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61-546: Seonjo ( Korean :  선조 ; Hanja :  宣祖 ; 6 December 1552 – 6 March 1608), personal name Yi Yeon ( 이연 ; 李昖 ), was the 14th monarch of the Joseon dynasty of Korea . He was known for promoting Confucianism and attempting reforms at the beginning of his reign. However, he later gained infamy from the political discord and his incompetent leadership during the Japanese invasions of Korea . King Seonjo

122-629: A minority language in parts of China , namely Jilin , and specifically Yanbian Prefecture , and Changbai County . It is also spoken by Sakhalin Koreans in parts of Sakhalin , the Russian island just north of Japan, and by the Koryo-saram in parts of Central Asia . The language has a few extinct relatives which—along with the Jeju language (Jejuan) of Jeju Island and Korean itself—form

183-479: A spoken language . Since the turn of the 21st century, aspects of Korean culture have spread to other countries through globalization and cultural exports . As such, interest in Korean language acquisition (as a foreign language ) is also generated by longstanding alliances, military involvement, and diplomacy, such as between South Korea–United States and China–North Korea since the end of World War II and

244-692: A Chinese advance at Battle of Byeokjegwan , and again tried to push the Koreans northward, but the crucial blow came at the Battle of Hangju , where General Gwon Yul defeated the Japanese with a much smaller force. The Japanese then decided to enter into peace negotiations, while both sides continued fighting. A month before he returned to Hanyang, Seonjo wrote an edict in Hangeul where anyone that either captured Japanese forces in battle, reported on invading troop movements, or rescued Korean prisoners would receive

305-484: A Korean influence on Khitan. The hypothesis that Korean could be related to Japanese has had some supporters due to some overlap in vocabulary and similar grammatical features that have been elaborated upon by such researchers as Samuel E. Martin and Roy Andrew Miller . Sergei Starostin (1991) found about 25% of potential cognates in the Japanese–Korean 100-word Swadesh list . Some linguists concerned with

366-529: A compromise was made and one delegate from each faction was sent to Hideyoshi. When they returned to Korea, their reports only caused more controversy and confusion. Hwang Yun-gil , of the Westerners faction, reported that Hideyoshi was raising huge numbers of troops, but Kim Seong-il , of the Easterners faction, told the king that he thought these large forces were not for the war against Korea, since he

427-480: A core vowel. The IPA symbol ⟨ ◌͈ ⟩ ( U+0348 ◌͈ COMBINING DOUBLE VERTICAL LINE BELOW ) is used to denote the tensed consonants /p͈/, /t͈/, /k͈/, /t͡ɕ͈/, /s͈/ . Its official use in the extensions to the IPA is for "strong" articulation, but is used in the literature for faucalized voice . The Korean consonants also have elements of stiff voice , but it is not yet known how typical this

488-409: A matter of contention. King Seonjo died in 1608. Consort(s) and their respective issue Korean language Korean ( South Korean : 한국어 , Hanguk-eo ; North Korean : 조선어 , Chosŏnŏ ) is the native language for about 81 million people, mostly of Korean descent. It is the national language of both North Korea and South Korea . Beyond Korea, the language is recognized as

549-521: A possible relationship.) Hudson & Robbeets (2020) suggested that there are traces of a pre- Nivkh substratum in Korean. According to the hypothesis, ancestral varieties of Nivkh (also known as Amuric ) were once distributed on the Korean Peninsula before the arrival of Koreanic speakers. Korean syllable structure is (C)(G)V(C), consisting of an optional onset consonant, glide /j, w, ɰ/ and final coda /p, t, k, m, n, ŋ, l/ surrounding

610-446: A royal sabbatical ( 사가독서 ; 賜暇讀書 ). Subsequently, he held posts including Gyori (교리, ranked 5a) and Eunggyo (응교, 應敎, ranked 4a). He was appointed Jikjehak ( 직제학 ; 直提學 ) in 1575 and Bujehak ( 부제학 ; 副提學 ) in 1576. Continually he held posts including Doseongji (都承旨), Daesaheon ( 대사헌 ; 大司憲 ) and Daejehak ( 대제학 ; 大提學 ). In 1590, he was appointed Uuijeong (Third State Councillor), honored with

