176-585: Feni ( Bengali : ফেনী ) is a coastal district situated in the south-east of Bangladesh, within the Chittagong Division . One of Bangladesh's smallest districts, it is strategically located along the Dhaka–Chittagong transportation corridor. Bordered by India to the north and the Bay of Bengal to the south, it serves as the sole entry point linking Chittagong , the country's primary port city, to
352-512: A severe famine . Concurrently, the coastal Feni-Noakhali region was devastated by a catastrophic cyclone and tidal surge, resulting in widespread displacement and destruction. The important settlement of Jugidiya was all but submerged. Despite the implementation of the Permanent Settlement system in 1793, much of Feni-Noakhali remained under direct East India Company control, with armed enforcement of high land revenue collection. In
528-528: A Buddhist preceptor. Madanapala's queen Chitramatika, gifted land to a brahmana named Vateshvara-svami Sharma as his remuneration for reciting the Mahabharata . The Palas patronised several Sanskrit scholars, some of whom were their officials. The Gauda riti style of composition was developed during the Pala rule. Many Buddhist Tantric works were authored and translated during the Pala rule. Besides
704-593: A Buddhist, but it is not known if this is true. The subsequent Pala kings were definitely Buddhists. Dharmapala made the Buddhist philosopher Haribhadra his spiritual preceptor. He established the Vikramashila monastery and the Somapura Mahavihara . Taranatha also credits him with establishing 50 religious institutions and patronising the Buddhist author Haribhadra. Devapala restored and enlarged
880-503: A Japanese bombing raid during World War II, causing plane crashes and pilot casualties. As the war concluded and India's independence approached in 1946, communal tensions heightened in nearby regions. Feni's Hindu-majority areas saw limited violence thanks to local intervention. Ultimately, in 1947, the Indian subcontinent gained independence, leading to the partition into Pakistan and India. Following partition in 1947, Feni, bordered by
1056-509: A Sufi saint who exerted significant influence in the Feni region during this period, earning recognition as its spiritual architect. The districts of Feni and Noakhali played a pioneering role in the Swadeshi (self-reliance) movement, particularly in the boycott of foreign goods during the 1930s. Khadi cloth, produced by local weavers, gained immense popularity in these regions. The demand for
1232-500: A bid to lessen this burden on young learners, efforts have been made by educational institutions in the two main Bengali-speaking regions (West Bengal and Bangladesh) to address the opaque nature of many consonant clusters, and as a result, modern Bengali textbooks are beginning to contain more and more "transparent" graphical forms of consonant clusters, in which the constituent consonants of a cluster are readily apparent from
1408-566: A brief rule, and became an ascetic. Vigrahapala's son and successor Narayanapala proved to be a weak ruler. During his 54-year long reign, Mihira Bhoja defeated the Palas. Encouraged by the Pala decline, the King Harjara of Assam assumed imperial titles. Naryanapala's son Rajyapala ruled for at least 32 years, and constructed several public utilities and lofty temples. Earlier it was thought that his son Gopala III lost Bengal after
1584-855: A devotee of Shiva. The Palas supported the Saiva ascetics, typically the ones associated with the Golagi-Math. Besides the images of the Buddhist deities, the images of Vishnu , Siva and Sarasvati were also constructed during the Pala dynasty rule. Devapala built a temple dedicated to Shiva's consort, and Mahipala patronised a Shaivite monastery. A 1026 CE inscription recording renovations of Buddhist structures at Sarnath by Pala princes states that Mahipala I had them built "hundreds" of temples of Shiva, Chitraghanta, and other deities in Varanasi. Narayanapala's Bhagalpur inscription suggests that he built several Shiva temples, and records his grant of
1760-596: A different word from a speaker of Standard Bengali in Bangladesh, even though both words are of native Bengali descent. For example, the word salt is লবণ lôbôṇ in the east which corresponds to নুন nun in the west. Bengali exhibits diglossia , though some scholars have proposed triglossia or even n-glossia or heteroglossia between the written and spoken forms of the language. Two styles of writing have emerged, involving somewhat different vocabularies and syntax : Linguist Prabhat Ranjan Sarkar categorises
1936-480: A diphthong. The total number of diphthongs is not established, with bounds at 17 and 31. An incomplete chart is given by Sarkar (1985) of the following: In standard Bengali, stress is predominantly initial. Bengali words are virtually all trochaic ; the primary stress falls on the initial syllable of the word, while secondary stress often falls on all odd-numbered syllables thereafter, giving strings such as in সহযোগিতা shô -hô- jo -gi- ta "cooperation", where
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#17327986293782112-512: A diverse force of Mukti Bahini ( lit. ' liberation force ' ) comprising local police, East Pakistan Rifles (now Border Guard Bangladesh) and Ansar members, ex-military personnel, students, and local youth. Notable individuals such as Joynal Hazari , Noor Ahmed Hazari, Joynal Abedin , Jafar Ullah Khan, Mostafa Hossain, and Flight Lt. Abdur Rouf were instrumental in this effort. They established control of Feni town and fortified Shuvapur Bridge to defend against approaching forces from
2288-765: A few years of rule, and then ruled only Bihar. However, it has been debunked by his Bhagalpur inscription, in which he granted a Brahmin two villages in Pundrabardhanabhukti in Northern Bengal, signalling his control over it. His son and the next king, Vigrahapala II , had to bear the invasions from the Chandelas and the Kalachuris . During his reign, the Pala empire disintegrated into smaller kingdoms like Gauda, Radha, Anga and Vanga. Kantideva of Harikela (eastern and southern Bengal) also assumed
2464-695: A kingdom called Jafarabad along the banks of the Feni River . During the reign of Mughal Emperor Akbar , territorial disputes arose between the Kingdoms of Tripura and Arakan , with Arakan initially seizing control of Chittagong and extending influence up to the Feni River. Following conflicts, Mogh settlements were established in southern Feni-Noakhali, but they fled when the Mughals conquered Chittagong in 1666, who also drove out Portuguese settlers in
2640-692: A large scale and were communally limited. Owing to Bengal's geographic location, Bengali areas bordering non-Bengali regions have been influenced by each other. Small numbers of people in Midnapore , which borders Odisha , have used the Odia script to write in Bengali. In the border areas between West Bengal and Bihar , some Bengali communities historically wrote Bengali in Devanagari , Kaithi and Tirhuta . In Sylhet and Bankura , modified versions of
2816-515: A major part of the Pala kingdom along with its capital. Mahipala I recovered northern and eastern Bengal within three years of ascending the throne in 978 CE. He also recovered his capital, Gauda, which had been lost to he Kambojas. He also recovered the northern part of the present-day Burdwan division . During his reign, Rajendra Chola I of the Chola Empire frequently invaded Bengal from 1021 to 1023 CE to get Ganges water and in
2992-682: A majority in Bangladesh speaks dialects notably different from SCB. Some dialects, particularly those of the Chittagong region, bear only a superficial resemblance to SCB. The dialect in the Chittagong region is least widely understood by the general body of Bengalis. The majority of Bengalis are able to communicate in more than one variety – often, speakers are fluent in Cholitobhasha (SCB) and one or more regional dialects. Even in SCB,
3168-637: A matrimonial alliance, by marrying off his cousin Kumaradevi to the king. In the region of Magadha , Vallabharāja, an adventurer from Ratanpur led a campaign against the Ramapala with his base of operations in Bodh Gaya . It has been speculated that he was aided in his campaign by Govindachandra of the Gahadavala dynasty . After gaining control of Bodh Gaya he converted to Buddhism and took on
3344-538: A naval war in southern Bengal for his liege. but after Kumarapala's death, Vaidyadeva practically created a separate kingdom. Kumarapala's son, Gopala IV ascended the throne as a child, and according to the Rajibpur copperplate inscription, his uncle Madanpala acted as his regent. Gopala IV either died in battle or was murdered by Madanapala. During Madanapala's rule, the Varmans in east Bengal declared independence, and
3520-589: A part in the adoption of the English alphabet to write Bengali, with certain social media influencers publishing entire novels in Roman Bengali. Pala Empire The Pāla Empire (r. 750–1161 CE) was an imperial power during the post-classical period in the Indian subcontinent , which originated in the region of Bengal . It is named after its ruling dynasty, whose rulers bore names ending with
3696-580: A pitched battle. Dharmapala was forced to surrender and to seek alliance with the Rashtrakuta emperor Govinda III , who then intervened by invading northern India and defeating Nagabhata II. The Rashtrakuta records show that both Chakrayudha and Dharmapala recognised the Rashtrakuta suzerainty. In practice, Dharmapala gained control over North India after Govinda III left for the Deccan. He adopted
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#17327986293783872-412: A prominent figure, representing students in social and cultural spheres. Over time, Feni College, through its student council, wielded growing influence on the region's social and political landscape, particularly the language movement of Bangladesh . Following Muhammad Ali Jinnah 's declaration of Urdu as the sole national language in 1948, Feni witnessed numerous anti-government movements, notably during
