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105-453: The area was first explored in October 1935 by A.J.H. van Lynden who was surprised to discover an immense savannah behind the dense rain forests. In 1962, a study was started whether the savannah could be used for animal husbandry , however the transport costs via airplane would make the enterprise unprofitable. A detailed study into the plant and animal life commenced in 1968. This reserve

210-492: A 2020 United Nations Environment Programme report found that most of these efforts had failed to meet their goals. For example, of the 20 biodiversity goals laid out by the Aichi Biodiversity Targets in 2010, only six were "partially achieved" by 2020. This ongoing global extinction is also called the holocene extinction or sixth mass extinction. The current rate of global biodiversity loss

315-533: A British interactive farm in an outbreak in 2009. Historic farms such as those in the United States offer farmstays and "a carefully curated version of farming to those willing to pay for it", sometimes giving visitors a romanticised image of a pastoral idyll from an unspecified time in the pre-industrial past. Biodiversity loss Biodiversity loss happens when plant or animal species disappear completely from Earth ( extinction ) or when there

420-509: A Farm " describes a farmer named MacDonald and the various animals he keeps, celebrating the noises they each make. Many urban children experience animal husbandry for the first time at a petting farm ; in Britain, some five million people a year visit a farm of some kind. This presents some risk of infection , especially if children handle animals and then fail to wash their hands ; a strain of E. coli infected 93 people who had visited

525-549: A decrease in biodiversity and species numbers . Habitat destruction is in fact the leading cause of biodiversity loss and species extinction worldwide. For example, habitat loss is one of the causes in the decline of insect populations (see the section below on insects ). The direct effects of urban growth on habitat loss are well understood: building construction often results in habitat destruction and fragmentation. This leads to selection for species that are adapted to urban environments. Small habitat patches cannot support

630-446: A fertiliser, returning minerals and organic matter to the soil in a semi-closed organic system. Although all mammals produce milk to nourish their young, the cow is predominantly used throughout the world to produce milk and milk products for human consumption. Other animals used to a lesser extent for this purpose include sheep, goats, camels, buffaloes, yaks, reindeer, horses and donkeys. All these animals have been domesticated over

735-410: A large role in biodiversity loss. More than half of the worlds biodiversity is hosted in tropical rainforest. Regions that are subjected to exponential loss of biodiversity are referred to as biodiversity hotspots . Since 1988 the hotspots increased from 10 to 34. Of the total 34 hotspots currently present, 16 of them are in tropical regions (as of 2006). Researchers have noted in 2006 that only 2.3% of

840-532: A new rufous-sided scrub tyrant . The savannah is home to the harpy eagle and the jaguar . The Sipaliwini Savanna is very hard to reach. The Sipaliwini Airstrip is accessible by small planes. From the airstrip, it takes another 2 to 3 hour to reach the reserve along trails, or a canoe journey along the Sipaliwini River. Permission to enter the territory has to be obtained from the granman (tribal leader) who resides at Kwamalasamutu . The reserve

945-493: A plough to increase production of crops, and drawing a sledge, and later a cart, to bring the produce home from the field. Draught animals were first used about 4,000 BC in the Middle East, increasing agricultural production immeasurably. In southern Asia, the elephant was domesticated by 6,000 BC. Fossilised chicken bones dated to 5040 BC have been found in northeastern China, far from where their wild ancestors lived in

1050-800: A role. Freshwater ecosystems such as swamps, deltas, and rivers make up 1% of earth's surface. They are important because they are home to approximately one third of vertebrate species. Freshwater species are beginning to decline at twice the rate of species that live on land or in the ocean. This rapid loss has already placed 27% of 29,500 species dependent on fresh water on the IUCN Red List . Global populations of freshwater fish are collapsing due to water pollution and overfishing . Migratory fish populations have declined by 76% since 1970, and large "megafish" populations have fallen by 94% with 16 species declared extinct in 2020. Marine biodiversity encompasses any living organism that resides in

1155-562: A significant impact on the world environment. Both production and consumption of animal products have increased rapidly. Since 1950, meat production has tripled, whereas the production of dairy products doubled and that of eggs almost increased fourfold. Meanwhile, meat consumption has nearly doubled worldwide. Developing countries had a surge in meat consumption, particularly of monogastric livestock. Animal husbandry drives climate change, ocean acidification, and biodiversity loss, and kills 60 billion animals annually. It uses between 20 and 33% of

