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135-731: Archaeological excavation has shown some Mycenean influence on Bronze Age Sicily. The earliest literary mention of Sicels is in the Odyssey . Homer also mentions Sicania , but makes no distinctions: "they were (from) a faraway place and a faraway people and apparently they were one and the same" for Homer, Robin Lane Fox notes. It is possible that the Sicels and the Sicani of the Iron Age had consisted of an Illyrian population who (as with

270-409: A Sicel city. Greek goods, especially pottery, moved along natural routes, and eventually Hellenistic influences can be observed in regularised Sicel town planning. However, in the middle of the fifth century BC a Sicel leader, Ducetius , was able to create an organised Sicel state as a unitary domain in opposition to Greek Syracusa , including several cities in the central and south of the island. After

405-537: A certain Tawagalawa , a possible Hittite rendering of the Greek name Eteocles , as brother of the king of Ahhiyawa. In c. 1250 BC, the first wave of destruction apparently occurred in various centres of mainland Greece for reasons that cannot be identified by archaeologists. In Boeotia , Thebes was burned to the ground, around that year or slightly later. Nearby Orchomenos was not destroyed at this time but

540-604: A coup in 317 BC. He resumed the war against Carthage, with alternate fortunes. He was besieged in Syracuse by the Carthaginians in 311 BC, but he escaped from the city with a small fleet. He scored a moral success, bringing the war to the Carthaginians' native African soil, inflicting heavy losses to the enemy. The defenders of Syracuse destroyed the Carthaginian army which besieged them. However, Agathocles

675-622: A diversionary attack, he opened the gate. After setting guards on the houses of the pro-Roman faction, Marcellus gave Syracuse to plunder. Though declining slowly through the years, Syracuse maintained the status of capital of the Roman government of Sicily and seat of the praetor . It remained an important port for trade between the Eastern and the Western parts of the Empire. Christianity spread in

810-564: A few years of independence, in 450 BC, his army was defeated by the Greeks in the Battle of Nomae and he died ten years later. Without his charisma, the movement collapsed and the increasingly Hellenized culture of the Sicels lost its distinctive character. But in the winter of 426/5 Thucydides noted the presence among the allies of Athens in the siege of Syracuse of Sicels who had "previously been allies of Syracuse, but had been harshly governed by

945-734: A fresco at Akrotiri , on Thera island, which possibly displays many warriors in boar's tusk helmets , a feature typical of Mycenaean warfare. In the early 15th century BC, commerce intensified with Mycenaean pottery reaching the western coast of Asia Minor , including Miletus and Troy , Cyprus , Lebanon , Palestine and Egypt . Early Mycenaean civilization from the Shaft Grave period generally showcases heavy influence from Minoan Crete in regards to e.g. art, infrastructure and symbols, while also maintaining some Helladic elements as well as some innovations, and some West Asian influences. A difference between Mycenaean and Minoan civilizations

1080-477: A heavy, often chaotic, expansion, favoured by the quick process of industrialization. Syracuse today has about 125,000 inhabitants and numerous attractions for the visitor interested in historical sites (such as the Ear of Dionysius ). A process of recovering and restoring the historical centre has been ongoing since the 1990s. Nearby places of note include Catania , Noto , Modica and Ragusa . Syracuse experiences

1215-457: A hot-summer Mediterranean climate ( Köppen climate classification : Csa ) with mild, wet winters and hot, dry summers. Snow is infrequent; the last measurable snowfall in the city occurred in December 2014. Frosts are very rare, with the last one also happening in December 2014 when the temperature dropped to the all-time record low of 0 °C. A temperature of 48.8 °C (119.8 °F)

1350-634: A more sophisticated sociopolitical culture of their own. The most prominent site was Mycenae , after which the culture of this era is named. Other centers of power that emerged included Pylos , Tiryns , and Midea in the Peloponnese , Orchomenos , Thebes , and Athens in Central Greece , and Iolcos in Thessaly . Mycenaean settlements also appeared in Epirus , Macedonia , on islands in

1485-445: A person, Enkhelyawon , at Pylos, who appears titleless in the written record but whom modern scholars regard as probably a king. A number of local officials positioned by the wanax appear to be in charge of the districts, such as ko-re-te ( koreter , '"governor"), po-ro-ko-re-te ( prokoreter , "deputy") and the da-mo-ko-ro ( damokoros , "one who takes care of a damos"), the latter probably being appointed to take charge of

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1620-587: A pestilence. A treaty in 392 BC allowed Syracuse to enlarge further its possessions, founding the cities of Adranon , Tyndarion and Tauromenos , and conquering Rhegion on the continent. In the Adriatic , to facilitate trade, Dionysius the Elder founded Ancona , Adria and Issa . Apart from his battle deeds, Dionysius was famous as a patron of art, and Plato himself visited Syracuse several times, where Dionysius, offended by Plato's daring to disagree with

1755-566: A political reconstruction of Bronze Age Greece. Excavations at Miletus, southwest Asia Minor , indicate the existence of a Mycenaean settlement there already from c.  1450 BC , replacing the previous Minoan installations. This site became a sizable and prosperous Mycenaean center until the 12th century BC. Apart from the archaeological evidence, this is also attested in Hittite records, which indicate that Miletos (Milawata in Hittite)

1890-645: A revolt against the Bourbon government. The punishment was the move of the province capital seat to Noto , but the unrest had not been totally choked, as the Siracusani took part in the Sicilian revolution of 1848 . After the Unification of Italy of 1865, Syracuse regained its status of provincial capital. In the late 19th century, the walls (including Porta Ligny ) were demolished and a bridge connecting

2025-465: A second-person singular present imperative active exactly cognate with Latin bibe (and Sanskrit piba , etc.). Membership in the Italic branch, perhaps even close to Latino-Faliscan , cannot be ruled out: Varro states that Sicel was strictly allied to Latin as many words sounded almost identical and had the same meaning, such as oncia , lytra , moeton (Lat. mutuum ). Their characteristic cult of

2160-473: A series of conflicts with the Sicani, the river Salso was declared the boundary between their respective territories. The common assumption is that the Sicels were more recent arrivals, had introduced the use of iron into Bronze Age Sicily and brought the domesticated horse. That would date their arrival on the island to the early 1st millennium BC. However, there is some evidence that the ethnonym may predate

2295-523: A straight entry passage lined with stone. Starting in the 15th century BC, the Mycenaeans began to spread their influence throughout the Aegean and Western Anatolia. By c.  1450 BC , the palace of Knossos was ruled by a Mycenaean elite who formed a hybrid Minoan-Mycenaean culture. Mycenaeans also colonized several other Aegean islands, reaching as far as Rhodes . Thus the Mycenaeans became