4048-530: A result of flourishing mercantile and intellectual contacts with Middle-East. The Pala legacy is still reflected in Tibetan Buddhism . There is no clear evidence for their origin or early history of the Palas. Historians rely on indirect evidence to understand their reign, leading to controversies about their ancestry. According to the Khalimpur copper plate inscription, the first Pala king Gopala
4224-523: A rounded total of 280 million) worldwide. The Bengali language is native to the region of Bengal , which comprises the present-day nation of Bangladesh and the Indian state of West Bengal . Besides the native region it is also spoken by the Bengalis living in Tripura , southern Assam and the Bengali population in the Indian union territory of Andaman and Nicobar Islands . Bengali is also spoken in
4400-759: A separate homeland for Muslims of the subcontinent, presented at the All-India Muslim League Conference held in Lahore in March 1940, resonated strongly in the Feni-Noakhali region, just as it did in other parts of Bengal. Habibullah Bahar Chowdhury of Feni emerged as a leading figure during this time. Amidst the escalating tensions of the Pakistan Movement and the Indian independence struggle , Feni gained prominence as
4576-499: A short reign. He was succeeded by his brother Ramapala, who launched a major offensive against Divya's nephew Bhima. He was supported by his maternal uncle Mathana and cousin Sivarajadeva of the Rashtrakuta dynasty, as well as several feudatory chiefs of south Bihar and south-west Bengal. Ramapala conclusively defeated Bhima, killing him and his family in a cruel manner. After gaining control of Varendra, Ramapala tried to revive
4752-492: A significant military hub in South Asia throughout World War II . Its strategic position led to the creation of an Allied forward base and the construction of a large airstrip , which now forms part of the premises of Feni Girls' Cadet College . Local residents became increasingly agitated as Allied soldiers engaged in acts of violence against women, sparking protests that were met with lethal gunfire. In 1943, Feni endured
4928-687: A significant portion of this old highway in the Feni region was incorporated into the Dhaka–Chittagong Trunk Road. During a period of instability in Bengal, the rise of Tripura as a regional power saw its king extending control over parts of Feni, Comilla , and Sylhet , capitalising on the opportunity presented by Raja Ganesha 's seizure of power in Bengal. In historical accounts, it is suggested that Rasti Khan, who served under Ruknuddin Barbak Shah , governed areas extending from Feni to
5104-408: A special diacritic, called the hôsôntô (্) , may be added below the basic consonant grapheme (as in ম্ [m] ). This diacritic, however, is not common and is chiefly employed as a guide to pronunciation. The abugida nature of Bengali consonant graphemes is not consistent, however. Often, syllable-final consonant graphemes, though not marked by a hôsôntô , may carry no inherent vowel sound (as in
5280-581: A state language of the then Dominion of Pakistan . On 21 February 1952, five students and political activists were killed during protests near the campus of the University of Dhaka ; they were the first ever martyrs to die for their right to speak their mother tongue. In 1956, Bengali was made a state language of Pakistan. 21 February has since been observed as Language Movement Day in Bangladesh and has also been commemorated as International Mother Language Day by UNESCO every year since 2000. In 2010,
5456-680: A strong cultural influence through Buddhist scholar Atis Dipankar in Tibet, as well as in Southeast Asia. Pala control of North India was ultimately ephemeral, as they struggled with the Gurjara-Pratiharas and the Rashtrakutas for the control of Kannauj and were defeated. After a short-lived decline, Emperor Mahipala I defended imperial bastions in Bengal and Bihar against South Indian Chola invasions. Emperor Ramapala
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5632-410: A stronghold and their copper plates emphasised Buddhist affiliation. André Wink mentions that the founder, Gopala was elected, and "definitely not of royal blood but probably of a line of brahmans which transformed itself into kshatriyas". Similarly, the 11th century Persian scholar Al-Biruni mentions the rulers of Pala dynasty to be of brahman origin. After the fall of Shashanka 's kingdom,
5808-402: A subsurface anticline , stretching about 12 kilometres (7.5 mi) in length and 5 kilometres (3.1 mi) in width. In 1981, Petrobangla drilled a gas well within this structure, which was subsequently abandoned in 1998. Feni District has a monsoon climate ( Köppen climate classification Am ) characterised by warmth and relative equity throughout the year. Summer typically sets in from
5984-550: A village to Pashupatas . Narayanapala also attended a sacrifice by his Brahmin minister. Nayapala's Siyan inscription suggests that he built several temples dedicated to Shiva and his various aspects (such as Bhairava ), plus temples dedicated to the Nine Durgas , the Mother Goddess , Vishnu , and Lakshmi . Despite this, it is unlikely that Nayapala had rejected Buddhist teachings, since Taranatha states that he had
6160-593: A vital frontier settlement during ancient times. Historical records point to the governance of a 7th-century dynasty as part of the Samatata region. Archaeological findings suggest the presence of the Chandra dynasty , which ruled over Samatata. Additionally, evidence indicates the possible rule of the Pala Empire in Feni, notably under King Mahipala II , after whom modern Mahipal is named. The Feni-Noakhali region
6336-463: A vowel in isolation from any preceding or following consonant, the independent form of the vowel is used. For example, in মই [moj] "ladder" and in ইলিশ [iliʃ] "Hilsa fish", the independent form of the vowel ই is used (cf. the dependent form ি) . A vowel at the beginning of a word is always realised using its independent form. In addition to the inherent-vowel-suppressing hôsôntô , three more diacritics are commonly used in Bengali. These are
6512-500: Is Bangladesh's national march, written by The National Poet Kazi Nazrul Islam in Bengali in 1928. It was adopted as the national marching song by the Bangladeshi government in 1972. Additionally, the first two verses of Vande Mataram , a patriotic song written in Bengali by Bankim Chandra Chatterjee , was adopted as the "national song" of India in both the colonial period and later in 1950 in independent India. Furthermore, it
6688-452: Is a World Heritage Site . It is a monastery with a 21-acre (8.5 ha) complex with 177 cells, numerous stupas, temples and a number of other ancillary buildings. The gigantic structures of other Viharas, including Vikramashila, Odantapuri, and Jagaddala are the other masterpieces of the Palas. These mammoth structures were mistaken by the forces of Bakhtiyar Khalji as fortified castles and were demolished. The art of Bihar and Bengal during
6864-468: Is a cursive script with eleven graphemes or signs denoting nine vowels and two diphthongs , and thirty-nine graphemes representing consonants and other modifiers. There are no distinct upper and lower case letter forms. The letters run from left to right and spaces are used to separate orthographic words . Bengali script has a distinctive horizontal line running along the tops of the graphemes that links them together called মাত্রা matra . Since
7040-479: Is a slab with a main figure, rather over half life-size, in very high relief, surrounded by smaller attendant figures, who might have freer tribhanga poses. Critics have found the style tending towards over-elaboration. The quality of the carving is generally very high, with crisp, precise detail. In east India, facial features tend to become sharp. Much larger numbers of smaller bronze groups of similar composition have survived than from previous periods. Probably
7216-612: Is abundant but low quality, while T . indica (tamarind) and Z . mauritiana (kul) wood is of good quality. C . fistula (amaltas) is used for furniture, and L . speciosa (jarul) for boat building and house pillars. A . catechu (betel nut) plantations are increasing in the north and west of the district, while C . nucifera (coconut) trees are abundant district-wide. B . flabelliformis (taal) and P . dactylifera (date palms or khejur) are also common, with
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7392-572: Is also spoken by the Bengali diasporas ( Bangladeshi diaspora and Indian Bengalis) across Europe, North America, the Middle East and other regions. Bengali was accorded the status of a classical language by the government of India on 3 October 2024. It is the second most spoken and fourth fastest growing language in India , following Hindi in the first place, Kashmiri in the second place, and Meitei ( Manipuri ), along with Gujarati , in
7568-400: Is an abugida , a script with letters for consonants, with diacritics for vowels, and in which an inherent vowel (অ ô ) is assumed for consonants if no vowel is marked. The Bengali alphabet is used throughout Bangladesh and eastern India (Assam, West Bengal, Tripura). The Bengali alphabet is believed to have evolved from a modified Brahmic script around 1000 CE (or 10th–11th century). It
7744-507: Is an important source of Pala history. A form of the proto- Bengali language can be seen in the Charyapada s composed during the Pala rule. The Pala school of sculptural art is recognised as a distinct phase of the Indian art, and is noted for the artistic genius of the Bengal sculptors. It is influenced by the Gupta art . The Pala style was inherited and continued to develop under
7920-707: Is believed by many that the national anthem of Sri Lanka ( Sri Lanka Matha ) was inspired by a Bengali poem written by Rabindranath Tagore , while some even believe the anthem was originally written in Bengali and then translated into Sinhala . After the contribution made by the Bangladesh UN Peacekeeping Force in the Sierra Leone Civil War under the United Nations Mission in Sierra Leone ,