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1260-820: A small area and given supplementary heating. Litter on the floor absorbs the droppings and the area occupied is expanded as they grow. Feed and water is supplied automatically and the lighting is controlled. The birds may be harvested on several occasions or the whole shed may be cleared at one time. A similar rearing system is usually used for turkeys, which are less hardy than chickens, but they take longer to grow and are often moved on to separate fattening units to finish. Ducks are particularly popular in Asia and Australia and can be killed at seven weeks under commercial conditions. Aquaculture has been defined as "the farming of aquatic organisms including fish, molluscs, crustaceans and aquatic plants and implies some form of intervention in

1365-483: A typical broiler chicken at eight weeks old was 4.8 times as heavy as a bird of similar age in 1957, while in the thirty years to 2007, the average milk yield of a dairy cow in the United States nearly doubled. Good husbandry, proper feeding, and hygiene are the main contributors to animal health on the farm, bringing economic benefits through maximised production. When, despite these precautions, animals still become sick, they are treated with veterinary medicines , by

1470-550: A week. At the other extreme, in the more developed parts of the world, animals are often intensively managed ; dairy cows may be kept in zero-grazing conditions with all their forage brought to them; beef cattle may be kept in high density feedlots ; pigs may be housed in climate-controlled buildings and never go outdoors; poultry may be reared in barns and kept in cages as laying birds under lighting-controlled conditions. In between these two extremes are semi-intensive, often family-run farms where livestock graze outside for much of

1575-526: Is a deciduous tree. In China, Korea and Japan however, two generations are normal, and in the tropics, multiple generations are expected. Most production of silk occurs in the Far East, with a synthetic diet being used to rear the silkworms in Japan. Insects form part of the human diet in many cultures. In Thailand, crickets are farmed for this purpose in the north of the country, and palm weevil larvae in

1680-469: Is a decrease or disappearance of species in a specific area. Biodiversity loss means that there is a reduction in biological diversity in a given area. The decrease can be temporary or permanent. It is temporary if the damage that led to the loss is reversible in time, for example through ecological restoration . If this is not possible, then the decrease is permanent. The cause of most of the biodiversity loss is, generally speaking, human activities that push

1785-580: Is a major driver of biodiversity loss, with infrastructure present in roughly 80% of KBAs. Infrastructure development leads to conversion and fragmentation of natural habitat, pollution and disturbance. There can also be direct harm to animals through collisions with vehicles and structures. This can have impacts beyond the infrastructure site. Humans are changing the uses of land in various ways, and each can lead to habitat destruction and biodiversity loss. The 2019 Global Assessment Report on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services found that industrial agriculture

1890-428: Is another threat to global biodiversity . For example, coral reefs —which are biodiversity hotspots —will be lost by the year 2100 if global warming continues at the current rate. Still, it is the general habitat destruction (often for expansion of agriculture), not climate change, that is currently the bigger driver of biodiversity loss. Invasive species and other disturbances have become more common in forests in

1995-558: Is believed to be seven times lower than its prehistoric values, while the biomass of marine mammals had declined fivefold. At the same time, the biomass of humans is "an order of magnitude higher than that of all wild mammals", and the biomass of livestock mammals like pigs and cattle is even larger than that. Even as wild mammals had declined, the growth in the numbers of humans and livestock had increased total mammal biomass fourfold. Only 4% of that increased number are wild mammals, while livestock and humans amount to 60% and 36%. Alongside

2100-658: Is common in marine ecosystems, affecting at least 55 marine species. One study found that as seismic noises and naval sonar increases in marine ecosystems, cetacean diversity decreases (including whales and dolphins). Multiple studies have found that fewer fishes, such as cod , haddock , rockfish , herring , sand seal, and blue whiting , have been spotted in areas with seismic noises, with catch rates declining by 40–80%. Noise pollution has also altered avian communities and diversity. Noise can reduce reproductive success, minimize nesting areas, increase stress response, and reduce species abundance. Noise pollution can alter

2205-487: Is destroyed by clearing forests and converting land to grow feed crops and for grazing, while predators and herbivores are frequently targeted because of a perceived threat to livestock profits; for example, animal husbandry causes up to 91% of the deforestation in the Amazon region . In addition, livestock produce greenhouse gases . Cows produce some 570 million cubic metres of methane per day, that accounts for 35 to 40% of

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2310-507: Is due to hunting and trapping for the exotic pet trade. Deforestation , caused by unsustainable logging and agriculture, could be the next extinction driver, because birds lose their habitat and their food. While plants are essential for human survival, they have not received the same attention as the conservation of animals. It is estimated that a third of all land plant species are at risk of extinction and 94% have yet to be evaluated in terms of their conservation status. Plants existing at