671-656: Is an agglutinative language . The Korean language is traditionally considered to have nine parts of speech . Modifiers generally precede the modified words, and in the case of verb modifiers, can be serially appended. The sentence structure or basic form of a Korean sentence is subject–object–verb (SOV), but the verb is the only required and immovable element and word order is highly flexible, as in many other agglutinative languages. Question 가게에 gage-e store- LOC 가셨어요? ga-syeo-sseo-yo go- HON . PAST - CONJ - POL 가게에 가셨어요? gage-e ga-syeo-sseo-yo store-LOC go-HON.PAST-CONJ-POL 'Did [you] go to

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732-511: Is closer to a near-open central vowel ( [ɐ] ), though ⟨a⟩ is still used for tradition. Grammatical morphemes may change shape depending on the preceding sounds. Examples include -eun/-neun ( -은/-는 ) and -i/-ga ( -이/-가 ). Sometimes sounds may be inserted instead. Examples include -eul/-reul ( -을/-를 ), -euro/-ro ( -으로/-로 ), -eseo/-seo ( -에서/-서 ), -ideunji/-deunji ( -이든지/-든지 ) and -iya/-ya ( -이야/-야 ). Some verbs may also change shape morphophonemically. Korean

793-399: Is mainly reserved for specific circumstances such as newspapers, scholarly papers and disambiguation. Today Hanja is largely unused in everyday life but is still important for historical and linguistic studies. The Korean names for the language are based on the names for Korea used in both South Korea and North Korea. The English word "Korean" is derived from Goryeo , which is thought to be

854-399: Is of faucalized consonants. They are produced with a partially constricted glottis and additional subglottal pressure in addition to tense vocal tract walls, laryngeal lowering, or other expansion of the larynx. /s/ is aspirated [sʰ] and becomes an alveolo-palatal [ɕʰ] before [j] or [i] for most speakers (but see North–South differences in the Korean language ). This occurs with

915-747: Is well attested in Western Old Japanese and Northern Ryukyuan languages , in Eastern Old Japanese it only occurs in compounds, and it is only present in three dialects of the Southern Ryukyuan language group . Also, the doublet wo meaning "hemp" is attested in Western Old Japanese and Southern Ryukyuan languages. It is thus plausible to assume a borrowed term. (See Classification of the Japonic languages or Comparison of Japanese and Korean for further details on

976-572: Is written in the Korean script ( 한글 ; Hangeul in South Korea, 조선글 ; Chosŏn'gŭl in North Korea), a system developed during the 15th century for that purpose, although it did not become the primary script until the 20th century. The script uses 24 basic letters ( jamo ) and 27 complex letters formed from the basic ones. When first recorded in historical texts, Korean was only

1037-487: The Mun-gwa at a special examination, and then took the post of Gwonji bujeongja ( 권지부정사 ; 權知副正字 ). He held various other positions and in 1569 he joined the imperial birthday mission to Ming as a Seojanggwan (서장관, 書狀官, the third of the mission), returning to Korea the following year. Thereafter he held posts including Inspector of Classics ( 경연검토관 ; 經筵檢討官 ) and devoted himself to editing, being granted

1098-518: The Juksan Ahn clan , married Jeong Sang-jo ( 정상조 ; 鄭尙祖 ), his great-grandfather and son of Jeong In-ji through his second wife, Lady Yi of the Gyeongju Yi clan. As well as Jeong Sang-jo being the younger half-brother of Jo Gwang-jo . He was given the title of Prince Haseong, and was eventually adopted by Queen Insun . When King Myeongjong died young without an heir, Prince Haseong

1159-703: The Korean War . Along with other languages such as Chinese and Arabic , Korean is ranked at the top difficulty level for English speakers by the United States Department of Defense . Modern Korean descends from Middle Korean , which in turn descends from Old Korean , which descends from the Proto-Koreanic language , which is generally suggested to have its linguistic homeland somewhere in Manchuria . Whitman (2012) suggests that

1220-524: The Korean dialects , which are still largely mutually intelligible . The Chinese language , written with Chinese characters and read with Sino-Xenic pronunciations , was first introduced to Korea in the 1st century BC, and remained the medium of formal writing and government until the late 19th century. Korean scholars adapted Chinese characters (known in Korean as Hanja ) to write their own language, creating scripts known as idu , hyangchal , gugyeol , and gakpil. These systems were cumbersome, due to

