The Six Frontier Towns ( simplified Chinese : 六镇 ; traditional Chinese : 六鎮 ), also known as the Six Garrisons and the Northern Frontier Towns ( simplified Chinese : 北镇 ; traditional Chinese : 北鎮 ), were six military towns located in the Hetao region of the Northern Wei dynasty of China. The government established the towns during the Huangshi and Yanhe eras to prevent the southward invasion by the Rouran Khaganate . These towns were, from west to east, Woye, Huaishuo, Wuchuan, Fumin, Rouxuan and Huaihuang.
119-594: The town of Woye was initially located in the old city of Woye of the Han dynasty , southwest of today's Linhe in Inner Mongolia . It was later relocated to Shuofang , north of today's Hanggin Banner . The town of Huaishuo was located in southwest of today's Guyang , Inner Mongolia. Later its name was changed to Shuozhou. The town of Wuchuan was located in the west of today's Wuchuan , Inner Mongolia. In 528, it became
238-644: A limited engagement at Mayi involving the assassination of the Chanyu would throw the Xiongnu realm into chaos and benefit the Han. When this plot failed in 133 BC, Emperor Wu launched a series of massive military invasions into Xiongnu territory. The assault culminated in 119 BC at the Battle of Mobei , when Han commanders Huo Qubing ( d. 117 BC ) and Wei Qing ( d. 106 BC ) forced
357-595: A Greek sailor had visited. Emperor Zhang 's ( r. 75–88 AD ) reign came to be viewed by later Eastern Han scholars as the high point of the dynastic house. Subsequent reigns were increasingly marked by eunuch intervention in court politics and their involvement in the violent power struggles of the imperial consort clans . In 92 AD, with the aid of the eunuch Zheng Zhong ( d. 107 AD ), Emperor He ( r. 88–105 AD ) had Empress Dowager Dou ( d. 97 AD ) put under house arrest and her clan stripped of power. This
476-463: A change which debased the value of coinage. Although these reforms provoked considerable opposition, Wang's regime met its ultimate downfall with the massive floods of c. 3 AD and 11 AD. Gradual silt build-up in the Yellow River had raised its water level and overwhelmed the flood control works . The Yellow River split into two new branches: one emptying to the north and
595-448: A coalition of former officials and officers against Dong, who burned Luoyang to the ground and resettled the court at Chang'an in May 191 AD. Dong Zhuo later poisoned Emperor Shao. Dong was killed by his adopted son Lü Bu ( d. 198 AD ) in a plot hatched by Wang Yun ( d. 192 AD ). Emperor Xian fled from Chang'an in 195 AD to the ruins of Luoyang. Xian
714-416: A coup against the eunuchs Hou Lan ( d. 172 AD ), Cao Jie ( d. 181 AD ), and Wang Fu ( 王甫 ). When the plot was uncovered, the eunuchs arrested Empress Dowager Dou ( d. 172 AD ) and Chen Fan. General Zhang Huan ( 張奐 ) favoured the eunuchs. He and his troops confronted Dou Wu and his retainers at the palace gate where each side shouted accusations of treason against
833-527: A descendant of Emperor Jing ( r. 157–141 BC ), attempted to restore the Han dynasty and occupied Chang'an as his capital. However, he was overwhelmed by the Red Eyebrow rebels who deposed, assassinated, and replaced him with the puppet monarch Liu Penzi . Gengshi's distant cousin Liu Xiu, known posthumously as Emperor Guangwu ( r. 25–57 AD ), after distinguishing himself at
952-472: A district (郡). The town of Fumin was located in the southeast of today's Siziwang Banner . The town of Rouxuan was located in the northwest of today's Xinghe , Inner Mongolia. The town of Huaihuang was located in the northwest of today's Chicheng , Hebei . The fall of Northern Wei began with rebellions staged by the populations of the Six Garrisons. Conventional narratives state that the location of
1071-526: A false impression that Chu had fallen to Han forces. The Chu army's morale plummeted and many soldiers deserted. Xiang Yu attempted to break out the siege and was left with only 28 men when he reached the northern bank of the Wu River ( 烏江 ; near present-day He County , Anhui). He made a last stand and managed to slay hundreds of Han officers and soldiers before he was eventually overwhelmed and committed suicide by slitting his throat. After Xiang Yu's death,
1190-769: A higher title, "Emperor Yi of Chu". Shortly after that, he exiled the figurehead emperor to Chen County ( 郴縣 ; present-day Chenzhou , Hunan ), and secretly ordered Ying Bu , the King of Jiujiang, to intercept and assassinate Emperor Yi along the way. In 206 BCE, after the former Qin Empire was divided into the Eighteen Kingdoms , Liu Bang was made King of Han and relocated to the Ba–Shu region (present-day Chongqing and Sichuan ) along with 30,000 troops and thousands of civilians. Upon reaching his destination, Liu Bang ordered
1309-610: A messenger to meet Ying Bu , the King of Jiujiang, to persuade Ying Bu to support him. In November, after Han Xin's victory at the Battle of Jingxing , Ying Bu agreed to join Liu Bang and rebelled against Xiang Yu. Upon learning about it, Xiang Yu sent Long Ju to attack Ying Bu. In the sixth lunar month of 205 BCE, Liu Bang named his son Liu Ying as his heir apparent and put him in charge of Yueyang ( 櫟陽 ; present-day Yanliang District , Xi'an). Shortly after, Han forces conquered Feiqiu ( 廢丘 ; present-day Xingping , Shaanxi), which
SECTION 10
#17327721400051428-413: A permanent impact on Chinese identity in later periods. The majority ethnic group of modern China refer to themselves as the " Han people " or "Han Chinese". The spoken Chinese and written Chinese are referred to respectively as the "Han language" and " Han characters ". The Han emperor was at the pinnacle of Han society and culture . He presided over the Han government but shared power with both
1547-578: A request by Kushan ruler Vima Kadphises ( r. c. 90 – c. 100 AD – ) for a marriage alliance with the Han was rejected in AD ;90, he sent his forces to Wakhan (modern-day Afghanistan) to attack Ban Chao. The conflict ended with the Kushans withdrawing because of lack of supplies. In AD 91, the office of Protector General of the Western Regions
1666-428: A series of reforms that limited the power of these kingdoms in 145, dividing their former territories into new commanderies under central control. Kings were no longer able to appoint their own staff; this duty was assumed by the imperial court. Kings became nominal heads of their fiefs and collected a portion of tax revenues as their personal incomes. The kingdoms were never entirely abolished and existed throughout
