver news that a coalition of the city's Shia and Farsi-speaking population planned to realize the Qajar army's entry. At the opportune moment, the coalition's leadership would inform the Persian officers of the location for
14350-433: The Qajar infantry from looting, shouting " You sons of...soldiers! Why are you returning, and giving me a bad name? I have still summoned some other regiments from the camp to enter the city. Go back! Aid the people who aided you, lest the Afghans finish them [off] ." to no avail. It was impossible to tell the difference between the Shi'as and Sunnis, as their clothes were virtually identical. The breakdown in discipline allowed
14525-619: The Royal Navy during the Seven Years' War, and the two continued to co-operate in arenas outside India: the eviction of the French from Egypt (1799), the capture of Java from the Netherlands (1811), the acquisition of Penang Island (1786), Singapore (1819) and Malacca (1824), and the defeat of Burma (1826). From its base in India, the company had been engaged in an increasingly profitable opium export trade to Qing China since
14700-573: The Seven Years' War therefore left Britain as the world's most powerful maritime power . During the 1760s and early 1770s, relations between the Thirteen Colonies and Britain became increasingly strained, primarily because of resentment of the British Parliament's attempts to govern and tax American colonists without their consent. This was summarised at the time by the colonists' slogan " No taxation without representation ",
14875-539: The Shah's praises. A Persian force led by Sam Khan Ilkhani and Hossein Khan Yuz-Bashi controlled the crowds gathering around the citadel. As part of the ceremony, a well-spoken orator gave sermons in the name of the Sultan of Sultans , Naser al-din Shah. Finally, the nobles of Herat were granted gifts, and the Persians appeased the crowds with pastries and sharbat . When Herat fell on the 11th of Safar, prior to receiving
15050-762: The Spanish, and in 1666 succeeded in colonising the Bahamas . In 1670, Charles II incorporated by royal charter the Hudson's Bay Company (HBC), granting it a monopoly on the fur trade in the area known as Rupert's Land , which would later form a large proportion of the Dominion of Canada . Forts and trading posts established by the HBC were frequently the subject of attacks by the French, who had established their own fur trading colony in adjacent New France . Two years later,
15225-697: The annexation of the Dutch colony of New Netherland in 1664, following the capture of New Amsterdam , which was renamed New York . Although less financially successful than colonies in the Caribbean, these territories had large areas of good agricultural land and attracted far greater numbers of English emigrants, who preferred their temperate climates. The British West Indies initially provided England's most important and lucrative colonies. Settlements were successfully established in St. Kitts (1624), Barbados (1627) and Nevis (1628), but struggled until
15400-625: The apprenticeship system was abolished in 1838. The British government compensated slave-owners. Between 1815 and 1914, a period referred to as Britain's "imperial century" by some historians, around 10 million sq mi (26 million km ) of territory and roughly 400 million people were added to the British Empire. Victory over Napoleon left Britain without any serious international rival, other than Russia in Central Asia . Unchallenged at sea, Britain adopted
15575-592: The armies of the Dominions , as well as many thousands of volunteers from the Crown colonies. The contributions of Australian and New Zealand troops during the 1915 Gallipoli Campaign against the Ottoman Empire had a great impact on the national consciousness at home and marked a watershed in the transition of Australia and New Zealand from colonies to nations in their own right. The countries continue to commemorate this occasion on Anzac Day . Canadians viewed
15750-533: The broadcast of a secret catchphrase. In the early hours of 28 August, Sam Khan Ilkhani and Abbas Khan Heravi stationed their regiments in the Aliakbar Khan garden, awaiting a signal from inside the city. Heidar Qoli Khan and Mirza Hossein led pro-Persian coalition forces against the Abdullah Misri tower. The conspirators fired the seven cannon towards the Afghan defenders manning the defenses around
15925-589: The bulk of British slave trading. For the transported, harsh and unhygienic conditions on the slaving ships and poor diets meant that the average mortality rate during the Middle Passage was one in seven. At the end of the 16th century, England and the Dutch Empire began to challenge the Portuguese Empire 's monopoly of trade with Asia, forming private joint-stock companies to finance
16100-529: The business of establishing its own overseas colonies. The British Empire began to take shape during the early 17th century, with the English settlement of North America and the smaller islands of the Caribbean, and the establishment of joint-stock companies , most notably the East India Company , to administer colonies and overseas trade. This period, until the loss of the Thirteen Colonies after