2430-541: A trade embargo imposed on Assyria. In general, in the second half of 13th century BC, trade was in decline in the Eastern Mediterranean, most probably due to the unstable political environment there. None of the defence measures appear to have prevented the final destruction and collapse of the Mycenaean states. A second destruction struck Mycenae in c. 1190 BC or shortly thereafter. This event marked

2565-581: Is a corruption of Castrum Hennae through the Arabic Qasr-janni but, since the 1920s, once again called Enna ); and three sites named Hybla: Hybla Major , called Geleatis or Gereatis, on the river Symaethus; Hybla Minor, on the east coast north of Syracuse (possibly pre-dating the Dorian colony of Hyblaean Megara ); and Hybla Heraea in the south of Sicily. With the coming of Greek colonists—both Chalcidians , who maintained good relations with

2700-605: Is a historic city on the Italian island of Sicily , the capital of the Italian province of Syracuse . The city is notable for its rich Greek and Roman history, culture , amphitheatres , architecture, and as the birthplace and home of the pre-eminent mathematician and engineer Archimedes . This 2,700-year-old city played a key role in ancient times, when it was one of the major powers of the Mediterranean world. Syracuse

2835-453: Is complexity and monumentality; Mycenaean craftmanship and architecture are more simplified versions of Minoan ones, but are more monumental in size. Later phases of the Mycenaean civilization showcase more sophistication, eventually coming to surpass Minoan Crete after a few centuries. At the end of the Shaft Grave era, a new and more imposing type of elite burial emerged, the tholos : large circular burial chambers with high vaulted roofs and

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2970-622: Is generally accepted as a Hittite term for Mycenaean Greece ( Achaeans in Homeric Greek), but a precise geographical definition of the term cannot be drawn from the texts. During this time, the kings of Ahhiyawa were evidently capable of dealing with their Hittite counterparts both on a diplomatic and military level. Moreover, Ahhiyawa achieved considerable political influence in parts of Western Anatolia, typically by encouraging anti-Hittite uprisings and collaborating with local vassal rulers. In c.  1400 BC , Hittite records mention

3105-524: Is located in the southeast corner of the island of Sicily, next to the Gulf of Syracuse beside the Ionian Sea . It is situated in a drastic rise of land with 2,000 metres (6,600 ft) depths being close to the city offshore although the city itself is generally not so hilly in comparison. The city was founded by Ancient Greek Corinthians and Teneans and became a very powerful city-state . Syracuse

3240-524: Is no satisfactory explanation for the collapse of the Mycenaean palace systems. The two most common theories are population movement and internal conflict. The first attributes the destruction of Mycenaean sites to invaders. The hypothesis of a Dorian invasion , known as such in Ancient Greek tradition , that led to the end of Mycenaean Greece, is supported by sporadic archaeological evidence such as new types of burials, in particular cist graves, and

3375-489: Is not able to solve the issue and that the majority of Hellenists believed Mycenaeans spoke a non-Indo-European Minoan language before Linear B was deciphered in 1952. Notwithstanding the above academic disputes, the mainstream consensus among modern Mycenologists is that Mycenaean civilization began around 1750 BC, earlier than the Shaft Graves, originating and evolving from the local socio-cultural landscape of

3510-461: Is set into action as ritual , it is usual to see a pair of sacrificial children laid in the earth to encourage the green growth. In the temple to Adranus, father of the Palici, the Sicels kept an eternal fire. A god Hybla (or goddess Hyblaea), after whom three towns were named, had a sanctuary at Hybla Gereatis . The connection of Demeter and Kore with Henna (the rape of Proserpine ) and of

3645-532: The Aegean Sea , on the south-west coast of Asia Minor , and on Cyprus , while Mycenaean-influenced settlements appeared in the Levant and Italy . The Mycenaean Greeks introduced several innovations in the fields of engineering, architecture and military infrastructure , while trade over vast areas of the Mediterranean was essential for the Mycenaean economy. Their syllabic script , Linear B , offers

3780-602: The Battle of Cannae and accepted Carthage 's support. The Romans, led by consul Marcus Claudius Marcellus , besieged the city in 214 BC. The city held out for three years, but fell in 212 BC. The successes of the Syracusians in repelling the Roman siege had made them overconfident. In 212 BC, the Romans received information that the city's inhabitants were to participate in the annual festival to their goddess Artemis . A small party of Roman soldiers approached

3915-490: The Battle of Himera , Gelo, who had allied with Theron of Agrigento , decisively defeated the African force led by Hamilcar . A temple dedicated to Athena (on the site of today's Cathedral), was erected in the city to commemorate the event. Syracuse grew considerably during this time. Its walls encircled 120 hectares (300 acres) in the fifth century, but as early as the 470s BC the inhabitants started building outside

4050-498: The Dorian invasion or activities connected to the " Sea Peoples ". Additional theories such as natural disasters and climatic changes have also been suggested. The Mycenaean period became the historical setting of much ancient Greek literature and mythology , including the Trojan Epic Cycle . The Bronze Age in mainland Greece is generally termed as the " Helladic period " by modern archaeologists, after Hellas ,

4185-615: The Early and Middle Bronze Age in mainland Greece with influences from Minoan Crete . Towards the end of the Middle Bronze Age ( c.  1700 /1675 BC), a significant increase in the population and the number of settlements occurred. A number of centers of power emerged in southern mainland Greece dominated by a warrior elite society; while the typical dwellings of that era were an early type of megaron buildings, some more complex structures are classified as forerunners of

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4320-519: The Elymian language is generally accepted to have been an Indo-European language, though its exact classification within the family is unclear. Some consider it related to Ligurian , while others to the Italic languages . Of the Sicel language the little that is known is derived from glosses of ancient writers and from a very few inscriptions, not all of which are demonstrably Sicel. It is thought that

4455-525: The Levantine coast. Nevertheless, other regions on the edge of the Mycenaean world prospered, such as the Ionian islands , the northwestern Peloponnese, parts of Attica and a number of Aegean islands. The acropolis of Athens , oddly, appears to have avoided destruction. Athens and the eastern coast of Attica were still occupied in the 12th century BC, and were not destroyed or abandoned; this points to

4590-607: The Messapians ) had imposed themselves on a native, Pre-Indo-European (" Mediterranean ") population. Thucydides and other classical writers were aware of the traditions according to which the Sicels had once lived in Central Italy, east and even north of Rome. Thence they were dislodged by Umbrian and Sabine tribes, and finally crossed into Sicily. Their social organization appears to have been tribal, economically and agriculturally. According to Diodorus Siculus , after