1281-663: The Seven-Year War , and the foundation of the Qing dynasty in China, both of which would lead to devastation on the Korean Peninsula. King Seonjo faced many difficulties dealing with both new threats, sending many skilled military commanders to the northern front, while contending with Japanese leaders Oda Nobunaga , Toyotomi Hideyoshi and Tokugawa Ieyasu in the south. However, after Toyotomi Hideyoshi unified Japan,

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1342-568: The Three Kingdoms of Korea (not the ancient confederacies in the southern Korean Peninsula), while " -eo " and " -mal " mean "language" and "speech", respectively. Korean is also simply referred to as guk-eo , literally "national language". This name is based on the same Han characters ( 國語 "nation" + "language") that are also used in Taiwan and Japan to refer to their respective national languages. In North Korea and China ,

1403-968: The 16th century for all Korean classes, including uneducated peasants and slaves. By the 17th century, the yangban had exchanged Hangul letters with slaves, which suggests a high literacy rate of Hangul during the Joseon era. In the context of growing Korean nationalism in the 19th century, the Gabo Reform of 1894 abolished the Confucian examinations and decreed that government documents would be issued in Hangul instead of literary Chinese. Some newspapers were published entirely in Hangul, but other publications used Korean mixed script , with Hanja for Sino-Korean vocabulary and Hangul for other elements. North Korea abolished Hanja in writing in 1949, but continues to teach them in schools. Their usage in South Korea

1464-577: The Japanese fleet under Todo Takatora in the Battle of Myeongnyang with only 13 ships. After the sudden death of Toyotomi Hideyoshi in 1598, the Japanese completely withdrew from Korea in 1598. The ensuing Battle of Noryang marked the end of the war, with the last Japanese units under Konishi Yukinaga leaving Korea. Despite all the efforts put in by Seonjo during the war, such as establishing army training facilities and reforming taxation laws – which awarded people with increase of social class, exemption of labor or crimes in return for payment of tax in rice –

1525-567: The Japanese manufactured muskets for many of their soldiers, mobilized warriors from across the entire country. On April 13, 1592, 700 Japanese ships carrying 18,700 troops under Konishi Yukinaga invaded Korea. Konishi burned Fort Busan and Fort Dongnae , killed commanders Jeong Bal and Song Sang-hyeon and marched northward to Hanyang. On the next day, Katō Kiyomasa and Kuroda Nagamasa with 22,800 and 11,000 troops respectively landed, also marching toward Hanyang. The Japanese fleet under Todo Takatora and Kuki Yoshitaka supported them from

1586-442: The Japanese soon proved themselves to be the greater threat; and many Koreans began to fear that their country would be taken over by the Japanese. Many officials concerned with the defense of the kingdom urged the king to send delegates to Hideyoshi, their major purpose being to find out whether Hideyoshi was preparing for invasion or not. However, the two government factions could not even agree on this issue of national importance; so

1647-510: The Joseon court, combined with the 1589 rebellion of Jeong Yeo-rip that led to the purge of more than 1,000 scholars affiliated with the Eastern faction, led to Joseon's unpreparedness against the imminent Japanese invasions. In 1591, after the delegates had returned from Japan, Toyotomi Hideyoshi sent his own delegates to visit King Seonjo, and asked permission to pass through the Korean Peninsula to invade China, in effect declaring war against

1708-603: The Joseon kingdom. The king was surprised; after refusing the Japanese request he sent a letter to Beijing to alert the Chinese that the Japanese were actually preparing for full-scale war against the Korean-Chinese alliance. He also ordered the construction of many forts in the coastal regions and sent generals Sin Rip and Yi Il to the southern coast to prepare for war. While the Koreans were busy making their preparations,

1769-751: The Korean-Chinese allied forces side in the Siege of Pyongyang . He suggested of establishment the Hunnyeon Dogam (훈련도감, 訓鍊都監, Military Training Agency ). In 1598, he was ousted by the Northerners faction. But King Seonjo rehabilitated him. However, he refused to take office as a minister in 1600. Nevertheless, in 1602, he was honored with the second rank of Hoseong Gongsin ( 호성공신 ; 扈聖功臣 ), and appointed again as Pungwon Buwongun . After which he spent his time on political writing until his death in 1607. Ryu's major writings are preserved in