8096-721: Is considered a separate language, although it shares similarities to Northern Bengali dialects. During the standardisation of Bengali in the 19th century and early 20th century, the cultural centre of Bengal was in Kolkata , a city founded by the British. What is accepted as the standard form today in both West Bengal and Bangladesh is based on the West-Central dialect of Nadia and Kushtia District . There are cases where speakers of Standard Bengali in West Bengal will use
8272-1039: Is home to a wide variety of bird species commonly found throughout Bangladesh. The district boasts numerous species of freshwater fish, including L . rohita (ruhi) , C . mrigala (mrigel) , Catla , Macrones ( tengra ) , C . magur (catfish) , H . fossilis (singi) , A . testudineus (koi) , and marine fish, like C . striatus (shoal) , W . attu (boal) , C . marulius (gazar) , Ompok ( pabda ) , prawns, dry fish, and crabs. Small fishes include P . titteya (punti) , M . armatus (baain) , C . cachius (chela) . Exotic fishes that are commonly used in commercial fish farming include C . idellus (grass carp) , H . molitrix (silver carp) , T . mossambica (tilapia) , and O . niloticus (nilotica) . Several types of reptiles and amphibians are found in
8448-404: Is known as Apabhraṃśa , by the end of the first millennium. The Bengali language evolved as a distinct language over the course of time. Though some archaeologists claim that some 10th-century texts were in Bengali, it is not certain whether they represent a differentiated language or whether they represent a stage when Eastern Indo-Aryan languages were differentiating. The local Apabhraṃśa of
8624-782: Is known as the Kahua. The Dakatia River 's branch which enters through Sindurpur of Daganbhuiyan Upazila is referred to as the Little Feni River. This river continues southward and subsequently splits into two, flowing along the western side of Kazirhat and eventually converging into the Bay of Bengal. At the mouth of the Little Feni River, a regulator has been constructed as part of the Kazirhat Sluice Gate irrigation project. The soil composition in Feni District
8800-482: Is primarily defined by the presence of Old Brahmaputra floodplain series, primarily olive silty loam and gray soil. Extensive alluvial lands, known locally as চর , chôr , have formed due to the erosion caused by the Feni and Muhuri rivers, resulting in the displacement of numerous settlements. In the northern area of Feni, where small hillocks are situated, the soil is mainly brown and highly acidic. Approximately 8 kilometres (5.0 mi) south of Feni town lies
8976-490: Is set out below in the International Phonetic Alphabet (upper grapheme in each box) and romanisation (lower grapheme). Bengali is known for its wide variety of diphthongs , combinations of vowels occurring within the same syllable . Two of these, /oi̯/ and /ou̯/ , are the only ones with representation in script, as ঐ and ঔ respectively. /e̯ i̯ o̯ u̯/ may all form the glide part of
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#17327986293789152-695: Is the second-most widely spoken language in India . It is the official language of the Indian states of West Bengal and Tripura and the Barak Valley region of the state of Assam . It is also the second official language of the Indian state of Jharkhand since September 2011. It is the most widely spoken language in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands in the Bay of Bengal , and is spoken by significant populations in other states including Bihar , Arunachal Pradesh , Delhi , Chhattisgarh , Meghalaya , Mizoram , Nagaland , Odisha and Uttarakhand . Bengali
9328-741: Is utilised for making baskets, binding, and thatching. Marshes contain A . aspera (sola) and S . dichotomus (sitalpati) , extensively used for making mats and baskets. Feni district boasts a diverse range of wildlife, including mammals, birds, fish, reptiles, amphibians, spiders, millipedes, and numerous insects. Common mammals in Feni include domestic species like B . taurus (domestic cow) , C . hircus (goat) , E . caballus (horse) , S . murinus (chika) , F . pennantii (dura kathbirali) , H . auropunctatus (benji) , several species of rats, and C . aureus (fox) . Feni
9504-635: Is well-documented by Sandhyakar Nandi in Ramacharitam . Mahipala II imprisoned his brothers Ramapala and Surapala II, on the suspicion that they were conspiring against him. Soon afterwards, he faced a rebellion of vassal chiefs from the Kaibarta (fishermen). A chief named Divya (or Divvoka) killed him and occupied the Varendra region. The region remained under the control of his successors Rudak and Bhima. Surapala II escaped to Magadha and died after
9680-509: The Aesop's Fables in Bengali was printed using Roman letters based on English phonology by the Scottish linguist John Gilchrist . Consecutive attempts to establish a Roman Bengali have continued across every century since these times, and have been supported by the likes of Suniti Kumar Chatterji , Muhammad Qudrat-i-Khuda , and Muhammad Enamul Haq . The Digital Revolution has also played
9856-615: The Arabic , Persian , and Turkic languages . The arrival of merchants and traders from the Middle East and Turkestan into the Buddhist -ruling Pala Empire , from as early as the 7th century, gave birth to Islamic influence in the region. In the 13th century, subsequent Arab Muslim and Turco-Persian expeditions to Bengal heavily influenced the local vernacular by settling among the native population. Bengali absorbed Arabic and Persian influences in its vocabulary and dialect, including
10032-414: The Constitution of Bangladesh states Bengali to be the sole official language of Bangladesh. The Bengali Language Implementation Act, 1987 , made it mandatory to use Bengali in all records and correspondences, laws, proceedings of court and other legal actions in all courts, government or semi-government offices, and autonomous institutions in Bangladesh. It is also the de facto national language of
10208-472: The Delhi Sultanate 's jurisdiction. Under the governance of Bahram Khan , who ruled over eastern Bengal during the Tughlaq dynasty , the Bhulua or Greater Noakhali region was administratively linked to Sonargaon , one of the three administrative divisions of Bengal within the Delhi Sultanate. Ships laden with salt would depart from the ports of Bhulua and Jugidiya for overseas destinations. Following Bahram's demise in 1338, Fakhruddin Mubarak Shah proclaimed
10384-442: The East India Company established a textile mill in southern Feni's Jugidiya area. Toward the Nawab era's end, a new administrative unit, Chakla Roshnabad, was formed, spanning parts of Sylhet and Comilla, extending to the Feni River's southern bank. Shamsher Gazi , who ruled Chakla Roshnabad, emerged as a notable figure, significantly influencing Feni's history. Long before the Battle of Plassey , which handed control of Bengal to
10560-413: The Eastern Gangas renewed the conflict in Orissa. Madanapala captured Munger from the Gahadavalas, but was defeated by Vijayasena, who gained control of southern and eastern Bengal. Two rulers, named Govindapala and Palapala ruled over the Gaya district from around 1162 CE to 1200 CE, but there is no concrete evidence about their relationship to the imperial Palas. The Pala dynasty was replaced by
10736-432: The Feni River , the district has a rich history spanning five millennia, having been historically part of the greater regions of Noakhali, Comilla , and Tripura . It was ruled by ancient kingdoms before coming under the Muslim rule of the Delhi Sultanate in the 14th century, and later the Mughals from the 17th century, when it briefly served as a frontier settlement with thriving cities. The British gained control in
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#173279862937810912-495: The Geography section below). His oldest son, Rajyapala predeceased him, and as so Mahendrapala , his next older son succeeded him. He possibly maintained his father's vast territories and carried out further campaigns against the Utkalas and the Hunas. He passed his empire intact to his younger brother Shurapala I , who held sway over a considerably large territory encompassing Bengal, Bihar and Uttar Pradesh, proven by his Mirzapur copperplate. What happened in Gopala II's rule,
11088-543: The Indo-European language family native to the Bengal region of South Asia. With over 237 million native speakers and another 41 million as second language speakers as of 2024, Bengali is the fifth most spoken native language and the seventh most spoken language by the total number of speakers in the world. It is the fifth most spoken Indo-European language . Bengali is the official , national , and most widely spoken language of Bangladesh , with 98% of Bangladeshis using Bengali as their first language. It
11264-410: The Kaithi script had some historical prominence, mainly among Muslim communities. The variant in Sylhet was identical to the Baitali Kaithi script of Hindustani with the exception of Sylhet Nagri possessing matra . Sylhet Nagri was standardised for printing in c. 1869 . Up until the 19th century, numerous variations of the Arabic script had been used across Bengal from Chittagong in
11440-530: The Middle Indo-Aryan dialects were influential in the first millennium when Bengal was a part of the Greater Magadhan realm. The local varieties had no official status during the Gupta Empire , and with Bengal increasingly becoming a hub of Sanskrit literature for Hindu priests, the vernacular of Bengal gained a lot of influence from Sanskrit. Magadhi Prakrit was also spoken in modern-day Bihar and Assam , and this vernacular eventually evolved into Ardha Magadhi . Ardha Magadhi began to give way to what