16275-458: The camp on foot. After reaching Col. Abdol Ali Khan, commander of the artillery , Hossein returned to the tower with ammunition and a Toopchi squadron of five. As the assault progressed, Pasha Khan Mokri, who had been oblivious to the secretive assault, led the Regiment of Semnan and Regiment of Damghan into Herat through the Khoosh gate. The commander was under the impression that Herat was on
16450-410: The capture of Herat, Nuri's tone became even more confident. He instructed Farrokh Khan not to succumb to excessive British demands and assured him that the Qajar army can successively capture Qandahar , Kabul , and push into Punjab with “no grave hassle.” Despite the rambunctious reaction to Herat's conquest from the Persian court, Tehran's strategy remained the same as before. Nuri was adamant that
16625-480: The citadel if the Persian army would retreat to Ghurian for the Herati officials to safely attend a meeting with the Persian leadership. To avoid further bloodshed and raise the prospects of a peaceful occupation, Hesam o-Saltaneh agreed to the terms and prepared to withdraw his army back to Ghurian. Amid this decision, Persian troops intercepted a letter to Qandahar from Isa Khan in which he requested troops and supplies from Dost Mohammad Khan. Hesam o-Saltaneh ordered
16800-468: The citadel once again. The Persian army began developing earthworks around Herat's walls, entrenching their position and chipping its defenses. With the threat of Dost Mohammad Khan mobilizing against Herat earlier in the campaign, the Shah had reached out to Dost Mohammad with proposals of a coalition against the British government. The British consul in Tehran , Richard Stevens, deduced that this proposal
16975-403: The citadel, Isa Khan feared the prospect of Hesam o-Saltaneh having him executed. The ruler of Herat sent Haj Abolkheir, who was a revered Sayyed, to persuade the Persian general to pardon Isa Khan. Hesam o-Saltaneh assured Haj Abolkheir of Isa Khan's diplomatic immunity. Abdollah Khan Jamshidi Beyglarbeygi and Fathollah Khan Firouzkoohi escorted Isa Khan to Hesam o-Saltaneh's camp. Sam Khan Ilkhani
17150-430: The city's gates. The Gerrus regiment controlled the defensive towers. To ensure the city's safety and prevent looting, Hesam o-Saltaneh ordered all other Persian troops to remain in the camp. The army forbade soldiers from entering Herat without prior permission. The Persian general ordered Isa Khan back to the city to aid in the transfer of power under the supervision of Sam Khan Ilkhani. The Persian troops restored order in
17325-542: The city's prominent nobles honored Hesam o-Saltaneh. Mohammad Khan, Aman Niyaz Turkaman, and Khan Mohammad Khan were among the Afghan nobles that expressed their loyalty to the Qajar Shah. The Persian general dispatched Hasan Ali Khan Garroosy to lead his regiment in forming a defensive perimeter around the city. In the main square of the Bazaar , Hasan Ali Khan established a sheriff's office and dispatched guards to all of
17500-599: The coasts of Africa and Brazil to China , and France had begun to settle the Saint Lawrence River area, later to become New France . Although England tended to trail behind Portugal, Spain, and France in establishing overseas colonies, it carried out its first modern colonisation, referred to as the Munster Plantations , in 16th century Ireland by settling it with English and Welsh Protestant settlers. England had already colonised part of
17675-470: The colony was abandoned two years later. The Darien scheme was a financial disaster for Scotland: a quarter of Scottish capital was lost in the enterprise. The episode had major political consequences, helping to persuade the government of the Kingdom of Scotland of the merits of turning the personal union with England into a political and economic one under the Kingdom of Great Britain established by
17850-457: The continent. During the 1880s and 1890s, Rhodes, with his privately owned British South Africa Company , occupied and annexed territories named after him, Rhodesia . The path to independence for the white colonies of the British Empire began with the 1839 Durham Report , which proposed unification and self-government for Upper and Lower Canada, as a solution to political unrest which had erupted in armed rebellions in 1837. This began with
18025-401: The continued siege and resistance. A council of Herat's citizens dispatched Akhundzadeh Mohammad Aslam Khan to Hesam o-Saltaneh's camp. The envoy stated that he negotiated on Isa Khan's behalf and that he was willing to renegotiate the city's surrender. Hesam o-Saltaneh dispatched Hossein Khan Yuz-Bashi to Herat's citadel to hear Isa Khan's terms. Isa Khan exhibited his preparedness to surrender
18200-572: The country following the Norman invasion of Ireland in 1169. Several people who helped establish the Munster plantations later played a part in the early colonisation of North America, particularly a group known as the West Country Men . In 1578, Elizabeth I granted a patent to Humphrey Gilbert for discovery and overseas exploration. That year, Gilbert sailed for the Caribbean with
18375-624: The death of Kohandel Khan in the same year, his brother and Emir of Kabul, Dost Mohammad Khan mobilized to seize Qandahar, capturing the city on 14 November 1855. Dost Mohammad Khan had made Tehran increasingly nervous about his intentions. In a treaty with Dost Mohammad in March 1855, the East India Company had considered him as the Emir of all of Afghanistan. With British backing, Dost Mohammad now declared his intention to march on Herat with