1785-461: A state pension and a territorial fiefdom . Holders of the rank immediately below, that of ordinary marquess, received a pension, but had no territorial rule. Scholar-bureaucrats who served in government belonged to the wider commoner social class and were ranked just below nobles in social prestige. The highest government officials could be enfeoffed as marquesses. Chu%E2%80%93Han Contention The Chu–Han Contention ( 楚漢相爭 ), also known as
1904-545: A successful overthrow of her regime to enthrone Emperor Shun of Han ( r. 125–144 AD ). Yan was placed under house arrest, her relatives were either killed or exiled, and her eunuch allies were slaughtered. The regent Liang Ji ( d. 159 AD ), brother of Empress Liang Na ( d. 150 AD ), had the brother-in-law of Consort Deng Mengnü ( d. 165 AD ) killed after Deng Mengnü resisted Liang Ji's attempts to control her. Afterward, Emperor Huan employed eunuchs to depose Liang Ji, who
2023-474: A war to determine who would have hegemony over China, which had fissured into Eighteen Kingdoms , each claiming allegiance to either Xiang Yu or Liu Bang. Although Xiang Yu proved to be an effective commander, Liu Bang defeated him at the Battle of Gaixia (202 BC) in modern-day Anhui . Liu Bang assumed the title of Emperor at the urging of his followers and is known posthumously as Emperor Gaozu ( r. 202–195 BC ). Chang'an (modern Xi'an)
2142-493: Is now northern Sichuan and southern Shaanxi , was not quelled until 215 AD. Zhang Jue's massive rebellion across eight provinces was annihilated by Han forces within a year; however, the following decades saw much smaller recurrent uprisings. Although the Yellow Turbans were defeated, many generals appointed during the crisis never disbanded their assembled militias and used these troops to amass power outside of
2261-602: Is recorded in the Weilüe and Book of Later Han to have reached the court of Emperor Huan of Han ( r. 146–168 AD ) in AD 166, yet Rafe de Crespigny asserts that this was most likely a group of Roman merchants . In addition to Roman glasswares and coins found in China, Roman medallions from the reign of Antoninus Pius and his adopted son Marcus Aurelius have been found at Óc Eo in Vietnam. This
2380-538: The Battle of Kunyang in 23 AD, was urged to succeed Gengshi as emperor. Under Guangwu's rule, the Han Empire was restored. Guangwu made Luoyang his capital in 25 AD, and by 27 his officers Deng Yu and Feng Yi had forced the Red Eyebrows to surrender and executed their leaders for treason . From 26 until 36 AD, Emperor Guangwu had to wage war against other regional warlords who claimed
2499-523: The Battle of Wei River , the Chu army's morale fell and it ran short of supplies months later. Xiang Yu had no choice but to request to make peace with Liu Bang and release Liu Bang's family members, who were held hostage by him. Xiang Yu and Liu Bang agreed to a ceasefire at the Treaty of Hong Canal, which divided China into east and west under the Chu and Han domains respectively. In 203 BCE, while Xiang Yu
SECTION 20
#17327721400052618-524: The Battle of Zhizhi , in modern Taraz , Kazakhstan. In 121 BC, Han forces expelled the Xiongnu from a vast territory spanning the Hexi Corridor to Lop Nur . They repelled a joint Xiongnu- Qiang invasion of this northwestern territory in 111 BC. In that same year, the Han court established four new frontier commanderies in this region to consolidate their control: Jiuquan , Zhangyi , Dunhuang , and Wuwei . The majority of people on
2737-743: The Buyeo Kingdom in Manchuria to the Ili River of the Wusun people. The Xianbei reached their apogee under Tanshihuai ( d. AD 181 ), who consistently defeated Chinese armies. However, Tanshihuai's confederation disintegrated after his death. Ban Chao ( d. AD 102 ) enlisted the aid of the Kushan Empire , which controlled territory across South and Central Asia, to subdue Kashgar and its ally Sogdiana. When
2856-816: The Chu–Han Contention , the resulting Han dynasty was named after the Hanzhong fief. China's first imperial dynasty was the Qin dynasty (221–207 BC). The Qin united the Chinese Warring States by conquest, but their regime became unstable after the death of the first emperor Qin Shi Huang . Within four years, the dynasty's authority had collapsed in a rebellion. Two former rebel leaders, Xiang Yu ( d. 202 BC ) of Chu and Liu Bang ( d. 195 BC ) of Han , engaged in
2975-765: The Chu–Han War ( 楚漢戰爭 ), was an interregnum period in Imperial China between the fall of the Qin dynasty and the establishment of the Western Han dynasty . After the third and last Qin ruler, Ziying , unconditionally surrendered to rebel forces in 206 BCE, the former Qin empire was divided by rebel leader Xiang Yu into the Eighteen Kingdoms , which were ruled by various rebel leaders and surrendered Qin generals. A civil war soon broke out, most prominently between two major contending powers – Xiang Yu's Western Chu and Liu Bang 's Han . Some of
3094-763: The Greco-Bactrian Kingdom ); he also gathered information on Shendu (the Indus River valley) and Anxi (the Parthian Empire ). All of these countries eventually received Han embassies. These connections marked the beginning of the Silk Road trade network that extended to the Roman Empire , bringing goods like Chinese silk and Roman glasswares between the two. From c. 115 BC until c. 60 BC , Han forces fought
3213-467: The Xiongnu , a nomadic confederation centred in the eastern Eurasian steppe . The Xiongnu defeated the Han in 200 BC , prompting the Han to appease the Xiongnu with a policy of marriage alliance and payments of tribute, though the Xiongnu continued to raid the Han's northern borders. Han policy changed in 133 BC, under Emperor Wu , when Han forces began a series of military campaigns to quell
3332-584: The Xiongnu , who were estranged from Han until their leader Bi ( 比 ), a rival claimant to the throne against his cousin Punu ( 蒲奴 ), submitted to Han as a tributary vassal in AD 50. This created two rival Xiongnu states: the Southern Xiongnu led by Bi, an ally of Han, and the Northern Xiongnu led by Punu, an enemy of Han. During the turbulent reign of Wang Mang, China lost control over
3451-575: The Yellow Turban Rebellion and Five Pecks of Rice Rebellion in 184 AD, largely because the court did not want to continue to alienate a significant portion of the gentry class who might otherwise join the rebellions. The Yellow Turbans and Five-Pecks-of-Rice adherents belonged to two different hierarchical Taoist religious societies led by faith healers Zhang Jue ( d. 184 AD ) and Zhang Lu ( d. 216 AD ), respectively. Zhang Lu's rebellion, in what