4725-466: The Palici is influenced by Greek myth in the version that has survived, in which the local nymph Talia bore to Adranus , the volcanic god whom the Greeks identified with Hephaestus , twin sons, who were "twice-born" ( palin "again"; ikein "to come"), born first of their nymph mother, and then of the earth, because of the "jealousy" of Hera , who urged Mother Earth, Gaia , to swallow up the nymph. Then

4860-453: The Pylos archive, which is the best preserved one in the Mycenaean world, is generally taken as a representative one. The state was ruled by a king, the wanax (ϝάναξ), whose role was religious and perhaps also military and judicial. The wanax oversaw virtually all aspects of palatial life, from religious feasting and offerings to the distribution of goods, craftsmen and troops. Under him

4995-467: The collapse of Bronze Age culture in the eastern Mediterranean, to be followed by the Greek Dark Ages , a recordless transitional period leading to Archaic Greece where significant shifts occurred from palace-centralized to decentralized forms of socio-economic organization (including the extensive use of iron ). Various theories have been proposed for the end of this civilization, among them

5130-544: The ethnonym Danaoi ( Greek : Δαναοί ), the name of the mythical dynasty that ruled in the region of Argos, also used as an ethnonym for the Greek people by Homer. In the official records of another Bronze Age empire, that of the Hittites in Anatolia , various references from c.  1400 BC to 1220 BC mention a country named Ahhiyawa . Recent scholarship, based on textual evidence, new interpretations of

5265-519: The ethnonyms Achaeans , Danaans , and Argives to refer to the besiegers, and these names appear to have passed down from the time they were in use to the time when Homer applied them as collective terms in his Iliad . There is an isolated reference to a-ka-wi-ja-de in the Linear B records in Knossos , Crete dated to c.  1400 BC , which presumably refers to a Mycenaean (Achaean) state on

5400-774: The 13th century BC have been found in Ireland and in Wessex and Cornwall in England . Anthropologists have found traces of opium in Mycenaean ceramic vases. The drug trade in Mycenaean Greece is traced as early as 1650–1350 BC, with opium poppies being traded in the eastern Mediterranean . Syracuse, Sicily Syracuse ( / ˈ s aɪ r ə k juː s , - k juː z / SY -rə-kewss, -⁠kewz ; Italian : Siracusa [siraˈkuːza] ; Sicilian : Saragusa [saɾaˈuːsa] )

5535-652: The Ahhiyawans. These Ekwesh were mentioned as a group of the Sea People . Scholars have proposed different theories on the origins of the Mycenaeans. According to one theory, Mycenaean civilization reflected the exogenous imposition of archaic Indo-Europeans from the Eurasian steppe onto the pre-Mycenaean local population. An issue with this theory, however, is the very tenuous material and cultural relationship between Aegean and northern steppe populations during

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5670-802: The Bellomo Palace. Frederick's death brought a period of unrest and feudal anarchy. In the War of the Sicilian Vespers between the Angevin and Aragonese dynasties for control of Sicily, Syracuse sided with the Aragonese and expelled the Angevins in 1298, receiving from the Spanish sovereigns great privileges in reward. The preeminence of baronial families is also shown by the construction of

5805-621: The Bronze Age. Another theory proposes that Mycenaean culture in Greece dates back to circa 3000 BC with Indo-European migrants entering a mainly-depopulated area; other hypotheses argue for a date as early as the seventh millennium BC (with the spread of agriculture ) and as late as 1600 BC (with the spread of chariot technology ). In a 2017 genetic study conducted by Lazaridis et al., "the Minoans and Mycenaeans were genetically similar, [but]

5940-590: The Corinthian Timoleon installed a democratic regime in the city after he exiled Dionysius and defeated Hicetas. The long series of internal struggles had weakened Syracuse's power on the island, and Timoleon tried to remedy this, defeating the Carthaginians in the Battle of the Crimissus (339 BC). After Timoleon's death the struggle among the city's parties restarted and ended with the rise of another tyrant, Agathocles , who seized power with

6075-755: The Great (491–526), and then by Belisarius for the Byzantine Empire (31 December 535). From 663 to 668 Syracuse was the seat of the Greek-speaking Emperor Constans II , as well as a capital of the Byzantine (Eastern Roman) Empire and metropolis of the whole Sicilian Church. Constans II was assassinated when his plans to permanently replace the Byzantine capital of Constantinople with Syracuse became suspected. The city

6210-547: The Greek mainland. Egyptian records mention a T(D)-n-j or Danaya ( Tanaju ) land for the first time c.  1437 BC , during the reign of Pharaoh Thutmoses III (r. 1479–1425 BC). This land is geographically defined in an inscription from the reign of Amenhotep III (r. c.  1390 –1352 BC), where a number of Danaya cities are mentioned, which cover the largest part of southern mainland Greece. Among them, cities such as Mycenae, Nauplion, and Thebes have been identified with certainty. Danaya has been equated with

6345-464: The Greek name for Greece . This period is divided into three subperiods: The Early Helladic (EH) period ( c.  3200 –2000 BC) was a time of prosperity with the use of metals and a growth in technology, economy and social organization. The Middle Helladic (MH) period ( c.  2000 –1700/1675 BC ) faced a slower pace of development, as well as the evolution of megaron -type dwellings and cist grave burials. The last phase of Middle Helladic,

6480-520: The Greek peninsula after the end of this cultural period. Lastly, the decipherment marked the advent of an Indo-European language in the Aegean region in contrast to unrelated prior languages spoken in adjoining areas. Various collective terms for the inhabitants of Mycenaean Greece were used by Homer in his 8th-century BC epic the Iliad in reference to the Trojan War . Homer interchangeably used

6615-618: The Hittite inscriptions, and recent surveys of archaeological evidence about Mycenaean–Anatolian contacts during this period, concludes that the term Ahhiyawa must have been used in reference to the Mycenaean world (land of the Achaeans), or at least to a part of it. This term may have also had broader connotations in some texts, possibly referring to all regions settled by Mycenaeans or regions under direct Mycenaean political control. Another similar ethnonym, Ekwesh , in twelfth century BC Egyptian inscriptions has been commonly identified with

6750-673: The Iron Age, based on the name Shekelesh given to one of the Sea Peoples in the Great Karnak Inscription in the 5th year of Merneptah 's reign ( c. 1207 BC). The name Shekelesh is also cited in a wall relief at Medinet Habu ( Ramses III mortuary temple), with picture and writings describing the second invasion within a 30 years' period by the "sea peoples" in the 8th year of Ramses III 's reign (1177 BC or 1186 BC, historians differ between these two dates). Eric Cline closely relates these two attacks on Egypt to