2415-654: Is estimated to be 100 to 1000 times higher than the (naturally occurring) background extinction rate , faster than at any other time in human history, and is expected to grow in the upcoming years. The fast-growing extinction trends of various animal groups like mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, and fish have led scientists to declare a current biodiversity crisis in both land and ocean ecosystems. In 2006, many more species were formally classified as rare or endangered or threatened ; moreover, scientists have estimated that millions more species are at risk that have not been formally recognized. Deforestation also plays

2520-427: Is mainly derived from cereals and cereal by-products, fats and oils and sugar-rich foods, while protein may come from fish or meat meal, milk products, legumes and other plant foods, often the by-products of vegetable oil extraction. Pigs and poultry are non-ruminants and unable to digest the cellulose in grass and other forages, so they are fed entirely on cereals and other high-energy foodstuffs. The ingredients for

2625-455: Is managed by farmers with a view to encouraging traits seen as desirable. These include hardiness, fertility, docility, mothering abilities, fast growth rates, low feed consumption per unit of growth, better body proportions, higher yields, and better fibre qualities. Undesirable traits such as health defects and aggressiveness are selected against. Selective breeding has been responsible for large increases in productivity. For example, in 2007,

2730-463: Is no single universally agreed definition of which species are livestock. Widely agreed types of livestock include cattle for beef and dairy, sheep, goats, pigs, and poultry. Various other species are sometimes considered livestock, such as horses, while poultry birds are sometimes excluded. In some parts of the world, livestock includes species such as buffalo, and the South American camelids,

2835-460: Is not guarded. Poaching, and collecting of endangered species are a problem. Burning of the savannah by the Amerindians is also a problem. Animal husbandry Animal husbandry is the branch of agriculture concerned with animals that are raised for meat , fibre , milk , or other products. It includes day-to-day care, management, production, nutrition, selective breeding , and

2940-472: Is now frowned on in many countries because of the risk that it may lead to antimicrobial resistance in livestock and in humans. Governments are concerned with zoonoses , diseases that humans may acquire from animals. Wild animal populations may harbour diseases that can affect domestic animals which may acquire them as a result of insufficient biosecurity . An outbreak of Nipah virus in Malaysia in 1999

3045-580: Is often a matter of debate. An October 2020 analysis by Swiss Re found that one-fifth of all countries are at risk of ecosystem collapse as the result of anthropogenic habitat destruction and increased wildlife loss. If these losses are not reversed, a total ecosystem collapse could ensue. In 2022, the World Wildlife Fund reported an average population decline of 68% between 1970 and 2016 for 4,400 animal species worldwide, encompassing nearly 21,000 monitored populations. Insects are

3150-459: Is one of the last frontiers in the tropics, and relatively little is known about the region. The savannah consists of large grasslands with wetter islands of trees. Bird life is abundant, and the savannah is where the blue poison dart frog was discovered in 1969. In 2005, six birds that had never been recorded in Suriname were seen on the reserve. It includes a new species of sun parakeet , and

3255-461: Is only part of the purpose of keeping an animal which may also be used as a beast of burden or to draw a plough, or for the production of fibre, meat and leather, with the dung being used for fuel or for the improvement of soil fertility . Sheep and goats may be favoured for dairy production in climates and conditions that do not suit dairy cows. Meat , mainly from farmed animals, is a major source of dietary protein and essential nutrients around

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3360-499: Is placed on marine ecosystems near coastal areas because of the human settlements in those areas. Overexploitation has resulted in the extinction of over 25 marine species. This includes seabirds , marine mammals , algae , and fish . Examples of extinct marine species include Steller's sea cow ( Hydrodamalis gigas ) and the Caribbean monk seal ( Monachus tropicalis ). Not all extinctions are because of humans. For example, in

3465-582: Is practical and down to earth, and anti-intellectual. Farm animals are widespread in books and songs for children; the reality of animal husbandry is often distorted, softened, or idealized, giving children an almost entirely fictitious account of farm life. The books often depict happy animals free to roam in attractive countryside, a picture completely at odds with the realities of the impersonal, mechanized activities involved in modern intensive farming . Pigs, for example, appear in several of Beatrix Potter 's "little books", as Piglet in A.A. Milne 's Winnie

3570-538: Is seasonal, for example in the temperate summer or tropical rainy season , so some areas of the crop are set aside to be cut and preserved, either as hay (dried grass), or as silage (fermented grass). Other forage crops are also grown and many of these, as well as crop residues, can be ensiled to fill the gap in the nutritional needs of livestock in the lean season. Extensively reared animals may subsist entirely on forage, but more intensively kept livestock will require energy and protein-rich foods in addition. Energy