3570-513: The Chinese court officially sponsored Confucianism in education and court politics, synthesized with the cosmology of later scholars such as Dong Zhongshu . The Han dynasty oversaw periods of economic prosperity as well as significant growth in the money economy that had first been established during the Zhou dynasty ( c. 1050 – 256 BC). The coinage minted by
3689-499: The Eastern period. There were significant advances in science and technology during the Han period, including the emergence of papermaking , rudders for steering ships, negative numbers in mathematics , raised-relief maps , hydraulic -powered armillary spheres for astronomy , and seismometers that discerned the cardinal direction of distant earthquakes by use of inverted pendulums . The Han dynasty had many conflicts with
Six Frontier Towns - Misplaced Pages Continue
3808-452: The Han as equal partners in a royal marriage alliance, but the Han were forced to send large amounts of tribute items such as silk clothes, food, and wine to the Xiongnu. Despite the tribute and negotiation between Laoshang Chanyu ( r. 174–160 BC ) and Emperor Wen ( r. 180–157 BC ) to reopen border markets, many of the Chanyu 's subordinates chose not to obey
3927-726: The Imperial University on a dubious charge of treason. In 167 AD, the Grand Commandant Dou Wu ( d. 168 AD ) convinced his son-in-law, Emperor Huan, to release them. However, the emperor permanently barred Li Ying and his associates from serving in office, marking the beginning of the Partisan Prohibitions . Following Huan's death, Dou Wu and the Grand Tutor Chen Fan ( d. 168 AD ) attempted
4046-566: The King of Hán to help him cover his flank. Meanwhile, Zang Tu , the King of Yan , killed Han Guang , the King of Liaodong , seized his lands and proclaimed himself the ruler of the Yan territories. In 205 BCE, after conquering the Three Qins in the Guanzhong region, Liu Bang advanced to the east of Hangu Pass to prepare for an attack on the region that is now Henan . Sima Xin ,
4165-407: The King of Sai, Dong Yi , the King of Di, and Shen Yang , the King of Henan, surrendered to Liu Bang. Zheng Chang , the King of Hán , refused to submit to Liu Bang so Liu Bang sent Hán Xin to attack and defeat him. Liu Bang then replaced Zheng Chang with Hán Xin as the new King of Hán. Zhang Er , the former King of Changshan, joined Liu Bang after losing his domain to Zhao Xie and Chen Yu. In
4284-404: The King of Zhao, and his chancellor, Chen Yu , led an army of 200,000 to resist the Han forces. Li Zuoche, a Zhao general, proposed a plan to trap Han Xin within 10 days: he would lead 30,000 men to disrupt Han Xin's supply route and block his return route, while Chen Yu would defend the frontline firmly and prevent Han Xin from advancing. Chen Yu refused to implement Li's plan. The evening before
4403-478: The Six Garrisons between upper-class military elites and lower-class soldiers and ethnic settlers and was directly triggered by a serious drought causing a massive loss of livestock and leading to the looting of Avars. Six Garrisons were established to protect the Northern Wei regime from the invasion of Rouran and consisted of numerous ethnic groups, such as Xianbei , Han , Gaoche , and Xiongnu . Tribes were
4522-693: The Tarim Basin, which was conquered by the Northern Xiongnu in AD 63 and used as a base to invade the Hexi Corridor in Gansu . Dou Gu ( d. 88 AD ) defeated the Northern Xiongnu at the Battle of Yiwulu in AD 73, evicting them from Turpan and chasing them as far as Lake Barkol before establishing a garrison at Hami. After the new Protector General of the Western Regions Chen Mu ( d. AD 75 )
4641-651: The Three Qins. Han Xin took Zhang Han , the King of Yong, by surprise and defeated him in two consecutive battles. Riding on the tide of victory, Liu Bang proceeded to conquer Longxi (the area in present-day Gansu located west of Mount Long ), Beidi (eastern Gansu and Ningxia ) and Shang (around present-day Yulin, Shaanxi ). He also sent his men to fetch his family in Pei ; present-day Xuzhou , Jiangsu). Upon receiving news of Liu Bang's attacks, Xiang Yu sent an army to Yangjia ( 陽夏 ; present-day Taikang County , Henan) to block Liu Bang's forces, and appointed Zheng Chang as
4760-570: The Three Qis ;– so he waged war against the other kingdoms. He killed Tian Shi, the King of Jiaodong, and Tian An, the King of Jibei. Tian Du, the King of Qi, lost to Tian Rong so he fled and joined Xiang Yu. Tian Rong gained control of the Three Qis and became the new king of the Qi territories. Tian Rong put Peng Yue in command of the Qi army and sent him to attack Xiang Yu. At
4879-514: The Xiongnu court to flee north of the Gobi Desert , and Han forces reached as far north as Lake Baikal . After Wu's reign, Han forces continued to fight the Xiongnu. The Xiongnu leader Huhanye ( r. 58–31 BC ) finally submitted to the Han as a tributary vassal in 51 BC. Huhanye's rival claimant to the throne, Zhizhi Chanyu ( r. 56–36 BC ), was killed by Han forces under Chen Tang and Gan Yanshou ( 甘延壽 ) at
Six Frontier Towns - Misplaced Pages Continue
4998-482: The Xiongnu over control of the oasis city-states in the Tarim Basin. The Han was eventually victorious and established the Protectorate of the Western Regions in 60 BC, which dealt with the region's defence and foreign affairs. The Han also expanded southward . The naval conquest of Nanyue in 111 BC expanded the Han realm into what are now modern Guangdong , Guangxi , and northern Vietnam. Yunnan
5117-534: The Xiongnu rebelled and titled himself the King of Gaoping. The Poliuhan Baling rebellion was defeated in 525. However, similar rebellions had spread to other regions such as Hebei and Guanzhong and were pacified by the Erzhu (爾朱) clan by 530. Many generals who later became prominent after the division of Northern Wei into Western and Eastern Wei (and later Northern Zhou and Northern Qi respectively), including Yuwen Tai , Gao Huan and Hou Jing , took part in
5236-487: The Xiongnu. The Xiongnu were eventually defeated and forced to accept a status as Han vassals , and the Xiongnu confederation fragmented. The Han conquered the Hexi Corridor and Inner Asian territory of the Tarim Basin from the Xiongnu, helping to establish the Silk Road . The lands north of the Han's borders were later overrun by the nomadic Xianbei confederation. Emperor Wu also launched successful conquests in