6885-625: The Middle East, based on the considerable greater quantities of Mycenaean goods found there. On the other hand, trade with the Hittite lands in central Anatolia appears to have been limited. Trade with Troy is also well attested, while Mycenaean trade routes expanded further to the Bosphorus and the shores of the Black Sea . Mycenaean swords have been found as far away as Georgia in

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7020-418: The Middle Helladic III ( c.  1750 –1675 BC), along with the Late Helladic (LH) period ( c.  1700 /1675–1050 BC) roughly coincide with Mycenaean Greece. The Late Helladic period is further divided into LHI and LHII, both of which coincide with the middle phase of Mycenaean Greece ( c.  1700 /1675–1420 BC), and LHIII ( c.  1420 –1050 BC), the period of expansion, and decline of

7155-426: The Mycenaean Linear B script, a writing system adapted for the use of the ( Indo-European ) Greek language of the Late Bronze Age , demonstrated the continuity of Greek speech from the second millennium BC into the eighth century BC when a new Phoenician-derived alphabetic script emerged. Moreover, it revealed that the bearers of Mycenaean culture were ethnically connected with the populations that resided in

7290-495: The Mycenaean acropolis. It appears that after this first wave of destruction a short-lived revival of Mycenaean culture followed. Mycenaean Greece continues to be mentioned in international affairs, particularly in Hittite records. In c.  1220 BC , the king of Ahhiyawa is again reported to have been involved in an anti-Hittite uprising in western Anatolia. Another contemporary Hittite account reports that Ahhiyawan ships should avoid Assyrian -controlled harbors, as part of

7425-567: The Mycenaean civilization. The transition period from the Bronze Age to the Iron Age in Greece is known as Sub-Mycenaean ( c.  1050 –1000 BC). Based on recent research, Alex Knodell (2021) considers the beginning of Mycenaean occupation in Peloponnese in Middle Helladic III ( c.  1750 –1675 BC), and divides the whole Mycenaean time into three cultural periods: Early Mycenaean ( c.  1750 –1400 BC), Palatial Bronze Age ( c.  1400 –1200 BC), and Postpalatial Bronze Age ( c.  1200 –1050 BC). The decipherment of

7560-404: The Mycenaean palatial states were newcomers or populations that already resided in Mycenaean Greece. Recent archaeological findings tend to favor the latter scenario. Additional theories, concerning natural factors , such as climate change, droughts, or earthquakes have also been proposed. Another theory considers the decline of the Mycenaean civilization as a manifestation of a common pattern for

7695-422: The Mycenaeans differed from Minoans in deriving additional ancestry from an ultimate source related to the hunter–gatherers of eastern Europe and Siberia, introduced via a proximal source related to the inhabitants of either the Eurasian steppe or Armenia." However, Lazaridis et al. admit that their research "does not settle th[e] debate" on Mycenaean origins. Historian Bernard Sergent notes that archaeology alone

7830-422: The Near East, Apulia in Italy and Spain . From that time period ( c.  1400 BC ), the palace of Knossos has yielded the earliest records of the Greek Linear B script, based on the previous Linear A of the Minoans. The use of the new script spread in mainland Greece and offers valuable insight into the administrative network of the palatial centers. However, the unearthed records are too fragmentary for

7965-491: The Sicels did not employ writing until they were influenced by the Greek colonists. Several Sicel inscriptions have been found to date: Mendolito (Adrano), Centuripe, Poira, Paternò‑Civita, Paliké (Rocchicella di Mineo), Montagna di Ramacca, Licodia Eubea, Ragusa Ibla, Sciri Sottano, Monte Casasia, Castiglione di Ragusa, Terravecchia di Grammichele, Morgantina, Montagna di Marzo (Piazza Armerina), and Terravecchia di Cuti. The first inscription discovered, of ninety-nine Greek letters,

8100-404: The Sicels, and Dorians , who did not—and the growing influence of Greek civilization, the Sicels were forced out of most of the advantageous port sites and withdrew by degrees into the hinterland. Sixty kilometres (forty miles) from the coast of the Ionian Sea , Sicels and Greeks exceptionally lived side by side in Morgantina to the extent that historians argue whether it was a Greek polis or

8235-414: The Syracusans and had now revolted". (Thucydides 3.103.1) Aside from Thucydides, the Greek literary sources on Sicels and other pre-Hellenic peoples of Sicily are to be found in fragmentary scattered quotes from the lost material of Hellanicus of Lesbos and Antiochus of Syracuse . There is some evidence that the Sicels had several matriarchal customs, which is unattested in other Indo-European groups of

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8370-592: The United Kingdom): 0.6%, North Africa (mostly Tunisian ): 0.5%, and South Asia: 0.4%. Since 2005, the entire city of Syracuse, along with the Necropolis of Pantalica which falls within the province of Syracuse , has been listed as a World Heritage Site by UNESCO. This programme aims to catalogue, name, and conserve sites of outstanding cultural or natural importance to the common heritage of humanity . The deciding committee which evaluates potential candidates described their reasons for choosing Syracuse because "monuments and archeological sites situated in Syracuse are

8505-422: The acropolis of Mycenae, in particular the Grave Circles A and B , signified the elevation of a native Greek-speaking royal dynasty whose economic power depended on long-distance sea trade. During this period, the Mycenaean centers witnessed increased contact with the outside world, especially with the Cyclades and the Minoan centers on the island of Crete . Mycenaean presence appears to be also depicted in

8640-413: The activity of the Sea Peoples in the Eastern Mediterranean. They caused widespread destruction in Anatolia and the Levant and were finally defeated by Pharaoh Ramesses III in c. 1175 BC. One of the ethnic groups that comprised these people were the Eqwesh , a name that appears to be linked with the Ahhiyawa of the Hittite inscriptions. Alternative scenarios propose that the fall of Mycenaean Greece

8775-470: The ancient city was the small island of Ortygia . The settlers found the land fertile and the native tribes to be reasonably well-disposed to their presence. The city grew and prospered, and for some time stood as the most powerful Greek city anywhere in the Mediterranean . Colonies were founded at Akrai (664 BC), Kasmenai (643 BC), Akrillai (7th century BC), Helorus (7th century BC) and Kamarina (598 BC). The descendants of

8910-551: The beginning of the Late Bronze Age collapse . Archaeological evidence points towards the Sicels' arrival on the island between the thirteenth and eleventh century BC . The Sicel necropolis of Pantalica , near Syracuse , is the best known, and the second-largest one is the Necropolis of Cassibile , near Noto . Their elite tombs a forno , or oven-shaped, take the form of beehives. The chief Sicel towns were Agyrium ( Agira ); Centuripa or Centuripae (Centorbi but now once again called Centuripe ); Henna (later Castrogiovanni, which