18550-477: The decline of the empire. India , Britain's most valuable and populous possession, achieved independence in 1947 as part of a larger decolonisation movement, in which Britain granted independence to most territories of the empire. The Suez Crisis of 1956 confirmed Britain's decline as a global power, and the handover of Hong Kong to China on 1 July 1997 symbolised for many the end of the British Empire, though fourteen overseas territories that are remnants of
18725-530: The dynasty was not able to produce a dependable rank and file. Najmi states that during the campaign, various regiments would compete with one another, often disobeying commands for the glory of breaking through Herat's defenses. These inefficiencies slowed the siege's progress. Standish lists other factors that contributed to the stagnation, including an accidental explosion of the Qajar army's ammunition depots. Given these shortcomings, Hesam o-Saltaneh made little headway against Isa Khan in Herat. After several months,
18900-657: The empire achieved its largest territorial extent immediately after the First World War, Britain was no longer the world's preeminent industrial or military power. In the Second World War , Britain's colonies in East Asia and Southeast Asia were occupied by the Empire of Japan . Despite the final victory of Britain and its allies , the damage to British prestige and the British economy helped accelerate
19075-537: The empire remain under British sovereignty . After independence, many former British colonies, along with most of the dominions, joined the Commonwealth of Nations , a free association of independent states. Fifteen of these, including the United Kingdom, retain the same person as monarch , currently King Charles III . The foundations of the British Empire were laid when England and Scotland were separate kingdoms. In 1496, King Henry VII of England , following
19250-402: The entire Persian army, organized a formidable force and charged out towards the Persian camp. While panic swept through some in the Qajar rank and file, Col. Abdol Ali Khan ordered his artillery to fire close-range shots at the charging Afghan infantry. Causing many casualties, the Persian cannons stopped the Afghan charge and forced the remaining defenders to retreat towards the gate. Following
19425-576: The exception of international relations . Australia and New Zealand achieved similar levels of self-government after 1900, with the Australian colonies federating in 1901 . The term "dominion status" was officially introduced at the 1907 Imperial Conference . As the dominions gained greater autonomy, they would come to be recognized as distinct realms of the empire with unique customs and symbols of their own. Imperial identity, through imagery such as patriotic artworks and banners, began developing into
19600-417: The failed breach of Herat, the Persian general commissioned Alexandre Boehler to lead the army's engineers in digging a network of tunnels and fracturing the city's walls. Boehler ordered the creation of several explosive mortar shells, which the Persian artillery fired at strategic Afghan defensive positions. The bombardment had a severe impact on the morale of Herat's population, giving rise to protests against
19775-684: The first permanent European settlement in British Columbia , Fort St. John . The North West Company sought further exploration and backed expeditions by David Thompson , starting in 1797, and later by Simon Fraser . These pushed into the wilderness territories of the Rocky Mountains and Interior Plateau to the Strait of Georgia on the Pacific Coast, expanding British North America westward. The East India Company fought
19950-578: The following months. William Hobson declared British sovereignty over all New Zealand on 21 May 1840, over the North Island by cession and over the South Islnd by discovery (the island was sparsely populated and deemed terra nullius ). Hobson became Lieutenant-Governor, subject to Governor Sir George Gipps in Sydney, with British possession of New Zealand initially administered from Australia as
20125-516: The following year, abolished slavery in the British Empire on 1 August 1834, finally bringing the empire into line with the law in the UK (with the exception of the territories administered by the East India Company and Ceylon, where slavery was ended in 1844). Under the Act, slaves were granted full emancipation after a period of four to six years of "apprenticeship". Facing further opposition from abolitionists,
20300-465: The foremost global power. By 1913, the British Empire held sway over 412 million people, 23 percent of the world population at the time, and by 1920, it covered 35.5 million km (13.7 million sq mi), 24 per cent of the Earth's total land area. As a result, its constitutional , legal , linguistic , and cultural legacy is widespread. At the peak of its power, it