1830-441: The Koreans. The Japanese again invaded Korea in 1597; but this time all three nations were ready for war, and the Japanese were not able to advance as easily as in 1592. The Japanese tried to take Hanyang from both land and sea routes. At first the plan seemed to work well when Todo Takatora defeated Admiral Won Gyun at the Battle of Chilchonryang , but it was eventually thwarted when the Korean navy under Admiral Yi Sun-sin defeated

1891-667: The Northern and the Southern Faction. Yu Seong-ryong led the Southern faction while the Northerners divided even further after arguments over many issues; the greater Northern faction came to become extremely liberal in the scope of their reform goals, while the "lesser" Northern faction was less reformist but still more open to reform than the Southerners. The political divisions caused the nation to be weakened, since

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1952-455: The beginnings of words. /l/ becomes alveolar flap [ɾ] between vowels, and [l] or [ɭ] at the end of a syllable or next to another /l/ . A written syllable-final ' ㄹ ', when followed by a vowel or a glide ( i.e. , when the next character starts with ' ㅇ '), migrates to the next syllable and thus becomes [ɾ] . Traditionally, /l/ was disallowed at the beginning of a word. It disappeared before [j] , and otherwise became /n/ . However,

2013-580: The border city of Uiju just before the fall of Pyongyang. While the king was absent from the capital, many people who had lost hope in the government plundered the palace and burned many public buildings, including the Gyeongbokgung . During Seonjo's stay at Uiju, he wrote the Joseon government's first public document written solely in Hangul , rather than Hanja. Historians believe that the king deliberately chose Hangul to ensure commoners could understand

2074-414: The compact Koreanic language family . Even so, Jejuan and Korean are not mutually intelligible . The linguistic homeland of Korean is suggested to be somewhere in contemporary Manchuria . The hierarchy of the society from which the language originates deeply influences the language, leading to a system of speech levels and honorifics indicative of the formality of any given situation. Modern Korean

2135-427: The country enjoyed a brief era of peace. Among the scholars King Seonjo called to the government were Sim Ui-gyeom and Kim Hyowon . Sim was a relative of the queen and heavily conservative. Kim was the leading figure of the new generation of officials and called for liberal reforms. The scholars who supported King Seonjo began to split into two factions, headed by Sim and Kim. Members of the two factions even lived in

2196-399: The first Korean dynasty known to Western nations. Korean people in the former USSR refer to themselves as Koryo-saram or Koryo-in (literally, " Koryo/Goryeo persons"), and call the language Koryo-mal' . Some older English sources also use the spelling "Corea" to refer to the nation, and its inflected form for the language, culture and people, "Korea" becoming more popular in

2257-456: The fundamental disparities between the Korean and Chinese languages, and accessible only to those educated in classical Chinese. Most of the population was illiterate. In the 15th century King Sejong the Great personally developed an alphabetic featural writing system , known today as Hangul , to promote literacy among the common people. Introduced in the document Hunminjeongeum , it

2318-470: The importance of these other subjects. He also restored the reputations of executed scholars such as Jo Gwang-jo , who died in Third Literati Purge of 1519 , and denounced the accomplishments of corrupt aristocrats, notably Nam Gon , who instigated the purge under Jungjong and contributed greatly to the corruption of the era. These acts earned the king the respect of the general populace, and

2379-479: The inflow of western loanwords changed the trend, and now word-initial /l/ (mostly from English loanwords) are pronounced as a free variation of either [ɾ] or [l] . All obstruents (plosives, affricates, fricatives) at the end of a word are pronounced with no audible release , [p̚, t̚, k̚] . Plosive sounds /p, t, k/ become nasals [m, n, ŋ] before nasal sounds. Hangul spelling does not reflect these assimilatory pronunciation rules, but rather maintains

2440-408: The issue between Japanese and Korean, including Alexander Vovin, have argued that the indicated similarities are not due to any genetic relationship , but rather to a sprachbund effect and heavy borrowing, especially from Ancient Korean into Western Old Japanese . A good example might be Middle Korean sàm and Japanese asá , meaning " hemp ". This word seems to be a cognate, but although it