9045-410: The capital of the Byzantine Empire (663–669). Palermo later overtook it in importance, as the capital of the Kingdom of Sicily . Eventually the kingdom would be united with the Kingdom of Naples to form the Two Sicilies until the Italian unification of 1860. In the modern day, the city is listed by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site along with the Necropolis of Pantalica . In the central area,

9180-412: The city itself has a population of around 125,000 people. Syracuse is mentioned in the Bible in the Acts of the Apostles book at 28:12 as Paul stayed there. The patron saint of the city is Saint Lucy ; she was born in Syracuse and her feast day, Saint Lucy's Day , is celebrated on 13 December. Syracuse and its surrounding area have been inhabited since ancient times, as shown by the findings in

9315-454: The city the name of a nearby marsh; hence one gets Syrako (and thereby Syrakousai and other variants) for the name of Syracuse, a name also attested by Epicharmus . The settlement of Syracuse was a planned event , as a strong central leader, Arkhias the aristocrat, laid out how property would be divided up for the settlers, as well as plans for how the streets of the settlement should be arranged, and how wide they should be. The nucleus of

9450-415: The city through the efforts of Paul of Tarsus and Saint Marziano, the first bishop of the city, who made it one of the main centres of proselytism in the West. In the age of Christian persecutions massive catacombs were carved, whose size is second only to those of Rome. After a period of Vandal rule, 469–477, Syracuse and the island was recovered for Italian rule under Odoacer (476–491) and Theodoric

9585-399: The city under the cover of night and managed to scale the walls to get into the outer city and with reinforcements soon took control, killing Archimedes in the process, but the main fortress remained firm. After an eight-month siege and with parleys in progress, an Iberian captain named Moeriscus is believed to have let the Romans in near the Fountains of Arethusa. On the agreed signal, during

9720-526: The city, sending the relics of St. Lucy to Constantinople . The eponymous castle on the cape of Ortygia bears his name, although it was built under the Hohenstaufen rule. In 1085, the Normans entered Syracuse, one of the last Arab strongholds, after a summer-long siege by Roger I of Sicily and his son Jordan of Hauteville , who was given the city as count. New quarters were built, and the cathedral

9855-416: The coast of southern Anatolia, displays the established trade routes that supplied the Mycenaeans with all the raw materials and items that the economy of Mycenaean Greece needed, such as copper and tin for the production of bronze products. A chief export of the Mycenaeans was olive oil , which was a multi-purpose product. Cyprus appears to be the principal intermediary station between Mycenaean Greece and

9990-489: The commune. A council of elders was chaired, the ke-ro-si-ja (cf. γερουσία, gerousía ). The basileus , who in later Greek society was the name of the king, refers to communal officials. In general, Mycenaean society appears to have been divided into two groups of free men: the king's entourage, who conducted administrative duties at the palace, and the people, da-mo . These last were watched over by royal agents and were obliged to perform duties for and pay taxes to

10125-744: The decline of many ancient civilizations: the Minoan, the Harappan and the Western Roman Empire; the reason for the decline is migration due to overpopulation. The period following the end of Mycenaean Greece, c. 1100–800 BC, is generally termed the " Greek Dark Ages ". Mycenaean palatial states, or centrally organized palace-operating polities, are recorded in ancient Greek literature and mythology (e.g., Iliad , Catalogue of Ships ) and confirmed by discoveries made by modern archaeologists such as Heinrich Schliemann . Each Mycenaean kingdom

10260-664: The dominant center was probably located in Thebes or in Mycenae, with the latter state being the most probable center of power. The Neolithic agrarian village (6000 BC) constituted the foundation of Bronze Age political culture in Greece. The vast majority of the preserved Linear B records deal with administrative issues and give the impression that Mycenaean palatial administration was highly systematized, featuring thoroughly consistent language, terminology, tax calculations, and distribution logistics. Considering this sense of uniformity,

10395-482: The dominant power of the region, marking the beginning of the Mycenaean 'Koine' era (from Greek : Κοινή , common), a highly uniform culture that spread in mainland Greece and the Aegean. From the early 14th century BC, Mycenaean trade began to take advantage of the new commercial opportunities in the Mediterranean after the Minoan collapse. The trade routes were expanded further, reaching Cyprus , Amman in

10530-563: The drainage system of the Kopais basin in Boeotia, the building of a large dam outside Tiryns, and the drainage of the swamp in the Nemea valley. Also noticeable is the construction of harbors, such as the harbor of Pylos, that were capable of accommodating large Bronze Age era vessels like the one found at Uluburun . The Mycenaean economy also featured large-scale manufacturing as testified by

10665-791: The eastern Black Sea coast. Commercial interaction was also intense with the Italian peninsula and the western Mediterranean. Mycenaean products, especially pottery, were exported to southern Italy , Sicily and the Aeolian Islands . Mycenaean products also penetrated further into Sardinia , as well as southern Spain . Sporadic objects of Mycenaean manufacture were found in various distant locations, like in Central Europe, such as in Bavaria , Germany , where an amber object inscribed with Linear B symbols has been unearthed. Mycenaean bronze double axes and other objects dating from

10800-409: The end of Mycenae as a major power. The site was then reoccupied, but on a smaller scale. A recent study suggests that neither of the palaces at Tiryns or Midea were destroyed by an earthquake, and further studies have shown that upwards of fifty arrowheads were found scattered in the destruction debris at Midea perhaps indicating that the destruction was caused by an assault. The palace of Pylos , in

10935-492: The existence of new decentralized coastal and maritime networks there. It is attested by the cemetery of Perati that lasted a century and showed imports from Cyclades , Dodecanese , Crete, Cyprus, Egypt and Syria, as well as by the Late Helladic IIIC ( c.  1210 –1040 BC) cemetery of Drivlia at Porto Rafti ; located 2 km west of Perati. This indicates that Attica participated in long-distance trade, and

11070-491: The extent of workshop complexes that have been discovered, the largest known to date being the recent ceramic and hydraulic installations found in Euonymeia , next to Athens, that produced tableware, textiles, sails, and ropes for export and shipbuilding . The most famous project of the Mycenaean era was the network of roads in the Peloponnese . This appears to have facilitated the speedy deployment of troops—for example,

11205-415: The finest example of outstanding architectural creation spanning several cultural aspects; Greek , Roman and Baroque ", following on that Ancient Syracuse was "directly linked to events, ideas and literary works of outstanding universal significance". Syracuse is home to association football club A.S.D. Città di Siracusa , the latest reincarnation of several clubs dating back to 1924. The common feature