11616-473: The Nadia region . Bengali shows a high degree of diglossia , with the literary and standard form differing greatly from the colloquial speech of the regions that identify with the language. Modern Bengali vocabulary is based on words inherited from Magadhi Prakrit and Pali, along with tatsamas and reborrowings from Sanskrit and borrowings from Persian , Arabic , Austroasiatic languages and other languages with which it has historically been in contact. In
11792-471: The Sena Empire . During this time, the style of sculpture changed from "Post-Gupta" to a distinctive style that was widely influential in other areas and later centuries. Deity figures became more rigid in posture, very often standing with straight legs close together, and figures were often heavily loaded with jewellery; they very often have multiple arms, a convention allowing them to hold many attributes and display mudras . The typical form for temple images
11968-462: The Sena dynasty . The descendants of the Palas, who claimed the status of Kshatriya, "almost imperceptibly merged" with the Kayastha caste. The borders of the Pala Empire kept fluctuating throughout its existence. Though the Palas conquered a vast region in North India at one time, they could not retain it for long due to constant hostility from the Gurjara-Pratiharas, the Rashtrakutas and other less powerful kings. No records are available about
12144-432: The University of Karachi (established by East Pakistani politicians before Independence of Bangladesh ) also offers regular programs of studies at the Bachelors and at the Masters levels for Bengali Literature. The national anthems of both Bangladesh ( Amar Sonar Bangla ) and India ( Jana Gana Mana ) were written in Bengali by the Bengali Nobel laureate Rabindranath Tagore . Notuner Gaan known as " Chol Chol Chol"
12320-499: The boldface represents primary and secondary stress. Native Bengali words do not allow initial consonant clusters ; the maximum syllabic structure is CVC (i.e., one vowel flanked by a consonant on each side). Many speakers of Bengali restrict their phonology to this pattern, even when using Sanskrit or English borrowings, such as গেরাম geram (CV.CVC) for গ্রাম gram (CCVC) "village" or ইস্কুল iskul (VC.CVC) for স্কুল skul (CCVC) "school". The Bengali-Assamese script
12496-557: The phonology of Eastern Bengali is seen through the lack of nasalised vowels and an alveolar articulation of what are categorised as the "cerebral" consonants (as opposed to the postalveolar articulation of western Bengal). Some varieties of Bengali, particularly Sylheti , Chittagonian and Chakma , have contrastive tone ; differences in the pitch of the speaker's voice can distinguish words. Kharia Thar and Mal Paharia are closely related to Western Bengali dialects, but are typically classified as separate languages. Similarly, Hajong
12672-644: The 16th century CE). The Ramacharitam also attests the fifteenth Pala emperor, Ramapala , as a Kshatriya . According to Nitish Sengupta , such claims of belonging to the legendary Solar dynasty seems to be unreliable and appear to be an attempt to cover up the humble origins of the dynasty. The Pala dynasty has also been branded as Shudra in some sources such as Manjushri-Mulakalpa . A medieval writer Abul Fazl going by this tradition described these kings as Kayasthas . According to K. N. Sahay, "we can claim Palas also as Kayasthas". But modern scholars believe Palas were staunch Buddhists, as their court became
12848-623: The 16th century, Portuguese missionaries began a tradition of using the Roman alphabet to transcribe the Bengali language. Though the Portuguese standard did not receive much growth, a few Roman Bengali works relating to Christianity and Bengali grammar were printed as far as Lisbon in 1743. The Portuguese were followed by the English and French respectively, whose works were mostly related to Bengali grammar and transliteration. The first version of
13024-652: The 19th and 20th centuries, there were two standard forms of written Bengali: In 1948, the government of Pakistan tried to impose Urdu as the sole state language in Pakistan, giving rise to the Bengali language movement . This was a popular ethnolinguistic movement in the former East Bengal (today Bangladesh ), which arose as a result of the strong linguistic consciousness of the Bengalis and their desire to promote and protect spoken and written Bengali's recognition as
13200-534: The 6th century, which competed with the ancestor of Bengali for some time. The ancestor of Bengali was the language of the Pala Empire and the Sena dynasty . During the medieval period, Middle Bengali was characterised by the elision of the word-final অ ô and the spread of compound verbs, which originated from the Sanskrit Schwa . Slowly, the word-final ô disappeared from many words influenced by
13376-608: The Bay of Bengal. The Silonia River, situated in Parshuram Upazila, originates from the hilly regions of the Indian state of Tripura. It eventually merges into the Muhuri River located in Chhagalnaiya Upazila. Along its course, the river traverses through Feni Sadar, Fulgazi, Parshuram, and Chhagalnaiya Upazilas. One branch of the Muhuri River goes further east and then reunites. Locally, this branch
13552-413: The Bengal region was in a state of anarchy. There was no central authority, and there was constant struggle between petty chieftains. The contemporary writings describe this situation as matsya nyaya ("fish justice" i.e. a situation where the big fish eat the small fish). Gopala ascended the throne as the first Pala king during these times. The Khalimpur copper plate suggests that the prakriti (people) of
13728-456: The Bengali equivalent of a full stop – have been adopted from Western scripts and their usage is similar. Unlike in Western scripts (Latin, Cyrillic, etc.) where the letter forms stand on an invisible baseline, the Bengali letter-forms instead hang from a visible horizontal left-to-right headstroke called মাত্রা matra . The presence and absence of this matra can be important. For example,
13904-426: The Bengali script is an abugida, its consonant graphemes usually do not represent phonetic segments , but carry an "inherent" vowel and thus are syllabic in nature. The inherent vowel is usually a back vowel , either [ɔ] as in মত [m ɔ t] "opinion" or [o] , as in মন [m o n] "mind", with variants like the more open [ɒ] . To emphatically represent a consonant sound without any inherent vowel attached to it,
14080-692: The British authorities divided each district into subdivisions called mahakumas . Before the establishment of Feni mahakuma the Chhagalnaiya and Parshuram thanas (currently upazilas), and Amirgaon thana were part of the Comilla and Noakhali districts respectively. In 1876, the Feni mahakuma (sub-division) was established under the jurisdiction of Noakhali District. The sub-divisional headquarters were originally located in Amirgaon, but were moved to Feni town in 1881. Notably, in 1883, Nabinchandra Sen assumed
14256-531: The Buddhist scholars mentioned in the Religion section above, Jimutavahana , Sandhyakar Nandi , Madhava-kara , Suresvara and Chakrapani Datta are some of the other notable scholars from the Pala period. The notable Pala texts on philosophy include Agama Shastra by Gaudapada, Nyaya Kundali by Sridhar Bhatta and Karmanushthan Paddhati by Bhatta Bhavadeva. The texts on medicine include Sandhyakar Nandi's semi-fictional epic Ramacharitam (12th century)
14432-529: The Deccan region, Dharmapala built a mighty empire in the northern India. He defeated Indrayudha of Kannauj , and installed his own nominee Chakrayudha on the throne of Kannauj. Several other smaller states in North India also acknowledged his suzerainty, as far as Jalandhara . Soon, his expansion was checked by Vatsaraja's son Nagabhata II , who conquered Kannauj and drove away Chakrayudha. Nagabhata II then advanced up to Munger and defeated Dharmapala in
14608-645: The East India Company, a French company established a significant textile mill in Jugidiya, a hub for various industries, near the mouth of the Feni River. In 1765, the East India Company gained the authority to collect taxes in Jugidiya and other areas by becoming the official tax collector ( diwan ) for the Mughal emperor, thereby legitimizing its control over the region. In 1770, the East India Company's ineptitude and exploitative tax policies precipitated
14784-750: The Gangas managed to annexe the region only after his death. Ramapala maintained friendly relations with the Chola king Kulottunga to secure support against the common enemies: the Ganas and the Chalukyas. He kept the Senas in check but lost Mithila to a Karnat chief named Nanyadeva who formed his own kingdom based out of Mithila. He also held back the aggressive design of the Gahadavala ruler Govindacharndra through
14960-810: The Indian state of Tripura, experienced demographic shifts and social hurdles. The king of Tripura's significant land holdings in Feni shaped its socio-economic dynamics. Many Hindu families migrated to Tripura and West Bengal , including professionals, leading to a social void. With Hindu educators departing, the education sector faced crisis, while returning Muslims from India added to unemployment. Post- World War II , Bengali workers returning from Burma worsened economic challenges in Feni. After partition, Tripura's population grew, prompting new settlements by flattening hills and clearing forests. This led to changes in river courses, causing floods in Feni, endangering agriculture and causing annual crop and resource losses worth crores . The hastily demarcated Feni-Tripura border by
15136-515: The Kannauj throne, Dharmapala organised an imperial court. According to the Khalimpur copper plate issued by Dharmapala, this court was attended by the rulers of Bhoja (possibly Vidarbha ), Matsya (Jaipur region), Madra (East Punjab), Kuru (Delhi region), Yadu (possibly Mathura, Dwarka or Simhapura in the Punjab), Yavana , Avanti , Gandhara and Kira ( Kangra Valley ). These kings accepted