2501-587: The language is most often called Joseon-mal , or more formally, Joseon-o . This is taken from the North Korean name for Korea (Joseon), a name retained from the Joseon dynasty until the proclamation of the Korean Empire , which in turn was annexed by the Empire of Japan . In mainland China , following the establishment of diplomatic relations with South Korea in 1992, the term Cháoxiǎnyǔ or

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2562-455: The late 1800s. In South Korea the Korean language is referred to by many names including hanguk-eo ("Korean language"), hanguk-mal ("Korean speech") and uri-mal ("our language"); " hanguk " is taken from the name of the Korean Empire ( 대한제국 ; 大韓帝國 ; Daehan Jeguk ). The " han " ( 韓 ) in Hanguk and Daehan Jeguk is derived from Samhan , in reference to

2623-550: The leader of the Westerners rival faction). He was in the rank of provincial Dochechalsa ( 도체찰사 ; 都體察使 ) when the Imjin War broke out. In 1592 he was appointed Yeonguijeong , the Chief State Councillor. Ryu Seongryong accompanied the royal family from Hanseong to Uiju . In this capacity, he oversaw all military units and called leaders like Yi Sun-sin and Gwon Yul to battle. He also fought on

2684-425: The message and to prevent the Japanese from understanding it. Although the army continued to lose men and battles, the navy under Admiral Yi Sun-sin defeated the Japanese fleet several times and did much damage to the supply ships. With the navy blocking supplies, Ming forces arrived at the request of Seonjo and began to push the Japanese southward, eventually retaking Pyongyang. Konishi Yukinaga successfully blocked

2745-423: The political reforms of King Myeongjong, and put many famous Confucian scholars, including Yi Hwang , Yi I , Jeong Cheol , and Yu Seong-ryong , in office. Seonjo also reformed the civil service examination system, particularly the civil official qualification exam. The previous exam was mainly concerned with literature, not with politics or history. The king himself ordered the system to be reformed by increasing

2806-638: The proto-Koreans, already present in northern Korea, expanded into the southern part of the Korean Peninsula at around 300 BC and coexisted with the descendants of the Japonic Mumun cultivators (or assimilated them). Both had influence on each other and a later founder effect diminished the internal variety of both language families. Since the establishment of two independent governments, North–South differences have developed in standard Korean, including variations in pronunciation and vocabulary chosen. However, these minor differences can be found in any of

2867-526: The same neighborhood; Sim's faction lived on west side of the city while Kim's followers gathered on the east side. Consequently, the two factions began to be called the Western Faction and the Easterners  ; this two-faction based political system lasted 200 years and later helped bring about the collapse of the Joseon dynasty. At first the Westerners earned the favor of the king, since Sim

2928-444: The sea. General Yi Il faced Katō Kiyomasa at the Battle of Sangju , which was won by the Japanese. Yi Il met up with General Sin Rip and engaged Konishi's troops at the Battle of Chungju , but were defeated. Then Seonjo appointed General Kim Myeong-won as Commander-in-Chief and Field Marshal, and ordered him to defend the capita and moved to Pyongyang as the Japanese began encroaching upon the city. He later moved even further north to

2989-669: The short form Cháoyǔ has normally been used to refer to the standard language of North Korea and Yanbian , whereas Hánguóyǔ or the short form Hányǔ is used to refer to the standard language of South Korea. Korean is a member of the Koreanic family along with the Jeju language . Some linguists have included it in the Altaic family, but the core Altaic proposal itself has lost most of its prior support. The Khitan language has several vocabulary items similar to Korean that are not found in other Mongolian or Tungusic languages, suggesting

3050-588: The size of the military was also one of the issues on the reform agenda. Yi I , a neutral conservative, urged the king to increase the size of the army to prepare against future invasions from the Jurchens and Japanese . However, both factions rejected Yi's suggestions, and the size of the army was decreased further since many believed the peaceful period would last. The Jurchens and Japanese used this opportunity to expand their influence in East Asia , resulting in

3111-558: The store?' Response 예/네. ye/ne AFF Yu Seong-ryong Ryu was born in Hahoe Maeul , Andong , Gyeongsang Province (today a UNESCO World Heritage Site ), to a yangban family of the P'ungsan Ryu clan. Ryu is said to have been so precocious that he absorbed the teachings of Confucius and Mencius at the age of 8. In 1564 the 19th year of Myeongjong , he passed the Samasi examination, and in 1566 he passed