11340-433: The first colonists, called Gamoroi , held power until they were expelled by the lower class of the city assisted by Cyllyrians, identified as enslaved natives similar in status to the helots of Sparta. The former, however, returned to power in 485 BC, thanks to the help of Gelo , ruler of Gela . Gelo himself became the despot of the city, and moved many inhabitants of Gela, Kamarina and Megara to Syracuse, building

11475-470: The first day of the invasion. This part of the operation went completely according to plan, and British forces captured Syracuse on the first night of the operation. The port was then used as a base for the British Royal Navy . To the west of the city is a Commonwealth War Graves cemetery where about 1,000 men are buried. After the end of the war the northern quarters of Syracuse experienced

11610-547: The first written records of the Greek language , and their religion already included several deities that can also be found in the Olympic pantheon . Mycenaean Greece was dominated by a warrior elite society and consisted of a network of palace -centered states that developed rigid hierarchical, political, social, and economic systems . At the head of this society was the king, known as a wanax . Mycenaean Greece perished with

11745-407: The fortifications in various sites. In some cases, arrangements were also made for the creation of subterranean passages which led to underground cisterns. Tiryns, Midea and Athens expanded their defences with new cyclopean-style walls. The extension program in Mycenae almost doubled the fortified area of the citadel. To this phase of extension belongs the impressive Lion Gate , the main entrance into

11880-502: The head of this society was the king, known as wanax (Linear B: wa-na-ka) in Mycenaean Greek . All powers were vested in him, as the main landlord and spiritual and military leader. At the same time he was an entrepreneur and trader and was aided by a network of high officials. The presence of Ahhiyawa in western Anatolia is mentioned in various Hittite accounts from c.  1400 to c.  1220 BC . Ahhiyawa

12015-426: The heatwave was 44.4 °C (111.9 °F), at Naval Air Station Sigonella . Guidi underlines that the reported data by SAIS "is produced directly by the stations and is not subject to any control and validation procedure, neither automatic nor manual. It can therefore report errors due to sensor malfunctions as well as maintenance interventions". In 2016, there were 122,051 people residing in Syracuse, located in

12150-520: The king, imprisoned the philosopher and sold him into slavery (according to some sources). His successor was Dionysius the Younger , who was however expelled by Dion in 356 BC. But the latter's despotic rule led in turn to his expulsion, and Dionysius reclaimed his throne in 347 BC. Dionysius was besieged in Syracuse by the Syracusan general Hicetas in 344 BC. The following year

12285-573: The later palaces. In a number of sites, defensive walls were also erected. Meanwhile, new types of burials and more imposing ones have been unearthed, which display a great variety of luxurious objects. Among the various burial types, the shaft grave became the most common form of elite burial, a feature that gave the name to the early period of Mycenaean Greece. Among the Mycenaean elite, deceased men were usually laid to rest in gold masks and funerary armor, and women in gold crowns and clothes gleaming with gold ornaments. The royal shaft graves next to

12420-457: The latter being the northernmost Mycenaean center. Knossos in Crete also became a Mycenaean center, where the former Minoan complex underwent a number of adjustments, including the addition of a throne room . These centers were based on a rigid network of bureaucracy where administrative competencies were classified into various sections and offices according to specialization of work and trades. At

12555-591: The mainland to Ortygia island was built. In the following year a railway link was constructed. Allied bombings in 1943 caused heavy destruction during World War II . Operation Husky , the codename for the Allied invasion of Sicily , was launched on the night between 9–10 July 1943 with British forces attacking the southeast of the island. The plan was for the British 5th Infantry Division , part of General Sir Bernard Montgomery 's Eighth Army , to capture Syracuse on

12690-468: The military activities of an Ahhiyawan warlord, Attarsiya , possibly related to the mythic character of Atreus . Attarsiya attacked Hittite vassals in western Anatolia including Madduwatta . Later, in c. 1315 BC, an anti-Hittite rebellion headed by Arzawa , a Hittite vassal state, received support from Ahhiyawa. Meanwhile, Ahhiyawa appears to be in control of a number of islands in the Aegean, an impression also supported by archaeological evidence. During

12825-464: The most famous Syracusan, the mathematician and natural philosopher Archimedes . Among his many inventions were various military engines including the claw of Archimedes , later used to resist the Roman siege of 214–212 BC. Literary figures included Theocritus and others. Hiero's successor, the young Hieronymus (ruled from 215 BC), broke the alliance with the Romans after their defeat at

12960-463: The new quarters of Tyche and Neapolis outside the walls. His program of new constructions included a new theatre, designed by Damocopos , which gave the city a flourishing cultural life: this in turn attracted personalities as Aeschylus , Ario of Methymna and Eumelos of Corinth. The enlarged power of Syracuse made unavoidable the clash against the Carthaginians , who ruled western Sicily. In

13095-720: The nymph Arethusa with Syracuse is due to Greek influence. Mycenaean Greece Mycenaean Greece (or the Mycenaean civilization ) was the last phase of the Bronze Age in ancient Greece , spanning the period from approximately 1750 to 1050 BC. It represents the first advanced and distinctively Greek civilization in mainland Greece with its palatial states, urban organization, works of art, and writing system. The Mycenaeans were mainland Greek peoples who were likely stimulated by their contact with insular Minoan Crete and other Mediterranean cultures to develop

13230-588: The origin of the name is that the Phoenicians called it Sour-ha-Koussim, which means "Stone of the seagulls" from which would come the name of Syracuse. However, this etymology does not account for the name variant Συρακώ Syrakō . Another possible origin of the city's name was given by Vibius Sequester citing first Stephanus Byzantius in that there was a Syracusian marsh ( λίμνη ) called Syrako and secondly Marcian's Periegesis wherein Archias gave

13365-450: The palace, but the production of ceramics was only indirectly monitored. Regional transactions between the palaces are also recorded on a few occasions. The palatial centers organized their workforce and resources for the construction of large scale projects in the fields of agriculture and industry. The magnitude of some projects indicates that this was the result of combined efforts from multiple palatial centers. Most notable of them are

13500-464: The palace. Among those who could be found in the palace were well-to-do high officials, who probably lived in the vast residences found in proximity to Mycenaean palaces, but also others, tied by their work to the palace and not necessarily better off than the members of the da-mo , such as craftsmen, farmers, and perhaps merchants. Occupying a lower rung of the social ladder were the slaves, do-e-ro , ( cf. δοῦλος , doúlos ). These are recorded in