15312-496: The Mukti Bahini, which launched extensive attacks by land, air, and sea on Pakistani positions. Overwhelmed by these assaults, the invading forces retreated towards Cumilla during the night of 6 December, taking with them the non-Bengali governor of the Feni mahakuma. At dawn the next day, the flag of an independent Bangladesh was raised, eliciting cheers from thousands of people across the Feni region. Eventually, on 16 December,
15488-606: The North") for his suzerainty over North India. In Devapala's own inscription and in the inscription referring to his reign, he is credited with the subjugation of the Gurjaras, Dravidas, Utkalas, Pragjyotisas, Hunas and the Kambhojas: His sons and grandson probably managed to keep the core area of the empire intact. However, the empire started disintegrating shortly after. Narayanapala lost control of Assam and Orissa. It
15664-527: The Pakistani forces formally surrendered in Dhaka, marking Bangladesh's attainment of sovereignty and independence. In the late 1950s, discussions began about making Feni mahakuma a separate district. Despite various attempts over the years, including proposals during Sheikh Mujib's tenure and administrative reforms under Ershad 's government, no progress was made. However, after persistent local protests, Feni
15840-399: The Pala and Sena dynasties influenced the art of Nepal, Burma, Sri Lanka and Java. Most of the Pala inscriptions mention only the regnal year as the date of issue, without any well-known calendar era . Because of this, the chronology of the Pala kings is hard to determine. Based on their different interpretations of the various epigraphs and historical records, different historians estimate
16016-599: The Pala chronology as follows: Note: The highest military officer in the Pala empire was the Mahasenapati (commander-in-chief). The Palas recruited mercenary soldiers from a number of kingdoms, including Malava , Khasa , Huna , Kulika , Mithila , Kanrata , Lata , Odra and Manahali . According to the contemporary accounts, the Rashtrakutas had the best infantry, the Gurjara-Pratiharas had
16192-505: The Pala empire with some success. He ruled from a new capital at Ramavati, which remained the Pala capital until the dynasty's end. He reduced taxation, promoted cultivation and constructed public utilities. He brought Kamarupa and Rar under his control, and forced the Varman king of east Bengal to accept his suzerainty. He also struggled with the Ganga king for control of present-day Orissa;
16368-646: The Radcliffe Boundary Commission led to challenges for local residents. Many farmers found their houses in East Pakistani Feni while their cultivated land remained in Indian Tripura, causing households to straddle two countries. This created the issue of jiratiya , where individuals became citizens of both nations due to the border cutting through their homes. The Muslim League party—the dominant political party of
16544-557: The Vikramashila and the Nalanda universities. Nalanda, considered one of the first great universities in recorded history, reached its height under the patronage of the Palas. Noted Buddhist scholars from the Pala period include Atisha , Santaraksita , Saraha , Tilopa , Bimalamitra, Dansheel, Dansree, Jinamitra, Jnanasrimitra, Manjughosh, Muktimitra, Padmanava, Sambhogabajra, Shantarakshit, Silabhadra, Sugatasree and Virachan. As
16720-744: The area include P . amygdalus (badaam) , D . blancoi (gaab/velvet apple) , E . jambolana (jaam) , B . flabellifer (palm) , T . indica (tamarind or tetul) , A . heterophyllus (jackfruit) , A . marmelos (wood apple or bael) , D . indica (chalta) , Z . mauritiana (boroi) , and P . guajava (guava) . Additionally, bananas, L . chinensis (lychee) , A . carambola (kaamranga) , A . squamosa (custard apple) , T . chebula (haritaki) , and P . emblica (amloki) grow abundantly in
16896-597: The area. The district is home to indigenous timber trees like A . procera (karoi) and Dipterocarpus ( garjan ) , alongside introduced species such as S . macrophylla (mahogany) . Common trees like E . indica (mandar) are used for fuel and fencing, while B . ceiba (shimul) and N . cadamba (kadam) find use in matchstick and mattress production, respectively. New introductions include E . globulus (eucalyptus) and Pinus (pine) . M . indica (mango wood)
17072-536: The basis of modern standard colloquial Bengali. In the dialects prevalent in much of eastern and south-eastern Bangladesh ( Barisal , Chittagong , Dhaka and Sylhet Divisions of Bangladesh), many of the stops and affricates heard in West Bengal and western Bangladesh are pronounced as fricatives . Western alveolo-palatal affricates চ [ tɕɔ ] , ছ [ tɕʰɔ ] , জ [ dʑɔ ] correspond to eastern চ [tsɔ] , ছ [tsʰɔ~sɔ] , জ [dzɔ~zɔ] . The influence of Tibeto-Burman languages on
17248-626: The basis of several eastern Indian languages in their rule. Palas built grand Buddhist temples and monasteries ( Viharas ), including the Somapura Mahavihara and Odantapuri , and patronised the great universities of Nalanda and Vikramashila . The Pala empire enjoyed relations with the Srivijaya Empire , the Tibetan Empire and the Arab Abbasid Caliphate . Islam first arrived in Bengal during this period as
17424-469: The consonant which comes first is put on top of or to the left of the one that immediately follows. In these ligatures, the shapes of the constituent consonant signs are often contracted and sometimes even distorted beyond recognition. In the Bengali writing system, there are nearly 285 such ligatures denoting consonant clusters. Although there exist a few visual formulas to construct some of these ligatures, many of them have to be learned by rote. Recently, in
17600-431: The country's primary port city of Chittagong to the northern districts, making it a crucial transit point for goods and people moving between the major economic hubs. The district is surrounded by Nangalkot and Chauddagram upazilas of Comilla District , as well as Tripura state of India to the north. To the west and south-west lie Senbagh and Companiganj upazilas of Noakhali District , while Tripura borders it to
17776-455: The country. In India, Bengali is one of the 23 official languages . It is the official language of the Indian states of West Bengal , Tripura and in Barak Valley of Assam . Bengali has been a second official language of the Indian state of Jharkhand since September 2011. In Pakistan , Bengali is a recognised secondary language in the city of Karachi mainly spoken by stranded Bengalis of Pakistan . The Department of Bengali in
17952-604: The development of Dobhashi . Bengali acquired prominence, over Persian, in the court of the Sultans of Bengal with the ascent of Jalaluddin Muhammad Shah . Subsequent Muslim rulers actively promoted the literary development of Bengali, allowing it to become the most spoken vernacular language in the Sultanate. Bengali adopted many words from Arabic and Persian , which was a manifestation of Islamic culture on
18128-419: The district, including snakes, lizards, T . hurum (tortoises) , different species of iguana , N . naja (cobra) , B . melanostictus (toad) , R . maculatus (tree frogs) . Bengali language Bengali , also known by its endonym Bangla ( বাংলা , Bāṅlā , [ˈbaŋla] ), is a classical Indo-Aryan language from
18304-479: The district. Throughout the first phase of the war, Feni remained unoccupied by enemy forces until 22 April. However, desperate to establish communication between Dhaka and Chittagong, the invading forces launched a land attack from the north in Cumilla, eventually gaining control over Feni. After the fall of Feni town, freedom fighters retreated eastward to Chhagalnaiya, where they inflicted significant casualties on
18480-490: The east and north-east. Mirsharai Upazila of Chittagong District lies to the south-east, and the estuary of the Feni River at the Bay of Bengal marks the southern border. The finger-like strip of land that juts out into Tripura in the north is called the Belonia Bulge, bordered by India on three sides. Feni is characterised by its flat terrain, previously featuring hills, mounds, forests, and jungles primarily in
18656-643: The east to Meherpur in the west. The 14th-century court scholar of Bengal, Nur Qutb Alam , composed Bengali poetry using the Persian alphabet . After the Partition of India in the 20th century, the Pakistani government attempted to institute the Perso-Arabic script as the standard for Bengali in East Pakistan ; this was met with resistance and contributed to the Bengali language movement. In
18832-535: The eastern part of Chhagalnaiya and Parshuram upazilas. In the past, the region around Kalidah featured a large wetland, but with the construction of the Kalidas-Pahalia canal in the 1950s, this wetland has been transformed into cultivable land. Feni is traversed by several main rivers including the Feni River , Little Feni River, Muhuri River , Silonia River, and Kahua River, originating from hilly regions further north in India and flowing southwards into
19008-553: The eastern subcontinent, Purbi Apabhraṃśa or Abahatta (lit. 'meaningless sounds'), eventually evolved into regional dialects, which in turn formed three groups, the Bengali–Assamese languages , the Bihari languages , and the Odia language . The language was not static: different varieties coexisted and authors often wrote in multiple dialects in this period. For example, Ardhamagadhi is believed to have evolved into Abahatta around
19184-557: The emergence of Bangladesh in 1971. In 1999, UNESCO recognised 21 February as International Mother Language Day in recognition of the language movement. Although Sanskrit has been spoken by Hindu Brahmins in Bengal since the 3rd century BC, the local Buddhist population spoke varieties of the Prakrit . These varieties are generally referred to as "eastern Magadhi Prakrit ", as coined by linguist Suniti Kumar Chatterji , as