5355-546: The Yuan brothers, Zhang committed suicide by jumping into the Yellow River. General Dong Zhuo ( d. 192 AD ) found the young emperor and his brother wandering in the countryside. He escorted them safely back to the capital and was made Minister of Works , taking control of Luoyang and forcing Yuan Shao to flee. After Dong Zhuo demoted Emperor Shao and promoted his brother Liu Xie as Emperor Xian, Yuan Shao led
5474-400: The advice of Zhang Liang and Chen Ping , and reluctantly approved Han Xin's request. At the same time, Xiang Yu felt worried after losing Long Ju, so he sent Wu She to attempt to persuade Han Xin to rebel against Liu Bang and declare himself king. However, despite Kuai Tong's urging, Han Xin refused to betray Liu Bang. Han Xin later organised an army to move southward and attack Xiang Yu. On
5593-507: The basic social units, although grouped into militarized garrisons. The upper-class military elites who occupied governing offices mainly included the low-level elites of the Xianbei (including political exiles), other tribe chiefs, and Han strongpersons. The internal conflict between upper-class military elites and lower-class soldiers and ethnic settlers was on the basis of the vulnerable economic base (heavily relied on livestock production and
5712-553: The battle and was captured. When he surrendered, Liu Bang accepted his surrender and appointed him as a general. Within the same month, Han Xin attacked the Kingdom of Dai with support from Zhang Er , the former King of Changshan, scored a decisive victory against Dai, and captured Xia Shuo, the Dai chancellor. After achieving victory over the Kingdom of Dai, Han Xin and Zhang Er attacked the kingdom of Zhao at Jingxing Pass . Zhao Xie ,
5831-579: The battle, Han Xin sent 2,000 horsemen, each carrying a flag of the Han army, to station near the Zhao camp. The next morning, Han Xin feigned defeat in a skirmish with Zhao forces and lured them to follow him, while his 2,000 men took advantage of the situation to capture the weakly defended Zhao camp. Meanwhile, the Zhao soldiers retreated after failing to conquer Han Xin's fort, and were surprised to see that their camp had been occupied by Han forces when they returned. The Zhao army fell into chaos and Han Xin seized
5950-547: The battle, he controlled nine commanderies in the former Liang and Chu territories, with the capital at Pengcheng ( 彭城 ; present-day Xuzhou , Jiangsu). In the meantime, there was another notable rebel leader, Liu Bang , who had originally joined Xiang Yu's rebel army but had since led his own rebel forces. Liu Bang managed to advance into the Guanzhong region, the heartland of the Qin dynasty, and faced minimal resistance along
6069-413: The capital to Luoyang under Emperor Xiaowen and decades of relative peace in the north had sidelined the traditional Xianbei warriors in six garrisons, creating resentment against the reform of Emperor Xiaowen. Their ranks had also grown tainted by the introduction of convicts in penal military service. However, recent studies question this argument. This rebellion was rooted in the internal struggle within
SECTION 50
#17327721400056188-528: The capital was moved eastward to Luoyang. The era from his reign until the fall of Han is known as the Eastern Han or Later Han (25–220 AD). The Eastern Han ( traditional Chinese : 東漢 ; simplified Chinese : 东汉 ; pinyin : Dōnghàn ), also known as the Later Han ( 後漢 ; 后汉 ; Hòuhàn ), formally began on 5 August AD 25, when Liu Xiu became Emperor Guangwu of Han . During
6307-462: The central government in 119 BC remained the standard in China until the Tang dynasty (618–907 AD). The period saw a number of limited institutional innovations. To finance its military campaigns and the settlement of newly conquered frontier territories, the Han government nationalised private salt and iron industries in 117 BC, creating government monopolies that were later repealed during
6426-505: The city of Waihuang. He and Liu Bang reorganised the Han army and established strong Han garrisons in Xingyang and Chenggao . Han Xin also developed his plan to conquer northern China, with the aim that Xiang Yu would be too distracted by Liu Bang and his bases of Xingyang and Chenggao to properly counter Han Xin in the north, nor could he endanger his line of retreat by marching past Xingyang and Chenggao into Guanzhong. Liu Bang then sent
6545-434: The collapsing imperial authority. General-in-chief He Jin ( d. 189 AD ), half-brother to Empress He ( d. 189 AD ), plotted with Yuan Shao ( d. 202 AD ) to overthrow the eunuchs by having several generals march to the outskirts of the capital. There, in a written petition to Empress He, they demanded the eunuchs' execution. After a period of hesitation, Empress He consented. When
6664-412: The destruction of the gallery roads leading into Bashu in order to trick Xiang Yu into believing that he had no intention of leaving Bashu, and as a precautionary move against any attack from outside Bashu. Meanwhile, in the former Qi state , Tian Rong , a Qi noble, was unhappy with how the Qi territories had been split among three kingdoms – Qi, Jiaodong and Jibei, collectively known as
6783-490: The emperor was often a minor, ruled over by a regent such as the empress dowager or one of her male relatives. Ranked immediately below the emperor were the kings who were of the same Liu family clan. The rest of society, including nobles lower than kings and all commoners excluding slaves, belonged to one of twenty ranks ( ershi gongcheng 二十公乘 ). Each successive rank gave its holder greater pensions and legal privileges. The highest rank, of full marquess , came with
6902-593: The empire . The Han dynasty came to an end in 220 AD when Cao Pi , king of Wei , usurped the throne from Emperor Xian . According to the Records of the Grand Historian , after the collapse of the Qin dynasty the hegemon Xiang Yu appointed Liu Bang as prince of the small fief of Hanzhong , named after its location on the Han River (in modern southwest Shaanxi ). Following Liu Bang's victory in
7021-489: The empresses and empresses dowager . Imperial authority was also seriously challenged by large Taoist religious societies which instigated the Yellow Turban Rebellion and the Five Pecks of Rice Rebellion . Following the death of Emperor Ling ( r. 168–189 AD ), the palace eunuchs were massacred by military officers, allowing members of the aristocracy and military governors to become warlords and divide
7140-433: The enemy to follow him. When about a quarter of the Chu army had crossed the river, Han Xin signalled to his men to open the dam. Many Chu soldiers drowned and Long Ju was isolated with only a fraction of his forces. Taking advantage of the situation, Han Xin launched a counterattack. Long Ju was killed in action and the rest of the Chu army disintegrated as Han Xin continued pressing the attack. Tian Guang fled. Han Xin pursued