13635-453: The palaces of Abela , Chiaramonte , Nava, Montalto. The city was struck by two ruinous earthquakes in 1542 and 1693 , and a plague in 1729. The 17th century destruction changed the appearance of Syracuse forever, as well as the entire Val di Noto , whose cities were rebuilt along the typical lines of Sicilian Baroque , considered one of the most typical expressions of the architecture of Southern Italy. The spread of cholera in 1837 led to

13770-462: The population of Syracuse declined by 0.5 percent, while Italy as a whole grew by 3.6 percent. The reason for decline is a population flight to the suburbs, and northern Italy . The current birth rate of Syracuse is 9.75 births per 1,000 inhabitants compared to the Italian average of 9.45 births. As of 2006 , 97.9% of the population was of Italian descent. The largest immigrant group came from other European nations (particularly those from Poland, and

13905-426: The province of Syracuse, Sicily , of whom 48.7% were male and 51.3% were female. Minors (children ages 18 and younger) totalled 18.9 percent of the population compared to pensioners who number 16.9 percent. This compares with the Italian average of 18.1 percent (minors) and 19.9 percent (pensioners). The average age of Syracuse resident is 40 compared to the Italian average of 42. In the five years between 2002 and 2007,

14040-507: The rations given to the dependent personnel. The Mycenaean palaces maintained extensive control of the nondomestic areas of production through careful control and acquisition and distribution in the palace industries, and the tallying of produced goods. For instance, the Knossos tablets record c. 80,000–100,000 sheep grazing in central Crete , and the quantity of the expected wool from these sheep and their offspring, as well as how this wool

14175-446: The reconstruction of the political landscape in Mycenaean Greece and they do not support nor deny the existence of a larger Mycenaean state. On the other hand, contemporary Hittite and Egyptian records suggest the presence of a single state under a "Great King". Alternatively, based on archaeological data, some sort of confederation among a number of palatial states appears to be possible. If some kind of united political entity existed,

14310-436: The region of Wilusa , and later invaded the island of Lesbos , which then passed into Ahhiyawan control. Scholars have speculated that the mythic tradition of the Trojan War could have a historical basis in the political turmoil of this era. As a result of this instability, the Hittite king initiated correspondence in order to convince his Ahhiyawan counterpart to restore peace in the region. The Hittite record mentions

14445-471: The region. Linguistic studies have suggested that the Sicels may have spoken an Indo-European language and occupied eastern Sicily as well as southernmost Italy whereas the Elymi (Greek Elymoi ) and Sicani (Greek: Sikanoi ) inhabited western and central Sicily, respectively. It is likely that the Sicani spoke a non-Indo-European language, the classification of their language remains uncertain. Conversely,

14580-420: The reign of the Hittite king Hattusili III (c. 1267–1237 BC), the king of Ahhiyawa is recognized as a "Great King" and of equal status with the other contemporary great Bronze Age rulers: the kings of Egypt , Babylonia and Assyria . At that time, another anti-Hittite movement, led by Piyama-Radu , broke out and was supported by the king of Ahhiyawa. Piyama-Radu caused major unrest which may have extended to

14715-723: The remnants of a Mycenaean road, along with what appears to have been a Mycenaean defensive wall on the Isthmus of Corinth . The Mycenaean era saw the zenith of infrastructure engineering in Greece, and this appears not to have been limited to the Argive plain. Trade over vast areas of the Mediterranean was essential for the economy of Mycenaean Greece. The Mycenaean palaces imported raw materials, such as metals, ivory and glass, and exported processed commodities and objects made from these materials, in addition to local products: oil, perfume, wine, wool and pottery. International trade of that time

14850-422: The rule of Epirus, Hiero II seized power in 275 BC. Hiero inaugurated a period of 50 years of peace and prosperity, in which Syracuse became one of the most renowned capitals of Antiquity. He issued the so-called Lex Hieronica , which was later adopted by the Romans for their administration of Sicily; he also had the theatre enlarged and a new immense altar , the "Hiero's Ara", built. Under his rule lived

14985-456: The soil parted, giving birth to the twins, who were venerated in Sicily as patrons of navigation and of agriculture. In the most archaic level of Greek mythology , a titan , Tityos, grew so large that he split his mother's womb and had to be carried to term by Gaia herself. He came to the attention of later Greek mythographers only when he attempted to waylay Leto near Delphi. If such a mytheme

15120-469: The southwestern Peloponnese, was destroyed in c. 1180 BC. The Linear B archives found there, preserved by the heat of the fire that destroyed the palace, mention hasty defence preparations due to an imminent attack without giving any detail about the attacking force. As a result of this turmoil, specific regions in mainland Greece witnessed a dramatic population decrease, especially Boeotia, Argolis and Messenia . Mycenaean refugees migrated to Cyprus and

15255-471: The state of nearby Orchomenos. Moreover, the palace of Mycenae appeared to have ruled over a territory two to three times the size of the other palatial states in Bronze Age Greece. Its territory would have also included adjacent centers, including Tiryns and Nauplion , which could plausibly be ruled by a member of Mycenae's ruling dynasty. The unearthed Linear B texts are too fragmentary for

15390-475: The texts as working either for the palace or for specific deities. The Mycenaean economy, given its pre-monetary nature, was a palace economy , focusing on the redistribution of goods, commodities and labor by a central administration. The preserved Linear B records in Pylos and Knossos indicate that the palaces were closely monitoring a variety of industries and commodities, the organization of land management and

15525-517: The use of a new dialect of Greek, the Doric one. It appears that the Dorians moved southward gradually over a number of years and devastated the territory, until they managed to establish themselves in the Mycenaean centers. A new type of ceramic also appeared, called "Barbarian Ware" because it was attributed to invaders from the north. On the other hand, the collapse of Mycenaean Greece coincides with

15660-461: The villages of Stentinello, Ognina, Plemmirio, Matrensa, Cozzo Pantano and Thapsos , which already had a relationship with Mycenaean Greece . Syracuse was founded in 734 or 733 BC in Sicily by Greek settlers from Corinth and Tenea , led by the oecist (colonizer) Archias . There are many attested variants of the name of the city including Συράκουσαι Syrakousai , Συράκοσαι Syrakosai and Συρακώ Syrakō . One observation cited for

15795-467: The walls. The complete population of its territory approximately numbered 250,000 in 415 BC and the population size of the city itself was probably similar to Athens. Gelo was succeeded by his brother Hiero , who fought against the Etruscans at Cumae in 474 BC. His rule was eulogized by poets like Simonides of Ceos , Bacchylides and Pindar , who visited his court. A democratic regime