19360-400: The exact boundaries of original kingdom established by Gopala, but it might have included almost all of the Bengal region. The Pala empire extended substantially under Dharmapala's rule. Apart from Bengal, he directly ruled the present-day Bihar. The kingdom of Kannauj (present-day Uttar Pradesh) was a Pala dependency at times, ruled by his nominee Chakrayudha. While installing his nominee on
19536-418: The farmlands of Feni District, a diverse range of crops are cultivated, including local and high-yield variety (HYV) rice, jute, vegetables, spices, pulses, oilseeds, etc. are produced. Although the total forest area in the district, covering 2,179.22 hectares (21.7922 km) is not organised, the plain land is often covered under homestead forests containing diverse fruit and non-fruit trees. Common trees in
19712-466: The final ন in মন [m o n] or the medial ম in গামলা [ɡamla] ). A consonant sound followed by some vowel sound other than the inherent [ɔ] is orthographically realised by using a variety of vowel allographs above, below, before, after, or around the consonant sign, thus forming the ubiquitous consonant-vowel typographic ligatures . These allographs, called কার kar , are diacritical vowel forms and cannot stand on their own. For example,
19888-698: The finest cavalry and the Palas had the largest elephant force. The Arab merchant Sulaiman states that the Palas had an army bigger than those of the Balhara (possibly the Rashtrakutas) and the king of Jurz (possibly the Gurjara-Pratiharas). He also states that the Pala army employed 10,000–15,000 men for fuelling and washing clothes. He further claims that during the battles, the Pala king would lead 50,000 war elephants . Sulaiman's accounts seem to be based on exaggerated reports; Ibn Khaldun mentions
20064-422: The founding father of Bangladesh, was permitted to host a rally in Feni during Yahya Khan 's rule, marking it as the first area he visited after Dhaka. After his influential speech on 7 March 1971 , urging people to take up arms for independence, the people of Feni displayed great enthusiasm by forming a Rastrabhasha Sangram Parishad resistance committee ( lit. ' struggle council ' ), contributing to
20240-726: The government of Ahmad Tejan Kabbah declared Bengali as an honorary official language in December 2002. In 2009, elected representatives in both Bangladesh and West Bengal called for Bengali to be made an official language of the United Nations . Regional varieties in spoken Bengali constitute a dialect continuum . Linguist Suniti Kumar Chatterji grouped the dialects of Bengali language into four large clusters: Rarhi , Vangiya , Kamrupi and Varendri ; but many alternative grouping schemes have also been proposed. The south-western dialects ( Rarhi or Nadia dialect) form
20416-499: The graph মি [mi] represents the consonant [m] followed by the vowel [i] , where [i] is represented as the diacritical allograph ি (called ই-কার i-kar ) and is placed before the default consonant sign. Similarly, the graphs মা [ma] , মী [mi] , মু [mu] , মূ [mu] , মৃ [mri] , মে [me~mɛ] , মৈ [moj] , মো [mo] and মৌ [mow] represent the same consonant ম combined with seven other vowels and two diphthongs. In these consonant-vowel ligatures,
20592-412: The graphical form. However, since this change is not as widespread and is not being followed as uniformly in the rest of the Bengali printed literature, today's Bengali-learning children will possibly have to learn to recognise both the new "transparent" and the old "opaque" forms, which ultimately amounts to an increase in learning burden. Bengali punctuation marks, apart from the downstroke । daṛi –
20768-472: The independence of eastern Bengal at Sonargaon. After the establishment of the independent Sultanate of Sonargaon , Fakhruddin set up a military camp in Feni while aiming to conquer Chittagong, overseeing the construction of a mosque and excavation of a reservoir in the region. In an effort to enhance connectivity within his realm, he contributed to the construction of a lengthy highway from Chandpur to Chittagong, passing through Comilla and Feni. In later times,
20944-591: The installation of Chakrayudha on the Kannauj throne, while "bowing down respectfully with their diadems trembling". This indicates that his position as a sovereign was accepted by most rulers, although this was a loose arrangement unlike the empire of the Mauryas or the Guptas . The other rulers acknowledged the military and political supremacy of Dharmapala, but maintained their own territories. The poet Soddhala of Gujarat calls Dharmapala an Uttarapathasvamin ("Lord of
21120-526: The invaders and seized arms, despite later facing air attacks. With enemy forces concentrated in Feni town, other parts of Feni, including Sonagazi, were relatively free from occupation, allowing freedom fighters to regain control of strategic routes and achieve victories. In July and August, local collaborators known as razakars emerged, committing atrocities such as killings and arson. Feni's proximity to Tripura in India enabled freedom fighters to receive military training and employ guerrilla tactics against
21296-633: The invading forces and their collaborators in the second phase of the war. During the war, notable figures such as Sultan Mahmud , a former officer of the Pakistan Air Force , Salahuddin Mumtaz , Amin Ahmed Chowdhury , and Jafar Imam emerged, contributing significantly to various aspects of the war and Feni's development. Following Pakistan's invasion of western India on 3 December, India officially recognised Bangladesh, energising
21472-483: The invasions of Mahmud of Ghazni , which exhausted the strength of other rulers of North India. He may have also conquered Varanasi and surrounding area, as his brothers Sthirapala and Vasantapala undertook construction and repairs of several sacred structures at Varanasi. Later, the Kalachuri king Gangeyadeva annexed Varanasi after defeating the ruler of Anga, which was probably Mahipala's son Nayapala. Nayapala,
21648-494: The language as: While most writing is in Standard Colloquial Bengali (SCB), spoken dialects exhibit a greater variety. People in southeastern West Bengal, including Kolkata, speak in SCB. Other dialects, with minor variations from Standard Colloquial, are used in other parts of West Bengal and western Bangladesh, such as the Midnapore dialect, characterised by some unique words and constructions. However,
21824-407: The language movement peak in 1952. Despite orders, students organized public rallies and political movements, continuing well into Ayub Khan 's military rule. Abdus Salam , a journalist, played a significant role in the language movement of Dhaka and ultimately sacrificed his life for the cause. After the 1954 legislative elections , Feni underwent a flurry of socio-economic advancements, including
22000-547: The language. Major texts of Middle Bengali (1400–1800) include Yusuf-Zulekha by Shah Muhammad Sagir and Srikrishna Kirtana by the Chandidas poets. Court support for Bengali culture and language waned when the Mughal Empire conquered Bengal in the late 16th and early 17th century. The modern literary form of Bengali was developed during the 19th and early 20th centuries based on the west-central dialect spoken in
22176-446: The late 18th century, formally establishing Feni as a sub-division in 1876. Significant infrastructure development, including schools, colleges, roads and railways, occurred in the early 20th century. Feni's students played a vital role during Bangladesh's language movement in the mid-20th century and subsequent liberation war , ultimately gaining independence from Pakistan on 6 December 1971. While there are disagreements surrounding
22352-544: The latter being particularly valuable for its juice, which is used to make jaggery , and its leaves, which are used for large fans. Betel nut and coconut are significant sources of household income. Shady trees in the area include F . indica (banyan) , F . religiosa (peepal) , and A . indica (neem) . Although plantations of cane, bamboo, and thatching grass are gradually decreasing, they are still widely used for various purposes such as fencing, basket making, and thatching. Cane
22528-428: The letter ত tô and the numeral ৩ "3" are distinguishable only by the presence or absence of the matra , as is the case between the consonant cluster ত্র trô and the independent vowel এ e , also the letter হ hô and Bengali Ôbogroho ঽ (~ô) and letter ও o and consonant cluster ত্ত ttô . The letter-forms also employ the concepts of letter-width and letter-height (the vertical space between
22704-402: The matter, it is generally believed that the settlement of Feni derived its name from the river of the same name, rather than the other way around. The origin of the name "Feni" itself is surrounded by various local legends, complicating efforts to determine its true source. However, most legends commonly suggest that the name is connected to the word phoni (Bengali: ফনী ). The evolution of
22880-618: The medieval era, the arrival of Sufis from Arabia and Central Asia profoundly influenced Bengal 's coastal regions. Promoting values of tolerance and love, they amalgamated Islamic teachings with local customs, shaping a distinctive cultural identity. By the onset of the Middle Ages, Muslims formed the majority in the Noakhali region, despite the absence of Muslim rule. During the rule of Muhammad bin Tughluq , eastern Bengal came under
23056-550: The middle of April and extends until the middle of June. During this period, the district experiences a maximum mean temperature of 34.5 °C (94.1 °F) and a minimum mean temperature of 12.4 °C (54.3 °F). The level of humidity varies, with a minimum of around 20% in January and reaching close to 100% in July. Additionally, the average annual rainfall in the district is recorded at 3,302 millimetres (130.0 in). In
23232-543: The mouth of the Feni River in Jugidiya. Its jurisdiction extended over significant portions of present-day Sonagazi and Companiganj . This station served as the frontier outpost of the Mughal province of Bengal in the far southeast during that period, facing repeated attacks from the Arakan Kingdom . The Feni region was pivotal during the Mughal conquest of Chittagong, acting as the border with Arakan-held territory. Having been under Mughal control for fifty years, Feni