20475-679: The government on the suitability of Botany Bay for the establishment of a penal settlement , and in 1787 the first shipment of convicts set sail, arriving in 1788. Unusually, Australia was claimed through proclamation. Indigenous Australians were considered too uncivilised to require treaties, and colonisation brought disease and violence that together with the deliberate dispossession of land and culture were devastating to these peoples. Britain continued to transport convicts to New South Wales until 1840, to Tasmania until 1853 and to Western Australia until 1868. The Australian colonies became profitable exporters of wool and gold, mainly because of
20650-500: The increasingly healthy profits of colonial trade remained in English hands, Parliament decreed in 1651 that only English ships would be able to ply their trade in English colonies. This led to hostilities with the United Dutch Provinces —a series of Anglo-Dutch Wars —which would eventually strengthen England's position in the Americas at the expense of the Dutch. In 1655, England annexed the island of Jamaica from
20825-558: The intention of asserting imperial authority and not allowing the sort of popular control of government that was perceived to have led to the American Revolution. Tensions between Britain and the United States escalated again during the Napoleonic Wars , as Britain tried to cut off American trade with France and boarded American ships to impress men into the Royal Navy . The United States Congress declared war,
21000-482: The intention of engaging in piracy and establishing a colony in North America, but the expedition was aborted before it had crossed the Atlantic. In 1583, he embarked on a second attempt. On this occasion, he formally claimed the harbour of the island of Newfoundland, although no settlers were left behind. Gilbert did not survive the return journey to England and was succeeded by his half-brother, Walter Raleigh , who
21175-578: The larger trade, by 1720, in terms of sales, the British company had overtaken the Dutch. During the middle decades of the 18th century, there were several outbreaks of military conflict on the Indian subcontinent , as the English East India Company and its French counterpart , struggled alongside local rulers to fill the vacuum that had been left by the decline of the Mughal Empire . The Battle of Plassey in 1757, in which
21350-620: The leader of the Timuri sub-tribe, decided to abandon Herat with 4,000 tribesmen and 400 Timuri guards. The Afghan commander surrendered to Hesam o-Saltaneh who allowed them to settle at the Persian encampment. The Persian army mobilized a detachment of its most veteran regiments from Ghurian towards Herat. Khorasan's elite cavalry of 500 riders with two artillery pieces and another contingent of 1,200 riders and one gun from Arak marched eastward. Amir Hossein Khan, Sam Khan Ilkhani's brother, led these regiments to within one farsang of Mosalla, where
21525-510: The loss of the Thirteen Colonies in 1783, the British government looked for an alternative, eventually turning to Australia . On his first of three voyages commissioned by the government, James Cook reached New Zealand in October 1769. He was the first European to circumnavigate and map the country. From the late 18th century, the country was regularly visited by explorers and other sailors, missionaries , traders and adventurers but no attempt
21700-632: The lower Congo River region undermining orderly colonisation of tropical Africa, the Berlin Conference of 1884–85 was held to regulate the competition between the European powers in what was called the " Scramble for Africa " by defining "effective occupation" as the criterion for international recognition of territorial claims. The scramble continued into the 1890s, and caused Britain to reconsider its decision in 1885 to withdraw from Sudan . A joint force of British and Egyptian troops defeated
21875-400: The maintenance of its territorial integrity and that the army dispatched to Herat was to "rescue that Kingdom from the grasp of Dost Mohammad." In Fātiḥ-i Harāt: Sulṭān Murād Mīrzā Ḥusām al-Salṭanah , Najmi listed the regiments ( Persian : افواج ) raised in the initial deployment of the Persian expeditionary force to Herat, and those units mentioned in the siege of its citadel. Standish cites
22050-548: The most successful colony in the Americas, and one of the most densely populated places in the world. This boom led to the spread of sugar cultivation across the Caribbean, financed the development of non-plantation colonies in North America, and accelerated the growth of the Atlantic slave trade , particularly the triangular trade of slaves, sugar and provisions between Africa, the West Indies and Europe. To ensure that
22225-487: The north. The first of several Church of England missionaries arrived in 1814 and as well as their missionary role, they soon become the only form of European authority in a land that was not subject to British jurisdiction: the closest authority being the New South Wales governor in Sydney. The sale of weapons to Māori resulted from 1818 on in the intertribal warfare of the Musket Wars , with devastating consequences for
22400-820: The official news writer of the campaign was dispatched to deliver the news to Tehran. Najmi states that Hasan Beig, the official treasurer of the Persian army, was dispatched to deliver the Chronicles of the Conquest to the Qajar Court. On 2 November 1856, at four in the afternoon, the Shah was sitting in the Mirror Hall of the outer court of the Golestan Palace , next to the Crystal Fountain. His servant in waiting, Yadullah Khan, brought news of