15930-554: The war, to defeat the Athenians, destroy their ships, and leave them to starve on the island (see Sicilian Expedition ). In 401 BC, Syracuse contributed a force of 300 hoplites and a general to Cyrus the Younger 's Army of the Ten Thousand . Then in the early 4th century BC, the tyrant Dionysius the Elder was again at war against Carthage and, although losing Gela and Camarina, kept that power from capturing

16065-425: The whole of Sicily. After the end of the conflict Dionysius built a massive fortress on Ortygia and 22 km-long walls around all of Syracuse. Another period of expansion saw the destruction of Naxos , Catania and Lentini ; then Syracuse entered again in war against Carthage (397 BC). After various changes of fortune, the Carthaginians managed to besiege Syracuse itself, but were eventually pushed back by

16200-574: Was besieged by the Aghlabids for almost a year in 827–828, but Byzantine reinforcements prevented its fall. It remained the center of Byzantine resistance to the gradual Muslim conquest of Sicily until it fell to the Aghlabids after another siege on 20/21 May 878. During the two centuries of Muslim rule, the capital of the Emirate of Sicily was moved from Syracuse to Palermo . The cathedral

16335-411: Was a result of internal disturbances which led to internecine warfare among the Mycenaean states or civil unrest in a number of states, as a result of the strict hierarchical social system and the ideology of the wanax. In general, due to the obscure archaeological picture in 12th–11th century BC Greece, there is a continuing controversy among scholars over whether the impoverished societies that succeeded

16470-582: Was abandoned, while the Boeotian fortifications of Gla displays evidence for a targeted destruction as only the four gates and the monumental building, called the Melathron, were burned before the site was abandoned. In the Peloponnese, a number of buildings surrounding the citadel of Mycenae were attacked and burned. These incidents appear to have prompted the massive strengthening and expansion of

16605-463: Was allied with Sparta and Corinth and exerted influence over the entirety of Magna Graecia , of which it was the most important city. Described by Cicero as "the greatest Greek city and the most beautiful of them all", it equaled Athens in size during the fifth century BC. It later became part of the Roman Republic and the Byzantine Empire . Under Emperor Constans II , it served as

16740-465: Was allocated. The archives of Pylos display a specialized workforce, where each worker belonged to a precise category and was assigned to a specific task in the stages of production, notably in textiles. Nevertheless, palatial control over resources appears to have been highly selective in spatial terms and in terms of how different industries were managed. Thus, sectors like the production of perfumed oil and bronze materials were directly monitored from

16875-479: Was also incorporated in a mainland-looking network. The site of Mycenae experienced a gradual loss of political and economic status, while Tiryns , also in the Argolid region, expanded its settlement and became the largest local center during the post-palatial period, in Late Helladic IIIC, c. 1200–1050 BC. The reasons for the end of the Mycenaean culture have been hotly debated among scholars. At present, there

17010-487: Was converted into a mosque and the quarter on the Ortygia island was gradually rebuilt along Islamic styles. The city, nevertheless, maintained important trade relationships, and housed a relatively flourishing cultural and artistic life: several Arab poets, including Ibn Hamdis , the most important Sicilian Arab poet of the 12th century, flourished in the city. In 1038, the Byzantine general George Maniakes reconquered

17145-463: Was eventually defeated in Africa as well. The war ended with another treaty of peace which did not prevent the Carthaginians from interfering in the politics of Syracuse after the death of Agathocles (289 BC). They laid siege to Syracuse for the fourth and last time in 278 BC. They retreated at the arrival of king Pyrrhus of Epirus , whom Syracuse had asked for help. After a brief period under

17280-456: Was found on a spouted jug found in 1824 at Centuripe ; it uses a Greek alphabet of the 6th or 5th century BC. It reads: There have been various attempts at interpreting it (e.g. V. Pisani 1963, G. Radke 1996) with no sure results. Another long Sicel inscription was found in Montagna di Marzo: The best evidence for Sicel having been of Indo-European derivation is the verb form pibe "drink",

17415-418: Was governed from the palace, which exercised control over most, if not all, industries within its realm. The palatial territory was divided into several sub-regions, each headed by its provincial center. Each province was further divided in smaller districts, the damoi . A number of palaces and fortifications appear to be part of a wider kingdom. For instance, Gla , located in the region of Boeotia, belonged to

17550-605: Was introduced by Thrasybulos (467 BC). The city continued to expand in Sicily , fighting against the rebellious Siculi , and on the Tyrrhenian Sea , making expeditions up to Corsica and Elba . In the late 5th century BC, Syracuse found itself at war with Athens , which sought more resources to fight the Peloponnesian War . The Syracusans enlisted the aid of a general from Sparta , Athens' foe in

17685-482: Was not only conducted by palatial emissaries but also by independent merchants. Based on archaeological findings in the Middle East, in particular physical artifacts, textual references, inscriptions and wall paintings, it appears that Mycenaean Greeks achieved strong commercial and cultural interaction with most of the Bronze Age people living in this region: Canaanites , Kassites , Mitanni , Assyrians , and Egyptians . The 14th century BC Uluburun shipwreck , off

17820-797: Was registered in Floridia , near Syracuse by the Sicilian Agrometeorological Information Service (SAIS) on 11 August 2021, and is recognized by the World Meteorological Organization as the official record highest temperature in Europe . Guido Guidi, lieutenant colonel of the Italian Meteorological Service , however, had stated the highest temperature registered in the organizations' stations during

17955-582: Was restored, as well as other churches. In 1194, Emperor Henry VI occupied the Sicilian kingdom, including Syracuse. After a short period of Genoese rule (1205–1220) under the notorious admiral and pirate Alamanno da Costa , which favoured a rise of trades, royal authority was re-asserted in the city by Frederick II . He began the construction of the Castello Maniace , the Bishops' Palace and

18090-421: Was the lāwāgetas ("the leader of the people"), whose role appears mainly religious. His activities possibly overlap with the wanax and is usually seen as the second-in-command. Both wanax and lāwāgetas were at the head of a military aristocracy known as the eqeta ("companions" or "followers"). The land possessed by the wanax is usually the témenos (te-me-no). There is also at least one instance of

18225-859: Was the most important base for Mycenaean activity in Asia Minor. Mycenaean presence also reached the adjacent sites of Iasus and Ephesus . Meanwhile, imposing palaces were built in the main Mycenaean centers of the mainland. The earliest palace structures were megaron-type buildings, such as the Menelaion in Sparta , Lakonia . Palaces proper are datable from c.  1400 BC , when Cyclopean fortifications were erected at Mycenae and nearby Tiryns . Additional palaces were built in Midea and Pylos in Peloponnese , Athens , Eleusis , Thebes and Orchomenos in Central Greece and Iolcos , in Thessaly ,

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