7259-640: The eunuchs discovered this, however, they had her brother He Miao ( 何苗 ) rescind the order. The eunuchs assassinated He Jin on 22 September 189. Yuan Shao then besieged Luoyang's Northern Palace while his brother Yuan Shu ( d. 199 AD ) besieged the Southern Palace. On September 25 both palaces were breached and approximately two thousand eunuchs were killed. Zhang Rang had previously fled with Emperor Shao ( r. 189 AD ) and his brother Liu Xie—the future Emperor Xian of Han ( r. 189–220 AD ). While being pursued by
SECTION 60
#17327721400057378-427: The family inheritance. His brothers Yuan Shang and Yuan Xi were killed in 207 AD by Gongsun Kang ( d. 221 AD ), who sent their heads to Cao Cao. After Cao's defeat at the naval Battle of Red Cliffs in 208 AD, China was divided into three spheres of influence, with Cao Cao dominating the north, Sun Quan (182–252 AD) dominating the south, and Liu Bei (161–223 AD) dominating
7497-424: The fourth lunar month of 205 BCE, Xiang Yu defeated Tian Rong at Chengyang ( 城陽 ; around present-day Ju County , Shandong). Tian Rong was killed while retreating to Pingyuan (around present-day northwestern Shandong). Although the Kingdom of Qi had surrendered, Xiang Yu still allowed his troops to plunder and loot the Qi territories. Tian Rong's younger brother, Tian Heng , made Tian Guang , Tian Rong's son,
7616-601: The frontier were soldiers. On occasion, the court forcibly moved peasant farmers to new frontier settlements, along with government-owned slaves and convicts who performed hard labour. The court also encouraged commoners, such as farmers, merchants, landowners, and hired labourers, to voluntarily migrate to the frontier. Even before the Han's expansion into Central Asia, diplomat Zhang Qian 's travels from 139 to 125 BC had established Chinese contacts with many surrounding civilizations. Zhang encountered Dayuan ( Fergana ), Kangju ( Sogdiana ), and Daxia ( Bactria , formerly
7735-515: The intention of surrendering, he followed Kuai Tong's advice and launched an attack on Qi. Han Xin conquered Lixia and attacked the Qi capital, Linzi . Tian Guang thought that Li Yiji had lied to him so he had Li Yiji boiled alive. Then, he retreated to Gaomi and requested aid from Xiang Yu. In the meantime, Han Xin conquered Linzi and continued to pursue the retreating Qi forces to Gaomi. Xiang Yu sent Long Ju to lead 200,000 troops to help Tian Guang. After Han Xin defeated Long Ju in battle, Long Ju
7854-453: The new King of Qi, and continued to put up resistance against Xiang Yu. Meanwhile, Liu Bang had mustered an army of about 560,000 with support from the kings who surrendered to him. In the eighth lunar month of 205 BCE, the Chu capital, Pengcheng ( 彭城 ; present-day Xuzhou , Jiangsu), fell to a coalition force led by Liu Bang. When Xiang Yu received news that Liu Bang had occupied Pengcheng, he led 30,000 troops to retake Pengcheng. Liu Bang
7973-512: The next three years. The leaders of these rebellions were either supporters of pretenders to the thrones of the former six states conquered by Qin, or pretenders themselves. Among them, the most notable one was Xiang Yu , a Chu nobleman who wanted to restore the Chu state with King Huai II as its nominal ruler. Xiang Yu led Chu forces to victory over Qin forces at the Battle of Julu and declared himself "Hegemon-King of Western Chu" even though he still paid nominal allegiance to King Huai II. After
8092-564: The nobility and the appointed ministers who came largely from the scholarly gentry class . The Han Empire was divided into areas directly controlled by the central government called commanderies , as well as a number of semi-autonomous kingdoms . These kingdoms gradually lost all vestiges of their independence, particularly following the Rebellion of the Seven States . From the reign of Emperor Wu ( r. 141–87 BC ) onward,
8211-459: The nobility, Wang Mang claimed on 10 January that the divine Mandate of Heaven called for the end of the Han dynasty and the beginning of his own: the Xin dynasty (9–23 AD). Wang Mang initiated a series of major reforms that were ultimately unsuccessful. These reforms included outlawing slavery, nationalizing and equally distributing land between households, and introducing new currencies,
8330-409: The opportunity to destroy Liu Bang. Xiang Yu changed his mind, pressed the attack on Xingyang and besieged Liu Bang's forces inside the city. Liu Bang heeded Chen Ping 's suggestion to bribe Xiang Yu's men with 40,000 catties of gold for them to spread rumours that Fan Zeng had the intention of betraying Xiang Yu. Xiang Yu fell for the ruse and dismissed Fan Zeng. In late 204 BCE, while Xiang Yu
8449-435: The opportunity to launch a counterattack and scored a victory. Chen Yu was killed in action while Zhao Xie and Li Zuoche were captured. In 204 BCE, after the state of Yan surrendered to him, Liu Bang made Zhang Er the new King of Zhao. Xiang Yu constantly sent his forces to attack the Kingdom of Zhao, but Han Xin and Zhang Er managed to hold their ground. Xiang Yu then turned his attention towards Xingyang, where Liu Bang
8568-427: The other six major states – Han , Zhao , Yan , Wei , Chu and Qi – and unified China under the Qin dynasty with Qin Shi Huang as the first Qin emperor. After the emperor's death in 210 BCE, an uprising broke out in 209, and lasted about five months before Qin forces defeated the rebels. Although the uprising was crushed, several other rebellions erupted consecutively over
8687-481: The other kingdoms also waged war among themselves but these were largely insignificant compared to the main conflict between Chu and Han. The war ended with the Han victory at the Battle of Gaixia in 202 BCE, during which Xiang Yu committed suicide after making a last stand. Liu Bang subsequently proclaimed himself emperor and established the Western Han dynasty. In 221 BCE, the Qin state conquered
8806-687: The other to the south of the Shandong Peninsula , though Han engineers managed to dam the southern branch by 70 AD. The flood dislodged thousands of peasant farmers, many of whom joined roving bandit and rebel groups such as the Red Eyebrows to survive. Wang Mang's armies were incapable of quelling these enlarged rebel groups. Eventually, an insurgent mob forced their way into the Weiyang Palace and killed Wang Mang. The Gengshi Emperor ( r. 23–25 AD ),