23408-605: The neighbouring states of Odisha , Bihar , and Jharkhand , and sizeable minorities of Bengali speakers reside in Indian cities outside Bengal, including Delhi , Mumbai , Thane , Varanasi , and Vrindavan . There are also significant Bengali-speaking communities in the Middle East , the United States , Singapore , Malaysia , Australia , Canada , the United Kingdom , and Italy . The 3rd article of
23584-578: The new name, Devaraksita. At this point, he made peace with the Palas by marrying the daughter of Mahana Pala (uncle of Ramapala). His dynasty became known as the Pithipatis . Ramapala was the final strong Pala Emperor, although his son Kumarapala managed to keep most of his territories. After his death, a rebellion broke out in Kamarupa during his son Kumarapala's reign. The rebellion was crushed by Vaidyadeva, minister of Kumarapala. Vaidyadeva also won
23760-489: The night following their election. Gopal, however managed to kill the queen and remained on the throne. The historical evidence indicates that Gopala was not elected directly by his citizens, but by a group of feudal chieftains. Such elections were quite common in contemporary societies of the region. Gopala's ascension in 750 CE was a significant political event as several independent chiefs recognised his political authority without any struggle, consolidating his power over
23936-602: The northern districts. The district's population stood at 1.6 million in 2022, ranking 42nd among 64 districts and 4th least populous in Chittagong Division. Established as Bangladesh's 61st district in 1984 with its administrative hub in Feni city , it was previously a sub-division under Noakhali District . The district comprises six upazilas (sub-districts): Sonagazi , Fulgazi , Parshuram , Daganbhuiyan , Chhagalnaiya and Feni Sadar . Deriving its name from
24112-539: The northern regions of Chittagong. Additionally, during the medieval period , the Kingdom of Tripura exerted significant influence over the Feni and Comilla regions, with the eastern part of Feni being part of the district of Tripura during the British colonial period, which also encompassed the modern district of Comilla. During the medieval era, a nobleman belonging to the Sur Dynasty named Nizam Shah established
24288-415: The numbers produced were increasing. These were mostly made for domestic shrines of the well-off, and from monasteries. Gradually, Hindu figures come to outnumber Buddhist ones, reflecting the terminal decline of Indian Buddhism, even in east India, its last stronghold. As noted earlier, the Palas built a number of monasteries and other sacred structures. The Somapura Mahavihara in present-day Bangladesh
24464-517: The parliament of Bangladesh and the legislative assembly of West Bengal proposed that Bengali be made an official UN language. As of January 2023, no further action has been yet taken on this matter. However, in 2022, the UN did adopt Bangla as an unofficial language, after a resolution tabled by India. In 2024, the government of India conferred Bengali with the status of classical language . Approximate distribution of native Bengali speakers (assuming
24640-399: The preparation for the impending conflict. During the liberation war, Feni was a main supply route for the Pakistani occupation forces, serving as a vital line of communication for transporting troops, arms, and ammunition from the port city of Chittagong to the capital city Dhaka and other parts of the country. In the early stages, Khwaja Ahmed , head of the resistance committee, organised
24816-504: The process, succeeded to humble the rulers, acquiring considerable booty. The rulers of Bengal who were defeated by Rajendra Chola were Dharmapal, Ranasur and Govindachandra, who might have been feudatories under Mahipala I of the Pala Dynasty. Rajendra Chola I also defeated Mahipala, and obtained from the Pala king "elephants of rare strength, women and treasure". Mahipala also gained control of north and south Bihar, probably aided by
24992-494: The reference to the two pheni rivers indicates the transformation of the word phoni into pheni or Feni. The Feni region, situated in eastern Greater Noakhali (historically known as Bhulua), is believed by scholars to have an ancient history, despite its relatively recent addition to the country's administrative landscape. Historical records indicate the presence of human settlements dating back five thousand years ago within this region. According to folklore, this area
25168-451: The region made him the king. Taranatha, writing nearly 800 years later, also writes that he was democratically elected by the people of Bengal. However, his account is in form of a legend, and is considered historically unreliable. The legend mentions that after a period of anarchy, the people elected several kings in succession, all of whom were consumed by the Naga queen of an earlier king on
25344-462: The region who arrived in late 16th century. Greater Noakhali fell under Mughal rule after they invaded the Bhulua Kingdom—which stretched as far as a portion of Comilla—and ousted its king Ananta Manikya in 1611, led by Subahdar Islam Khan . To ensure control over the newly acquired territories, the Mughals set up a police station ( thana ), serving as the administrative hub of the area, at
25520-611: The region—exhibited limited internal democracy and suppressed dissent in Feni, resulting in political, social, and cultural stagnation. However, Feni College emerged as a significant institution during this period. In 1948, it established a student council with a unique democratic structure, featuring direct student elections, unlike the prevalent indirect election systems (through elected representatives) or faculty-appointed bodies elsewhere. These elections sparked discussions among local intellectuals and politicians, encouraging broader public engagement. The elected student council leader became
25696-515: The role of governor of the mahakuma, overseeing significant developments that earned him the moniker of the true architect of Feni. Furthermore, in 1895 and 1920, two pivotal railway lines, namely the Assam Bengal railway and the Feni– Belonia branch line, were constructed, vastly improving Feni's connectivity and contributing to its development. Syed Amir Uddin, also known as Pagla Miah, was
25872-644: The rulers of Gautama Buddha 's land, the Palas acquired great reputation in the Buddhist world. Balaputradeva, the Sailendra king of Java, sent an ambassador to him, asking for a grant of five villages for the construction of a monastery at Nalanda. The request was granted by Devapala. He appointed the Brahmin Viradeva (of Nagarahara , present-day Jalalabad) as the head of the Nalanda monastery. The Buddhist poet Vajradatta (the author of Lokesvarashataka),
26048-533: The same year, the Manikya king of Tripura acquired land rights in the Roshnabad estate under the new system, including parts of Feni, compelling anti-English landowners to cede their land. During the British colonial period, administrative units known as thanas were established under district collectorates, forming administrative unions within the district. In a subsequent phase of administrative decentralization,
26224-427: The so-called "inherent" vowel [ɔ] is first expunged from the consonant before adding the vowel, but this intermediate expulsion of the inherent vowel is not indicated in any visual manner on the basic consonant sign ম [mɔ] . The vowel graphemes in Bengali can take two forms: the independent form found in the basic inventory of the script and the dependent, abridged, allograph form (as discussed above). To represent
26400-402: The son of Mahipala I, defeated the Kalachuri king Karna (son of Ganggeyadeva) after a long struggle. The two later signed a peace treaty at the mediation of the Buddhist scholar Atiśa . During the reign of Nayapala's son Vigrahapala III, Karna once again invaded Bengal but was defeated. The conflict ended with a peace treaty, and Vigrahapala III married Karna's daughter Yauvanasri. Vigrahapala III
26576-400: The son of Surapala I, is still unknown. After Gopala II, Dharmapala's line came to an end for reasons which are not known yet. Dharmapala's descendants, if any, were passed over as Dharmapala's younger brother, Vakapala's lineage assumed the throne. Shortly afterwards, the empire gradually started disintegrating. Vakapala's grandson and Jayapala's son, Vigrahapala I abdicated the throne after
26752-432: The south. Subsequently, additional support arrived from Chittagong, reinforcing their defensive positions. Intense confrontations ensued around Shuvapur and Gopal Union as Pakistani forces attempted to cross the Feni River, resulting in significant casualties on their side. The control of the Feni River was crucial due to the strategic importance of Shuvapur road bridge and Dhumghat rail bridge as vital transportation links for
26928-427: The straightening of Silonia and Muhuri rivers (which also saw construction of a dam), digging of Kalidas-Pahalia canal, and development of key infrastructure like bridges and roads. Efforts were made to establish industries such as textile mills, and the town of Feni was incorporated, with initiatives to provide supply of electricity. Following his release from imprisonment on sedition charges , Sheikh Mujibur Rahman ,
27104-424: The structures at Somapura Mahavihara, which also features several themes from the epics Ramayana and Mahabharata . Mahipala I also ordered construction and repairs of several sacred structures at Saranath, Nalanda and Bodh Gaya. The Mahipala geet ("songs of Mahipala"), a set of folk songs about him, are still popular in the rural areas of Bengal. The Palas developed the Buddhist centres of learnings, such as