22575-451: The onslaught was expelled from the army. With the successful diversion of the Afghan assault, the Persian army closed in and surrounded Herat's walls. In a letter to Hesam o-Saltaneh, Mohammad Yusuf Khan petitioned that he had been a long-time servant under the Qajar government and that his hesitation at welcoming the Persian army was due to the opposition of Herat's elders and clergy. Mohammad Yusuf offered his younger brother, Mohammadreza as
22750-434: The organization of the Persian expeditionary force, Hesam o-Saltaneh dispatched Col. Allahverdi Khan to lead an artillery detachment with 70 rounds of ordnance towards Ghurian to commence the bombardment of its fort. Mohammad Yusuf ordered the commander of the fort at Ghurian, Ahmad Khan Qale-Kahi to avoid the bombardment and sortie to meet Hesam o-Saltaneh's incoming army at its encampment. Commander Ahmad Khan marched towards
22925-735: The other powers of Europe. In 1701, England, Portugal and the Netherlands sided with the Holy Roman Empire against Spain and France in the War of the Spanish Succession , which lasted for thirteen years. In 1695, the Parliament of Scotland granted a charter to the Company of Scotland , which established a settlement in 1698 on the Isthmus of Panama . Besieged by neighbouring Spanish colonists of New Granada , and affected by malaria ,
23100-799: The outbreak of the Anglo-Spanish War of Jenkins' Ear in 1739, Spanish privateers attacked British merchant shipping along the Triangle Trade routes. In 1746, the Spanish and British began peace talks, with the King of Spain agreeing to stop all attacks on British shipping; however, in the 1750 Treaty of Madrid Britain lost its slave-trading rights in Latin America . In the East Indies, British and Dutch merchants continued to compete in spices and textiles. With textiles becoming
23275-474: The outbreak of the First World War. Britain quickly invaded and occupied most of Germany's overseas colonies in Africa. In the Pacific, Australia and New Zealand occupied German New Guinea and German Samoa respectively. Plans for a post-war division of the Ottoman Empire, which had joined the war on Germany's side, were secretly drawn up by Britain and France under the 1916 Sykes–Picot Agreement . This agreement
23450-691: The passing of the Act of Union in 1840, which created the Province of Canada . Responsible government was first granted to Nova Scotia in 1848, and was soon extended to the other British North American colonies. With the passage of the British North America Act, 1867 by the British Parliament , the Province of Canada, New Brunswick and Nova Scotia were formed into Canada, a confederation enjoying full self-government with
23625-489: The political situation in Herat deteriorating, Isa Khan Bardurrani, the vizier of Herat arrested Mohammad Yusuf in a swift coup. Isa Khan promptly handed the Herati prince to the Persian camp on 28 April 1856. Noelle-Karimi seemingly hints that Mohammad Yusuf was promptly executed by the Persian army. However, Najmi's account states that the ruler of Herat was imprisoned by Hesam o-Saltaneh, who transferred Mohammad Yusuf to Tehran for sentencing. Under this narrative, Mohammad Yusuf
23800-448: The power vacuums that had been left by the declining Ottoman Empire , Qajar dynasty and Qing dynasty . This rivalry in Central Asia came to be known as the "Great Game". As far as Britain was concerned, defeats inflicted by Russia on Persia and Turkey demonstrated its imperial ambitions and capabilities and stoked fears in Britain of an overland invasion of India. In 1839, Britain moved to pre-empt this by invading Afghanistan , but
23975-473: The pretext of avenging the murder of his son-in-law, Sayed Mohammad. Given the political dynamic in Afghanistan, Naser al-Din Shah issued a royal order to begin troop mobilization across five provinces in December 1855. Mirza Malkam Khan's unequivocal call for the conquest of Herat was central to reaffirming the Shah's ambitions. Iran's strategic approach for Herat was also shaped by foreign minister Mirza Sai'd Khan , Farrokh Khan Ghaffari , and Nicolas Bourre,
24150-405: The region in 1878 and on all outstanding matters in 1907 with the signing of the Anglo-Russian Entente . The destruction of the Imperial Russian Navy by the Imperial Japanese Navy at the Battle of Tsushima during the Russo-Japanese War of 1904–1905 limited its threat to the British. The Dutch East India Company had founded the Dutch Cape Colony on the southern tip of Africa in 1652 as
24325-450: The role of global policeman, a state of affairs later known as the Pax Britannica , and a foreign policy of " splendid isolation ". Alongside the formal control it exerted over its own colonies, Britain's dominant position in world trade meant that it effectively controlled the economies of many countries, such as China, Argentina and Siam , which has been described by some historians as an " Informal Empire ". British imperial strength
24500-418: The scramble to retake Mashhad , Soltan Morad Mirza was declared the new Governor-General of Khorasan . He was dispatched at the head of one of two armies with a force of 7,000 and four artillery pieces. The war with Salar, who was Morad Mirza's cousin, would soon turn into one of attrition and the commander would remain behind Mashhad's walls until March 1850. Following the revolt, Naser al-Din Shah bestowed