8925-560: The other. When the retainers gradually deserted Dou Wu, he was forced to commit suicide. Under Emperor Ling ( r. 168–189 AD ) the eunuchs had the partisan prohibitions renewed and expanded, while also auctioning off top government offices. Many affairs of state were entrusted to the eunuchs Zhao Zhong ( d. 189 AD ) and Zhang Rang ( d. 189 AD ) while Emperor Ling spent much of his time roleplaying with concubines and participating in military parades. The Partisan Prohibitions were repealed during
9044-469: The rebellion. Han dynasty This is an accepted version of this page The Han dynasty was an imperial dynasty of China (202 BC – 9 AD, 25–220 AD) established by Liu Bang and ruled by the House of Liu. The dynasty was preceded by the short-lived Qin dynasty (221–206 BC) and a warring interregnum known as the Chu–Han Contention (206–202 BC), and it
9163-603: The remainder of Western and Eastern Han. To the north of China proper , the nomadic Xiongnu chieftain Modu Chanyu ( r. 209–174 BC ) conquered various tribes inhabiting the eastern portion of the Eurasian Steppe . By the end of his reign, he controlled the Inner Asian regions of Manchuria , Mongolia , and the Tarim Basin , subjugating over twenty states east of Samarkand . Emperor Gaozu
9282-408: The remote and underdeveloped Bashu region (present-day Chongqing and Sichuan ). Xiang Yu then divided the former Qin Empire into numerous vassal states, each ruled by either a rebel leader or a surrendered Qin general. The states were collectively known as the Eighteen Kingdoms , with the Kingdom of Chu as the nominal sovereign power over the other kingdoms. Xiang Yu also honoured King Huai II with
9401-404: The rest of the Chu forces surrendered to Liu Bang, and China was unified under Han rule. Liu Bang granted Peng Yue , Ying Bu and Han Xin the titles of King of Liang , King of Huainan and King of Chu respectively. Months later, at the urging of his followers and vassals, Liu Bang declared himself emperor and established the Han dynasty as the ruling dynasty in China. The imperial capital
9520-453: The retreating enemy forces to Chengyang ( 城陽 ; near present-day Ju County , Shandong). After his victory, Han Xin swiftly took control of the Qi territories and then sent a messenger to Liu Bang, requesting that Liu Bang make him the new King of Qi. At the time, Liu Bang was under attack by Xiang Yu in Xingyang and was eagerly awaiting reinforcements from Han Xin. He was furious when he received Han Xin's request. However, he eventually acted on
9639-399: The route to Linjin ( 臨晉 ; present-day Dali County , Shaanxi). Han Xin tricked Wei Bao into believing that he was planning to attack Linjin, while secretly sending a force from Xiayang ( 夏陽 ; present-day Hancheng , Shaanxi) to cross the river and attack Anyi ( 安邑 ; present-day Xia County , Shanxi). In the ninth lunar month of 205 BCE, Wei Bao personally led an attack on Han Xin but lost
9758-616: The salt and iron monopolies were eventually abolished in the early Eastern Han. The issuing of coinage remained a central government monopoly throughout the rest of the Han dynasty. The government monopolies were eventually repealed when a political faction known as the Reformists gained greater influence in the court. The Reformists opposed the Modernist faction that had dominated court politics in Emperor Wu's reign and during
9877-486: The same time, he sent messengers to meet Han Xin and Peng Yue again, promising them land and titles if they joined him in attacking Xiang Yu. Three months later, in 202 BCE, Liu Bang, Han Xin and Peng Yue attacked Xiang Yu from three directions. Xiang Yu's army ran low on supplies and were trapped in Gaixia ( 垓下 ; southeast of present-day Lingbi County , Anhui). Han Xin ordered his troops to sing Chu folk songs to create
9996-413: The same time, he sent troops to support Chen Yu in a rebellion in the former state of Zhao . In 205 BCE, Chen Yu defeated Zhang Er , the King of Changshan, and seized control of his kingdom. Chen Yu then installed Zhao Xie , the King of Dai, as the new ruler of the Zhao territories. Xiang Yu felt threatened by the rebellions in Qi and Zhao so he led his forces to attack Tian Rong. While Xiang Yu
10115-479: The south , annexing Nanyue in 111 BC and Dian in 109 BC . He further expanded Han territory into the northern Korean Peninsula , where Han forces conquered Gojoseon and established the Xuantu and Lelang commanderies in 108 BC. After 92 AD, palace eunuchs increasingly involved themselves in the dynasty's court politics, engaging in violent power struggles between various consort clans of
10234-431: The southern front, Liu Bang's forces started building supply routes from Xingyang to Aocang ( 敖倉 ; northwest of Xingyang, Henan). In 204 BCE, after sustaining losses from Chu attacks on the routes, the Han army ran short of supplies. Liu Bang negotiated for peace with Xiang Yu and agreed to cede the lands east of Xingyang to Xiang Yu. Xiang Yu wanted to accept Liu Bang's offer, but Fan Zeng advised him to reject and use
10353-479: The subsequent regency of Huo Guang ( d. 68 BC ). The Modernists argued for an aggressive and expansionary foreign policy supported by revenues from heavy government intervention in the private economy. The Reformists, however, overturned these policies, favouring a cautious, non-expansionary approach to foreign policy, frugal budget reform, and lower tax-rates imposed on private entrepreneurs. Wang Zhengjun (71 BC – 13 AD)
10472-586: The support from the central government) and harsh environmental conditions in Six Garrison areas. The struggle for survival drove military officers of Six Garrisons to implement unfair policies biased to their own ethnic groups at the cost of others. In 523, nomadic Rouran tribes suffered a major famine due to successive years of drought. In April, the Rouran Khan sent troops to raid the Wei territory. People of
10591-498: The third lunar month of 205 BCE, Liu Bang attacked Henei with help from Wei Bao , the King of Western Wei . When Liu Bang received news that Xiang Yu had ordered the assassination of Emperor Yi , the nominal sovereign over the Eighteen Kingdoms, he held a memorial service for the emperor and accused Xiang Yu of committing regicide, using this incident as political propaganda to justify his war against Xiang Yu. In
10710-401: The title of emperor; when these warlords were defeated, China reunified under the Han. The period between the foundation of the Han dynasty and Wang Mang's reign is known as the Western Han ( 西漢 ; 西汉 ; Xīhàn ) or Former Han ( 前漢 ; 前汉 ; Qiánhàn ) (206 BC – 9 AD). During this period the capital was at Chang'an (modern Xi'an ). From the reign of Guangwu