3675-725: Is the primary driver of biodiversity collapse. The UN's Global Biodiversity Outlook 2014 estimated that 70% of the projected loss of terrestrial biodiversity is caused by agriculture use. According to a 2005 publication, "Cultivated systems [...] cover 24% of Earth's surface". The publication defined cultivated areas as "areas in which at least 30% of the landscape is in croplands, shifting cultivation, confined livestock production, or freshwater aquaculture in any particular year". More than 17,000 species are at risk of losing habitat by 2050 as agriculture continues to expand to meet future food needs (as of 2020). A global shift toward largely plant-based diets would free up land to allow for

3780-644: Is the relative representation of a species in a particular ecosystem . It is usually measured as the number of individuals found per sample . The ratio of abundance of one species to one or multiple other species living in an ecosystem is called relative species abundance . Both indicators are relevant for computing biodiversity . There are many different biodiversity indexes . These investigate different scales and time spans. Biodiversity has various scales and subcategories (e.g. phylogenetic diversity , species diversity , genetic diversity , nucleotide diversity ). The question of net loss in confined regions

3885-585: Is trying to take action and promote the restoration and maintenance of the many diverse species of earthworms. Since the 1980s, decreases in amphibian populations, including population decline and localized mass extinctions , have been observed in locations all over the world. This type of biodiversity loss is known as one of the most critical threats to global biodiversity . The possible causes include habitat destruction and modification, diseases, exploitation, pollution , pesticide use, introduced species , and ultraviolet-B radiation (UV-B). However, many of

3990-576: The Middle East . Animal rights activists have objected to long-distance transport of animals; one result was the banning of live exports from New Zealand in 2003. Since the 18th century, the farmer John Bull has represented English national identity , first in John Arbuthnot 's political satires, and soon afterwards in cartoons by James Gillray and others including John Tenniel . He likes food, beer, dogs, horses, and country sports ; he

4095-411: The acronym HIPPO for the main causes of biodiversity loss: H abitat destruction, I nvasive species, P ollution, human over- P opulation and O ver-harvesting . Habitat destruction (also termed habitat loss and habitat reduction) occurs when a natural habitat is no longer able to support its native species. The organisms once living there have either moved to elsewhere or are dead, leading to

4200-497: The cellulose in forage and require other high-protein foods. The verb to husband , meaning "to manage carefully", derives from an older meaning of husband , which in the 14th century referred to the ownership and care of a household or farm, but today means the "control or judicious use of resources", and in agriculture, the cultivation of plants or animals. Farmers and ranchers who raise livestock are considered to practice animal husbandry . The domestication of livestock

4305-442: The effects of climate change . An additional cause that may be specific to insects is light pollution (research in that area is ongoing). Scientists have studied loss of earthworms from several long-term agronomic trials. They found that relative biomass losses of minus 50–100% (with a mean of minus 83 %) match or exceed those reported for other faunal groups. Thus it is clear that earthworms are similarly depleted in

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4410-470: The nomads in the Middle East, while cattle and pigs were associated with more settled communities. The first wild animal to be domesticated was the dog . Half-wild dogs, perhaps starting with young individuals, may have been tolerated as scavengers and killers of vermin, and being naturally pack hunters , were predisposed to become part of the human pack and join in the hunt. Prey animals, sheep, goats, pigs and cattle, were progressively domesticated early in

4515-525: The planetary boundaries too far. These activities include habitat destruction (for example deforestation ) and land use intensification (for example monoculture farming). Further problem areas are air and water pollution (including nutrient pollution ), over-exploitation , invasive species and climate change . Many scientists, along with the Global Assessment Report on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services , say that

4620-588: The protected areas with rich biodiversity were in areas containing unexploited fossil fuel reserves worth between $ 3 and $ 15 trillion. The protected areas may be under threat in future. Continued overexploitation can lead to the destruction of the resource, as it will be unable to replenish. The term applies to natural resources such as water aquifers , grazing pastures and forests , wild medicinal plants , fish stocks and other wildlife . A 2019 Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services report found that overfishing

4725-646: The 1930s, the eelgrass limpet ( Lottia alveus ) became extinct in the Atlantic once the Zostera marina seagrass population declined upon exposure to a disease. The Lottia alveus were greatly impacted because the Zostera marina were their sole habitats. The main causes of current biodiversity loss are: Jared Diamond describes an "Evil Quartet" of habitat destruction , overkill , introduced species and secondary extinctions . Edward O. Wilson suggested