24675-404: The siege on Herat remained stagnant. The Shah was growing increasingly restless, but Chancellor Nuri convinced his highness of the arduous conditions Hesam o-Saltaneh dealt with on the front lines. Herat was famed for its resistance to Persian rule and capturing the city was considered a significant feat. The Chancellor agreed to dispatch Monsieur Boehler, with a contingent of reinforcements, to lead
24850-423: The size of the territories under its control, either ruling directly or via local rulers under the threat of force from the Presidency Armies , the vast majority of which was composed of Indian sepoys , led by British officers. The British and French struggles in India became but one theatre of the global Seven Years' War (1756–1763) involving France, Britain, and the other major European powers. The signing of
25025-450: The sovereignty of the Crown over the territories that it had acquired. The company's eventual end was precipitated by the Indian Rebellion in 1857, a conflict that had begun with the mutiny of sepoys, Indian troops under British officers and discipline. The rebellion took six months to suppress, with heavy loss of life on both sides. The following year the British government dissolved the company and assumed direct control over India through
25200-443: The squadron of army engineers in the siege. Alexandre Boehler was a French army engineer hired as a mathematics instructor at the Dar ul-Funun Polytechnic. Najmi states that the contingent of reinforcements reached the Prince's camp outside of Herat in six days. To motivate a breakthrough, the Shah threatened Hesam o-Saltaneh with a criminal charge and the personal reimbursement of the expeditionary budget if Herat did not fall within
25375-422: The streets of Herat in anticipation of the victory parade. With the old government removed, the Iranian diaspora of Herat and the Shia Hazara population regathered in the city. On Friday, on 1 Rabi al-Awwal , 1273 (30 October 1856), Hesam o-Saltaneh entered the city just before sunset, along with the commanding officers of the Persian regiments. The commanders were escorted on either side by four regiments, including
25550-419: The subcontinent in which it is estimated that over 15 million people died. The East India Company had failed to implement any coordinated policy to deal with the famines during its period of rule. Later, under direct British rule, commissions were set up after each famine to investigate the causes and implement new policies, which took until the early 1900s to have an effect. On each of his three voyages to
25725-418: The successes of Spain and Portugal in overseas exploration, commissioned John Cabot to lead an expedition to discover a northwest passage to Asia via the North Atlantic. Cabot sailed in 1497, five years after the first voyage of Christopher Columbus , and made landfall on the coast of Newfoundland . He believed he had reached Asia, and there was no attempt to found a colony. Cabot led another voyage to
25900-470: The successful conquest in Herat, for which he was gifted with a thousand tomans . In the margin of a Persian translation of Louis de Bourrienne's Memoirs of Napoleon Bonaparte, the Shah wrote: “Thanks to Murtaza 'Ali's blessings, peace be upon him, this was a praiseworthy victory and the eyes of the enemy, particularly the British, turned blind [with jealousy]. Hundred and ten gun salutes were fired in honor of his holiness 'Ali.” The Qajar court announced
26075-577: The title of Hesam o-Saltaneh (Sword of the Kingdom) upon his uncle. Thus, the Qajar Imperial Court decided that an army under Hesam o-Saltaneh Soltan Morad Mirza was to push forward with all speed to secure Herat and avoid its potential capture by Dost Mohammad Khan. The Persian government tried to justify this action with a manifesto published through the Tehran Gazette. The manifesto proclaimed that Dost Mohammad would march on Herat and later invade Khorasan . With this narrative, Tehran claimed that its actions were only in defense of its own institutions and
26250-487: The total size of the Persian army at 20,000 strong during the siege. Amanat references an irate letter from Chancellor ( Sadr-e A'zam) Mirza Aqa Khan Nuri to Hesam o-Saltaneh , in which he berates the siege's slow progress despite an army of 15,000 at the general's disposal. According to this letter, the Persian army set out with 10,000 troops and 10,000 tomans , to which Nuri sent an additional 80,000 tomans and dispatched 5,000 reinforcements. David Charles Champagne cites
26425-451: The tower and advance to surrounding keeps. The Persian troops first occupied the seven towers facing Qandahar's direction before capturing seven other towers near the Khoosh gate. The Persian infantry seized an 18-pounder gun atop Abdullah Misri tower, turning it on the city. When the cannon ran out of ammunition, Hossein Khan Yuz-Bashi was dispatched to fetch ordnance. Despite having his mount shot from under him, Hossein Khan headed back to