10829-512: The town rose up and killed the town's commander. Rebellion soon broke out against the Luoyang court across the region. In Woye, Poliuhan Baling (破六韓拔陵) became a rebel leader. His army quickly took Woye and laid siege to Wuchuan and Huaishuo. Elsewhere in Qinzhou (modern Gansu province), Qiang leaders such as Mozhe Dati (莫折大提) also rose up. In Gaoping (present-day Guyuan), Hu Chen (胡琛) and
10948-472: The treaty and periodically raided Han territories south of the Great Wall for additional goods. In a court conference assembled by Emperor Wu ( r. 141–87 BC ) in 135 BC, the majority consensus of the ministers was to retain the heqin agreement. Emperor Wu accepted this, despite continuing Xiongnu raids. However, a court conference the following year convinced the majority that
11067-400: The war with Chu, Emperor Gaozu enfeoffed some of them as kings. By 196, the Han court had replaced all of these kings with royal Liu family members, with the lone exception of Changsha . The loyalty of non-relatives to the emperor was questioned, and after several insurrections by Han kings—with the largest being the Rebellion of the Seven States in 154—the imperial court began enacting
11186-453: The way as the bulk of the Qin forces had gone to fight at the Battle of Julu. In 206 BCE, the last Qin emperor, Ziying , surrendered the capital Xianyang to Liu Bang, thus bringing an end to the Qin dynasty. Liu Bang treated Ziying respectfully and forbade his followers from harming civilians and looting Xianyang. However, when Xiang Yu eventually arrived in the Guanzhong region, Liu Bang
11305-550: The west. Cao Cao died in March 220 AD. By December his son Cao Pi (187–226 AD) had Emperor Xian relinquish the throne to him and is known posthumously as Emperor Wen of Wei . This formally ended the Han dynasty and initiated an age of conflict between the Three Kingdoms : Cao Wei , Eastern Wu , and Shu Han . In the hierarchical social order, the emperor was at the apex of Han society and government. However,
11424-411: The widespread rebellion against Wang Mang , the state of Goguryeo was free to raid Han's Korean commanderies ; Han did not reaffirm its control over the region until AD 30. The Trưng Sisters of Vietnam rebelled against Han in AD 40. Their rebellion was crushed by Han general Ma Yuan ( d. AD 49 ) in a campaign from AD 42 to 43. Wang Mang renewed hostilities against
11543-494: Was advised to focus on strengthening his defences and getting Tian Guang to rally support from the fallen Qi territories. However, Long Ju decided not to heed the advice, and insisted on attacking Han Xin. On the night before the battle, Han Xin sent his men to dam the Wei River ( 濰水 ; in present-day Weifang , Shandong) with sandbags. The next morning, after a skirmish with Chu forces, Han Xin feigned defeat and retreated to lure
11662-438: Was appointed regent as Marshall of State on 16 August under Emperor Ping ( r. 1 BC – 6 AD). When Ping died on 3 February 6 AD, Ruzi Ying ( d. 25 AD ) was chosen as the heir and Wang Mang was appointed to serve as acting emperor for the child. Wang promised to relinquish his control to Liu Ying once he came of age. Despite this promise, and against protest and revolts from
11781-402: Was at Luoyang but later moved to Chang'an (present-day Xi'an ). Liu Bang made his wife Lü Zhi empress and his eldest son Liu Ying crown prince. Although Liu Bang initially handsomely rewarded those who helped him become emperor, he gradually became suspicious of them and started to doubt their loyalties. Han Xin was demoted from King of Chu to Marquis of Huaiyin in late 202 BCE, and
11900-486: Was away suppressing the rebellion in Qi, Li Yiji had advised Liu Bang to use the opportunity to attack Xiang Yu. Han forces conquered Chenggao and defeated the Chu army led by Cao Jiu near the Si River . Liu Bang's forces advanced further until they reached Guangwu ( 廣武 ; present-day Guangwu, Xingyang, Henan). Chu forces led by Zhongli Mo were trapped by the Han army at the east of Xingyang. Following Han Xin's victory in
12019-531: Was away suppressing the rebellions in Qi and Zhao, Liu Bang seized the opportunity to attack the territories in Guanzhong ruled by three former Qin generals which were collectively known as the Three Qins . He ordered his general Han Xin to pretend to repair the gallery roads leading from Bashu to the Three Qins in order to put the enemy off guard, while secretly taking another route through Chencang (present-day Chencang District , Baoji , Shaanxi) to get to
12138-903: Was brought into the Han realm with the conquest of the Dian Kingdom in 109 BC, followed by parts of the Korean Peninsula with the Han conquest of Gojoseon and establishment of the Xuantu and Lelang commanderies in 108 BC. The first nationwide census in Chinese history was taken in 2 AD; the Han's total population was registered as comprising 57,671,400 individuals across 12,366,470 households. To pay for his military campaigns and colonial expansion, Emperor Wu nationalised several private industries. He created central government monopolies administered largely by former merchants . These monopolies included salt, iron, and liquor production, as well as bronze coinage . The liquor monopoly lasted only from 98 to 81 BC, and
12257-612: Was caught off guard and his army suffered heavy casualties and his family members were captured by Chu forces. After the battle, Liu Bang lost his territorial gains in Chu and the support of his allies. After their defeat at Pengcheng, the strength of the Han forces decreased drastically. Liu Bang's family members were captured by Chu forces and kept as hostages. Many of the kings who had surrendered to Liu Bang earlier defected to Xiang Yu's side after Liu Bang's defeat. Qi and Zhao also requested to make peace with Chu. Upon reaching Xiayi ( 下邑 ; east of present-day Dangshan County , Anhui), which
12376-552: Was chosen as the new capital of the reunified empire under Han. At the beginning of the Western Han ( traditional Chinese : 西漢 ; simplified Chinese : 西汉 ; pinyin : Xīhàn ), also known as the Former Han ( 前漢 ; 前汉 ; Qiánhàn ), thirteen centrally-controlled commanderies —including the capital region—existed in the western third of the empire, while the eastern two-thirds were divided into ten semi-autonomous kingdoms . To placate his prominent commanders from
12495-490: Was convinced by the accusations of the eunuchs Li Run ( 李閏 ) and Jiang Jing ( 江京 ) that Deng and her family had planned to depose him. An dismissed Deng's clan members from office, exiled them, and forced many to commit suicide. After An's death, his wife, Empress Dowager Yan ( d. 126 AD ) placed the child Marquess of Beixiang on the throne in an attempt to retain power within her family. However, palace eunuch Sun Cheng ( d. 132 AD ) masterminded