27280-443: The subcontinent. The Pala period is considered one of the golden eras of Bengali history. The Palas brought stability and prosperity to Bengal after centuries of civil war between warring divisions. They advanced the achievements of previous Bengali civilisations and created outstanding works of arts and architecture. The Charyapada in Proto-Bengali language was written by Buddhist Mahasiddhas of tantric tradition, which laid
27456-437: The suffix Pāla ("protector" in Sanskrit ). The empire was founded with the election of Gopāla as the emperor of Gauda in late eighth century CE. The Pala stronghold was located in Bengal and eastern Bihar , which included the major cities of Gauḍa , Vikramapura , Pāṭaliputra , Monghyr , Somapura , Ramavati ( Varendra ), Tāmralipta and Jagaddala . The Pālas were astute diplomats and military conquerors. Their army
27632-536: The superposed chôndrôbindu (ঁ) , denoting a suprasegmental for nasalisation of vowels (as in চাঁদ [tʃãd] "moon"), the postposed ônusbar (ং) indicating the velar nasal [ŋ] (as in বাংলা [baŋla] "Bengali") and the postposed bisôrgô (ঃ) indicating the voiceless glottal fricative [h] (as in উঃ! [uh] "ouch!") or the gemination of the following consonant (as in দুঃখ [dukʰːɔ] "sorrow"). The Bengali consonant clusters ( যুক্তব্যঞ্জন juktôbênjôn ) are usually realised as ligatures, where
27808-474: The third place, according to the 2011 census of India . Bengali has developed over more than 1,400 years. Bengali literature , with its millennium-old literary history, was extensively developed during the Bengali Renaissance and is one of the most prolific and diverse literary traditions in Asia. The Bengali language movement from 1948 to 1956 demanding that Bengali be an official language of Pakistan fostered Bengali nationalism in East Bengal leading to
27984-422: The time of Madanapala's death, the Pala kingdom was confined to parts of central and east Bihar along with northern Bengal. The Pala rule was monarchial. The king was the centre of all power. Pala kings would adopt imperial titles like Parameshwara , Paramvattaraka , Maharajadhiraja . Pala kings appointed Prime Ministers. The Line of Garga served as the Prime Ministers of the Palas for 100 years. Pala Empire
28160-426: The title Maharajadhiraja , and established a separate kingdom, later ruled by the Chandra dynasty . The Gauda state (West and North Bengal) was ruled by the Kamboja Pala dynasty . The rulers of this dynasty also bore names ending in the suffix -pala (e.g. Rajyapala , Narayanapala and Nayapala ). However, their origin is uncertain, and the most plausible view is that they originated from a Pala official who usurped
28336-502: The title Paramesvara Paramabhattaraka Maharajadhiraja . Dharmapala was succeeded by his son Devapala, who is regarded as the most powerful Pala Emperor. His expeditions resulted in the invasion of Pragjyotisha (present-day Assam) where the king submitted without giving a fight and the Utkala (present-day Northern Odisha) whose king fled from his capital city. The inscriptions of his successors also claim several other territorial conquests by him, but these are possibly exaggerated (see
28512-484: The visible matra and an invisible baseline). There is yet to be a uniform standard collating sequence (sorting order of graphemes to be used in dictionaries, indices, computer sorting programs, etc.) of Bengali graphemes. Experts in both Bangladesh and India are currently working towards a common solution for this problem. Throughout history, there have been instances of the Bengali language being written in different scripts, though these employments were never popular on
28688-435: The vocabulary may differ according to the speaker's religion: Muslims are more likely to use words of Persian and Arabic origin, along with more words naturally derived from Sanskrit ( tadbhava ), whereas Hindus are more likely to use tatsama (words directly borrowed from Sanskrit). For example: The phonemic inventory of standard Bengali consists of 29 consonants and 7 vowels, as well as 7 nasalised vowels . The inventory
28864-429: The whole of Bengal including Gaur, Varendra and Banga, also extending his rule over parts of Magadha . According to R. C. Majumdar , Gopala ruled till 770 CE. Gopala's empire was greatly expanded by his son Dharmapala and his grandson Devapala . Dharmapala was initially defeated by the Pratihara ruler Vatsaraja . Later, the Rashtrakuta king Dhruva defeated both Dharmapala and Vatsaraja. After Dhruva left for
29040-421: The word "Feni" or pheni is evident in historical texts spanning several centuries. Writers and poets in the 15th and 16th centuries wrote about the area, referring to the word phoni as both a river stream and a ghat for ferry crossing. The emergence of the word pheni appears to be evident in the language of Muslim poets and writers, such as the 17th-century Persian book Baharistan-i-Ghaibi , where
29216-470: Was divided into separate Bhukti s (Provinces). Bhuktis were divided into Vishaya s (Divisions) and Mandala s (Districts). Smaller units were Khandala , Bhaga , Avritti , Chaturaka , and Pattaka. Administration covered widespread area from the grass root level to the imperial court. The Pala copperplates mention following administrative posts: The Palas were patrons of Mahayana Buddhism . A few sources written much after Gopala's death mention him as
29392-411: Was finally established as the 61st district of Bangladesh on 1 March 1984, encompassing 395 square miles (1,020 km) of land. Feni is one of the smallest districts of Bangladesh, covering a total area of 928.34 square kilometres (358.43 sq mi). Situated along the strategic Dhaka–Chittagong transportation corridor at Bangladesh's south-eastern border, it serves as the sole entry point linking
29568-637: Was in his court. The Buddhist scholars from the Pala empire travelled from Bengal to other regions to propagate Buddhism. Atisha, for example, preached in Tibet and Sumatra , and is seen as one of the major figures in the spread of 11th-century Mahayana Buddhism. The Palas continued to patronise Shaivism , and epigraphic evidence suggests that Mahipala I and Nayapala were initiated as Shaivites by their royal preceptors. Vigrahapala III's Amagachi inscription describes him as "devoted to Śiva worship", and this tradition continued under his successor Ramapala. Poet Sandhyakar Nandi describes Ramapala's son Madanapala as
29744-405: Was later defeated by the invading Chalukya king Vikramaditya VI . Vigrahapala III also faced another invasion led by the Somavamsi king Mahasivagupta Yayati of Orissa. Subsequently, a series of invasions considerably reduced the power of the Palas. The Varmans occupied eastern Bengal during his reign. The successor and older son of Vighrahapala III by his wife Yauvanashri, Mahipala II's reign
29920-435: Was noted for its vast war elephant corps. Their navy performed both mercantile and defensive roles in the Bay of Bengal . At its zenith under emperors Dharmapala and Devapala in the early ninth century, Pala empire was the dominant power in the northern Indian subcontinent, with its territory stretching across the Gangetic plain to include some parts northeastern India, Nepal and Bangladesh . Dharmapala also exerted
30096-420: Was once home to a flourishing society that settled near the legendary seas of Billasagar or Sukh Sagar , showcasing the region's deep-rooted past. Scholars trace the arrival of Aryans to the Ganges Delta near Feni, marking a significant epoch in its history. Prehistorical discoveries in Feni dating back to the kingdom of Gangaridai further underscore Feni's importance, suggesting it may have served as
30272-410: Was part of the ancient Pattikera Kingdom, possibly serving as a trade route connecting the kingdom with Burma (present-day Myanmar). The artificial lake called বিজয়সিন , bijoysen in Mahipal reflects the era of Vijaya Sena 's rule, belonging to the Sena dynasty . During the 13th century, the kingdom of Bhulua emerged, encompassing the area that comprises the present-day Noakhali region. During
30448-515: Was strategically fortified along the riverside to repel potential Arakanese attacks. After the Mughal conquest of Chittagong, they established a thriving city called Amirgaon in southern Feni, but it was eventually swallowed by the Feni River. After the death of Aurangzeb 's, the Mughal Empire began to fragment, leading to the rise of Nawabs in Bengal in the early 18th century. Nawab Murshid Quli Khan , seeking to boost tax revenue, divided Feni's largest pargana (administrative unit). Under his rule,
30624-444: Was the last strong Pala ruler, who gained control of Kamarupa and Kalinga . The empire was considerably weakened with many areas engulfed and their heavy dependence on Samantas being exposed through 11th century rebellion . It finally led to the rise of resurgent Hindu Senas as sovereign power in the 12th century and final expulsion of the Palas from Bengal by their hands marking the end of last major Buddhist imperial power in
30800-510: Was the son of a warrior named Vapyata. The Ramacharitam attests that Varendra ( North Bengal ) was the fatherland ( Janakabhu ) of the Palas. The ethnic origins of the dynasty are unknown, although later records claim that Gopala was a Kshatriya or descended from the legendary Solar dynasty . The Ballala-Carita states that the Palas were Kshatriyas, a claim reiterated by Taranatha in his History of Buddhism in India as well as Ghanaram Chakrabarty in his Dharmamangala (both written in
30976-524: Was thought he also briefly lost control over Magadha and north Bengal, although it has now been debunked. Gopala III suffered serious reverses at the hands of the Chandra king, and ruled only from a part of northern Bengal. The Pala empire disintegrated into smaller kingdoms during the reign of Vigrahapala II. Mahipala recovered parts of Bengal, Bihar and up to Varansi. His successors lost east and south Bengal again. The last strong Pala ruler, Ramapala, gained control of Bengal, Bihar, Assam and parts of Orissa. By
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