26600-475: The tower and signaled the Persian troops. Sam Khan Ilkhani and Abbas Khan initiated the assault from the exterior. 6,000 Afghan troops and 3,00 Herati citizens prepared to defend the city. Hassan Ali Khan Garroosy advanced with his regiment towards the Abdullah Misri tower. However, Mohammadreza Khan and Qasem Khan disregarded their orders to wait and mobilized the dismounted Cavalry Regiment of Torshiz and Qara'i soldiers. The Shia inhabitants of Herat, surrounding
26775-405: The tower from the inside, lowered ropes for the Persian troops. Mirza Najaf Khan and Amir Abbas Khan first climbed the tower with 200 soldiers. Sam Khan, Hassan Ali Khan, Mohammadreza Khan, and Qasem Khan could lead another contingent of 200 to the top of the tower. In total, 740 Iranian troops were brought up towards the towers. This detachment managed to push back the remaining Afghan defenders from
26950-404: The troops were to await orders for an assault. Sam Khan was ordered to lead 500 Khorasani and Kurdish carabiniers. Pasha Khan Mokri commanded the Regiment of Semnan, Regiment of Damghan, a veteran Turco-Kurdish cavalry unit, and four pieces of siege artillery. These detachments were instructed to create a perimeter around the field of Sang-e Sefid, which left Herat's citadel within firing distance of
27125-399: The verge of collapse and was eager to earn his regiments’ share of the glory. Simultaneously, a group of servicemen made their way into Herat from the Persian camp to pillage the city. The sight of looting hindered the progress of the assault as the Persian troops soon joined the raiders, leaving their posts atop the towers. Hesam o-Saltaneh was compelled to make a personal appearance to deter
27300-440: The voyages—the English, later British, East India Company and the Dutch East India Company , chartered in 1600 and 1602 respectively. The primary aim of these companies was to tap into the lucrative spice trade , an effort focused mainly on two regions: the East Indies archipelago , and an important hub in the trade network, India. There, they competed for trade supremacy with Portugal and with each other. Although England eclipsed
27475-421: The wavering Afghan defenders to retake their defensive positions with relative ease. Hesam o-Saltaneh narrowly escaped death when his horse was shot under him, resuming his command with another mount. The Persian forces were soon forced to retreat outside of Herat's walls. During the turmoil, Mirza Najaf Khan and Mirza Razi Khan were shot and decapitated at the hands of the Afghan defenders. The Persian army recorded
27650-405: Was a humiliation for Spain, which practically renounced all sovereignty on the North Pacific coast. This opened the way to British expansion in the area, and a number of expeditions took place; firstly a naval expedition led by George Vancouver which explored the inlets around the Pacific North West, particularly around Vancouver Island . On land, expeditions sought to discover a river route to
27825-409: Was a little more than an attempt to delay the Afghan Emir from marching on Herat himself. In a desperate attempt to alleviate mounting pressures from both east and west, Mohammad Yusuf Khan declared Herat a vassal of the United Kingdom and hoisted the British flag. Charles Canning , the new Governor-General of British India promptly clarified that Mohammad Yusuf's actions were without authority. With
28000-447: Was a major point of contention in the breakdown of Anglo-Persian relations and eventually became the catalyst for the Anglo-Persian War . After successfully capturing Herat, British agents were either expelled from Persia or left on their own accord. Despite dispatching Farrokh Khan Ghaffari to negotiate a diplomatic solution, the British were already preparing military action against Persia by July 1856. The British would inevitably issue
28175-429: Was accompanied by Sam Khan Ilkhani, Agha Khan Mirpanj, Isa Khan, Abdollah Jamshidi, Majid Khan (Isa Khan's son-in-law), Janu Khan, and other Persian commanders and Herati nobles. The parade then made its way to the citadel, and Hesam o-Saltaneh's entourage entered the gathering hall. A ceremonial procession was held there, and the Herati nobles loyal to the Qajar dynasty paid respects to Hesam o-Saltaneh, who assured them of
28350-525: Was coerced into confession before the Shah, who promptly ordered his beheading, but Nuri interceded and managed to reduce the sentence to imprisonment. Amanat corroborates Najmi's narrative by stating that Mohammad Yusuf would be executed one day before the ratification of the Treaty of Paris on 3 March 1857. The coup in Herat created a power vacuum with Gholam Khan Qufazai revolting in the grey tower region of Herat, while one of Sayed Mohammad Khan's sons bid control over Qutub-e Chaq. Abbas Khan Rayhan established
28525-472: Was described as " the empire on which the sun never sets ", as the sun was always shining on at least one of its territories. During the Age of Discovery in the 15th and 16th centuries, Portugal and Spain pioneered European exploration of the globe, and in the process established large overseas empires. Envious of the great wealth these empires generated, England, France , and the Netherlands began to establish colonies and trade networks of their own in