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3172-441: The tense fricative and all the affricates as well. At the end of a syllable, /s/ changes to /t/ (example: beoseot ( 버섯 ) 'mushroom'). /h/ may become a bilabial [ɸ] before [o] or [u] , a palatal [ç] before [j] or [i] , a velar [x] before [ɯ] , a voiced [ɦ] between voiced sounds, and a [h] elsewhere. /p, t, t͡ɕ, k/ become voiced [b, d, d͡ʑ, ɡ] between voiced sounds. /m, n/ frequently denasalize at

3233-447: The third rank of Gwanguk Gongsin ( 광국공신 ; 光國功臣 ), and appointed as Pungwon Buwongun ( 풍원부원군 ; 豊原府院君 ). In 1591, he was promoted to Jwauijeong (Second State Councillor) and Ijo Panseo (이조판서, Minister of Personnel, the first ranked of the six Ministries). However, the Easterners faction split into the Southerners and the Northerners. Ryu Seong-ryong was a Southerner (claiming exile, instead of death, for Jeong Cheol ,

3294-435: The title of government official regardless of class. During these negotiations Korean forces retook Hanseong, but the palaces had all been burnt to the ground, so Seonjo repaired one of the old royal family's houses and renamed it to Deoksugung , making it one of the official palaces. The peace negotiations between the Chinese and Japanese ended unsuccessfully, due to disagreements between the two sides and misrepresentation of

3355-464: The underlying, partly historical morphology . Given this, it is sometimes hard to tell which actual phonemes are present in a certain word. The traditional prohibition of word-initial /ɾ/ became a morphological rule called "initial law" ( 두음법칙 ) in the pronunciation standards of South Korea, which pertains to Sino-Korean vocabulary. Such words retain their word-initial /ɾ/ in the pronunciation standards of North Korea. For example, ^NOTE ㅏ

3416-424: The war left a devastated land and starving people. After the war, his wish of reconstructing the nation was impeded by the political turmoil caused by quarrelling political factions and famine. His Crown Prince Gwanghaegun aided him in his ruling of the country. However, when the queen gave birth to Grand Prince Yeongchang (Gwanghaegun was the second son of Lady Kim, the king's concubine), the succession also became

3477-513: Was born Yi Yeon in 1552 in Hanseong (today, Seoul), capital of Korea, as the third son of Prince Deokheung ( 덕흥군 ), himself son of King Jungjong and Royal Noble Consort Chang of the Ansan Ahn clan ( 창빈 안씨 ). On his mother's side, Yi Yeon was also a great-great-great-grandson of Princess Jeongui, the daughter of Queen Soheon and King Sejong . Princess Jeongui's granddaughter, Lady Ahn of

3538-585: Was called eonmun ('colloquial script') and quickly spread nationwide to increase literacy in Korea. The Korean alphabet was denounced by the yangban aristocracy, who looked down upon it too easy to learn. However, it gained widespread use among the common class and was widely used to print popular novels which were enjoyed by the common class. Since few people could understand official documents written in classical Chinese, Korean kings sometimes released public notices entirely written in Hangul as early as

3599-407: Was related to the queen and also had larger support from wealthy nobles. However, their attitudes on reformation and Sim's indecisiveness helped the Easterners take power, and the Westerners fell out of favor. Reforms were accelerated during the first period of influence of the Easterners, but then many Easterners began to urge others to slow down the reforms. The Easterners were once again divided into

3660-667: Was the next in the line of succession. Then, by decision of the royal court, he was crowned king in 1567 at the age of 16. His father had the status of Grand Internal Prince (대원군, Daewongun , 'Great Prince of the Court). King Seonjo focused on the improvement of the lives of the common people, as well as rebuilding the nation after the political corruption during the chaotic reign of Yeonsangun and King Jungjong . He encouraged Sarim scholars , who had been persecuted by entrenched aristocrats in four different purges between 1498 and 1545 during reign of Yeonsangun and Jungjong. Seonjo continued

3721-400: Was trying to complete his reforms quickly to prevent lawlessness and quash the bandits now roaming the countryside. Since the Easterners had the bigger voice in government at the time, Hwang's reports were ignored and Seonjo decided not to prepare for war, even though the attitude of Hideyoshi in his letter to Seonjo clearly showed his interest in the conquest of Asia. The factional infighting of

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