12614-487: Was first empress, then empress dowager , and finally grand empress dowager during the reigns of the Emperors Yuan ( r. 49–33 BC ), Cheng ( r. 33–7 BC ), and Ai ( r. 7–1 BC ), respectively. During this time, a succession of her male relatives held the title of regent. Following the death of Ai, Wang Zhengjun's nephew Wang Mang (45 BC – 23 AD)
12733-649: Was guarded by Zhang Han , who committed suicide after his defeat. On another front, Ying Bu was unable to resist Long Ju's attacks so he gave up on his domain in Jiujiang and joined Liu Bang. In 205 BCE, Wei Bao left Liu Bang on the pretext of visiting an ill relative and secretly returned to his domain. He pledged allegiance to Xiang Yu and rebelled against Liu Bang. Liu Bang sent Li Yiji to persuade Wei Bao to surrender but Wei Bao refused, so Liu Bang ordered Han Xin to attack Wei Bao. Wei Bao stationed his army at Puban ( 蒲阪 ; present-day Yongji, Shanxi ) and blocked
12852-476: Was guarded by his brother-in-law, Liu Bang reorganised his troops for a retreat. Meanwhile, Han Xin led reinforcements from Guanzhong into the Central Plain and attacked and defeated a Chu army between Jing County ( 京縣 ) and Suo Village ( 索亭 ), both in present-day Henan . He also put down a rebellion by Wang Wu and Cheng Chu - former Qin commanders - and Shen Tu, the magistrate of Wei, capturing their base,
12971-446: Was in revenge for Dou's purging of the clan of his natural mother— Consort Liang —and then concealing her identity from him. After Emperor He's death, his wife Empress Deng Sui ( d. 121 AD ) managed state affairs as the regent empress dowager during a turbulent financial crisis and widespread Qiang rebellion that lasted from 107 to 118 AD. When Empress Dowager Deng died, Emperor An ( r. 106–125 AD )
13090-650: Was killed by allies of the Xiongnu in Karasahr and Kucha , the garrison at Hami was withdrawn. At the Battle of Ikh Bayan in AD 89, Dou Xian ( d. AD 92 ) defeated the Northern Xiongnu chanyu who then retreated into the Altai Mountains . After the Northern Xiongnu fled into the Ili River valley in AD 91, the nomadic Xianbei occupied the area from the borders of
13209-664: Was near the commandery of Rinan where Chinese sources claim the Romans first landed, as well as embassies from Tianzhu in northern India in 159 and 161. Óc Eo is also thought to be the port city " Cattigara " described by Ptolemy in his Geography ( c. 150 AD ) as lying east of the Golden Chersonese ( Malay Peninsula ) along the Magnus Sinus (i.e. the Gulf of Thailand and South China Sea ), where
13328-450: Was persuaded by Cao Cao (155–220 AD), then Governor of Yan Province in modern western Shandong and eastern Henan , to move the capital to Xuchang in 196 AD. Yuan Shao challenged Cao Cao for control over the emperor. Yuan's power was greatly diminished after Cao defeated him at the Battle of Guandu in 200 AD. After Yuan died, Cao killed Yuan Shao's son Yuan Tan (173–205 AD), who had fought with his brothers over
13447-644: Was pressured into ceding control of the region to Xiang Yu despite an earlier agreement between them that whoever occupied Guanzhong first would be the "King of Guanzhong". After Xiang Yu took control of Xianyang, he allowed his troops to pillage and plunder the city and ordered the destruction of the Epang Palace . Xiang Yu also attempted to assassinate Liu Bang at the Feast at Swan Goose Gate but Liu Bang survived and escaped due to Xiang Yu's indecisiveness. Later, Xiang Yu forced Liu Bang to relocate from Guanzhong to
13566-595: Was reinstated when it was bestowed on Ban Chao. Foreign travellers to the Eastern Han empire included Buddhist monks who translated works into Chinese , such as An Shigao from Parthia, and Lokaksema from Kushan-era Gandhara . In addition to tributary relations with the Kushans, the Han empire received gifts from sovereigns in the Parthian Empire , as well as from kings in modern Burma and Japan . He also initiated an unsuccessful mission to Rome in AD 97 with Gan Ying as emissary. A Roman embassy of Emperor Marcus Aurelius ( r. 161–180 AD )
13685-482: Was retreating eastward, Liu Bang, acting on the advice of Zhang Liang and Chen Ping , renounced the Treaty of Hong Canal and ordered an attack on Xiang Yu. He also requested assistance from Han Xin and Peng Yue to attack Xiang Yu simultaneously from three directions. However, as Han Xin and Peng Yue did not mobilise their troops, Liu Bang was defeated by Xiang Yu at Guling ( 固陵 ; south of present-day Taikang County , Henan). He retreated and reinforced his defences. At
13804-650: Was stationed. Liu Bang was forced to retreat to Chenggao , but he eventually abandoned Chenggao and headed north of the Yellow River to where Han Xin was. In a surprise move, Liu Bang seized control over the troops under Han Xin's command and ordered Han Xin to attack the state of Qi . Just as Han Xin was preparing to attack Qi, Liu Bang sent Li Yiji to persuade Tian Guang , the King of Qi, to surrender. Liu Bang had not informed Han Xin about what he had sent Li Yiji to do. Tian Guang decided to surrender so he ordered to withdraw from Lixia ( 歷下 ; present-day Jinan , Shandong). However, as Han Xin did not know that Tian Guang had
13923-483: Was succeeded by the Three Kingdoms period (220–280 AD). The dynasty was briefly interrupted by the Xin dynasty (9–23 AD) established by the usurping regent Wang Mang , and is thus separated into two periods—the Western Han (202 BC – 9 AD) and the Eastern Han (25–220 AD). Spanning over four centuries, the Han dynasty is considered a golden age in Chinese history , and had
14042-413: Was then forced to commit suicide. Students from the imperial university organized a widespread student protest against the eunuchs of Emperor Huan's court. Huan further alienated the bureaucracy when he initiated grandiose construction projects and hosted thousands of concubines in his harem at a time of economic crisis. Palace eunuchs imprisoned the official Li Ying ( 李膺 ) and his associates from
14161-399: Was troubled about the abundant Han-manufactured iron weapons traded to the Xiongnu along the northern borders, and he established a trade embargo against the group. In retaliation, the Xiongnu invaded what is now Shanxi , where they defeated the Han forces at Baideng in 200 BC. After negotiations, the heqin agreement in 198 BC nominally held the leaders of the Xiongnu and
#4995