28700-481: Was founded as a haven by Puritan religious separatists, later known as the Pilgrims . Fleeing from religious persecution would become the motive for many English would-be colonists to risk the arduous trans-Atlantic voyage : Maryland was established by English Roman Catholics (1634), Rhode Island (1636) as a colony tolerant of all religions and Connecticut (1639) for Congregationalists . England's North American holdings were further expanded by
28875-472: Was granted his own patent by Elizabeth in 1584. Later that year, Raleigh founded the Roanoke Colony on the coast of present-day North Carolina , but lack of supplies caused the colony to fail. In 1603, James VI of Scotland ascended (as James I) to the English throne and in 1604 negotiated the Treaty of London , ending hostilities with Spain. Now at peace with its main rival, English attention shifted from preying on other nations' colonial infrastructures to
29050-404: Was made to settle the country or establish possession. The coast of Australia had been discovered for Europeans by the Dutch in 1606 , but there was no attempt to colonise it. In 1770, after leaving New Zealand, James Cook charted the eastern coast, claimed the continent for Britain, and named it New South Wales . In 1778, Joseph Banks , Cook's botanist on the voyage, presented evidence to
29225-429: Was not divulged to the Sharif of Mecca , who the British had been encouraging to launch an Arab revolt against their Ottoman rulers, giving the impression that Britain was supporting the creation of an independent Arab state. The British declaration of war on Germany and its allies committed the colonies and Dominions, which provided invaluable military, financial and material support. Over 2.5 million men served in
29400-423: Was responsible for occupying Herat's interior with the Zaferanlu Regiment. The Persian commander granted passage to Isa Khan upon his exit from Herat. Hesam o-Saltaneh held an audience at the Persian camp with Isa Khan, who surrendered to the general and expressed his loyalty by providing him with archived letters that Dost Mohammad Khan had sent him during the siege. Following Herat's conquest (12 October 1856),
29575-440: Was returning across the Atlantic, laden with treasure from the New World . At the same time, influential writers such as Richard Hakluyt and John Dee (who was the first to use the term "British Empire") were beginning to press for the establishment of England's own empire. By this time, Spain had become the dominant power in the Americas and was exploring the Pacific Ocean, Portugal had established trading posts and forts from
29750-441: Was soon declared and a national booklet outlining the conquest was disseminated. In the leadup to the conquest of Herat, the Persian government had become more resolute in its position against Britain . The Chancellor, carried away by the prospect of victory, instructed Farrokh Khan that “the affair should not precipitate a war with Britain. If however, the British are dragging their feet, trust in God, we too are ready.” Following
29925-427: Was supported by the British prime minister , William Gladstone , who hoped that Ireland might follow in Canada's footsteps as a Dominion within the empire, but his 1886 Home Rule bill was defeated in Parliament. Although the bill, if passed, would have granted Ireland less autonomy within the UK than the Canadian provinces had within their own federation, many MPs feared that a partially independent Ireland might pose
30100-481: Was the only global war fought between Britain and another imperial power during the Pax Britannica and was a resounding defeat for Russia. The situation remained unresolved in Central Asia for two more decades, with Britain annexing Baluchistan in 1876 and Russia annexing Kirghizia , Kazakhstan , and Turkmenistan . For a while, it appeared that another war would be inevitable, but the two countries reached an agreement on their respective spheres of influence in
30275-401: Was underpinned by the steamship and the telegraph , new technologies invented in the second half of the 19th century, allowing it to control and defend the empire. By 1902, the British Empire was linked together by a network of telegraph cables, called the All Red Line . The East India Company drove the expansion of the British Empire in Asia. The company's army had first joined forces with
30450-537: Was visible with the rise of Sa'id Mohammad Khan to the seat of power in Herat. In response, the Khanate of Qandahar led a renewed campaign against Herat. In early 1851, the Qandahari armies had occupied Farah , Lash wa Juwayn , and Sabzawar , closing within 100 kilometres of Herat. At the behest of Sayed Mohammad Khan, Persia intervened and occupied the city in late 1851, forcing Kohandel Khan of Qandahar to retreat. Faced with mounting British threats to break diplomatic relations and occupy Kharg island as they did during
30625-475: Was vying for time and increasingly delaying negotiations. In response, the Iranian general arrested Majid Khan, a Herati official previously loyal to the Qajar government. Majid Khan was eventually transferred to Tehran. Likewise, the Mufti of Herat was arrested in Mashhad while on a peacemaking mission to the Shah. The back-and-forth petitions clarified that Mohmmad Yusuf had no intentions of surrendering Herat, and so Hesam o-Saltaneh ordered his troops to besiege
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