4830-413: The 20th century. Many car drivers know this anecdotal evidence through the windscreen phenomenon , for example. Causes for the decline in insect population are similar to those driving other biodiversity loss. They include habitat destruction , such as intensive agriculture , the use of pesticides (particularly insecticides ), introduced species , and – to a lesser degree and only for some regions –

4935-550: The Mediterranean. In ancient Egypt , cattle were the most important livestock, and sheep, goats, and pigs were also kept; poultry including ducks, geese, and pigeons were captured in nets and bred on farms, where they were force-fed with dough to fatten them. The Nile provided a plentiful source of fish. Honey bees were domesticated from at least the Old Kingdom, providing both honey and wax. In ancient Rome , all

5040-581: The New World for the first time along with wheat, barley, rice and turnips. Selective breeding for desired traits was established as a scientific practice by Robert Bakewell during the British Agricultural Revolution in the 18th century. One of his most important breeding programs was with sheep. Using native stock, he was able to quickly select for large, yet fine-boned sheep, with long, lustrous wool. The Lincoln Longwool

5145-486: The New World, and then in the British Agricultural Revolution of the 18th century, when livestock breeds like the Dishley Longhorn cattle and Lincoln Longwool sheep were rapidly improved by agriculturalists, such as Robert Bakewell , to yield more meat, milk, and wool . A wide range of other species, such as horse , water buffalo , llama , rabbit , and guinea pig , are used as livestock in some parts of

5250-587: The Pooh stories, and somewhat more darkly (with a hint of animals going to slaughter) as Babe in Dick King-Smith 's The Sheep-Pig , and as Wilbur in E. B. White 's Charlotte's Web . Pigs tend to be "bearers of cheerfulness, good humour and innocence". Many of these books are completely anthropomorphic , dressing farm animals in clothes and having them walk on two legs, live in houses, and perform human activities. The children's song " Old MacDonald Had

5355-538: The Westmoreland bull to create the Dishley Longhorn . The semi-natural, unfertilised pastures formed by traditional agricultural methods in Europe were managed by grazing and mowing. As the ecological impact of this land management strategy is similar to the impact of such natural disturbances as grazing and wildfire , this agricultural system shares many beneficial characteristics with a natural habitat, including

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5460-492: The Wild." Possible solutions can be found in some silvicultural methods of forest management that promote tree biodiversity, such as selective logging, thinning or crop tree management, and clear cutting and coppicing . Without solutions, secondary forests recovery in species richness can take 50 years to recover the same amount as the primary forest, or 20 years to recover 80% of species richness. Human impact on

5565-639: The alpaca and llama. Some authorities use much broader definitions to include fish in aquaculture , micro-livestock such as rabbits and rodents like guinea pigs , as well as insects from honey bees to crickets raised for human consumption . Animals are raised for a wide variety of products, principally meat , wool , milk , and eggs , but also including tallow , isinglass and rennet . Animals are also kept for more specialised purposes, such as to produce vaccines and antiserum (containing antibodies ) for medical use. Where fodder or other crops are grown alongside animals, manure can serve as

5670-452: The animal for food was a secondary consideration, and wherever possible its products such as wool, eggs, milk and blood (by the Maasai ) were harvested while the animal was still alive. In the traditional system of transhumance , people and livestock moved seasonally between fixed summer and winter pastures; in montane regions the summer pasture was up in the mountains, the winter pasture in

5775-404: The animals' rations can be grown on the farm or can be bought, in the form of pelleted or cubed, compound foodstuffs specially formulated for the different classes of livestock, their growth stages and their specific nutritional requirements. Vitamins and minerals are added to balance the diet. Farmed fish are usually fed pelleted food. The breeding of farm animals seldom occurs spontaneously but

5880-437: The birds are unable to exhibit their normal behaviours. In the developed world, the majority of the poultry reared for meat is raised indoors in big sheds, with automated equipment under environmentally controlled conditions. Chickens raised in this way are known as broilers, and genetic improvements have meant that they can be grown to slaughter weight within six or seven weeks of hatching. Newly hatched chicks are restricted to

5985-502: The birds can roam as they will but are housed at night for their own protection, through semi-intensive systems where they are housed in barns and have perches, litter and some freedom of movement, to intensive systems where they are kept in cages. The battery cages are arranged in long rows in multiple tiers, with external feeders, drinkers, and egg collection facilities. This is the most labour saving and economical method of egg production but has been criticised on animal welfare grounds as

6090-452: The book, had in 1086 "2 fisheries worth [paying tax of] 7s and 6d [each year] and 20 acres of meadow [for livestock]. Woodland for [feeding] 70 pigs." The improvements of animal husbandry in the medieval period in Europe went hand in hand with other developments. Improvements to the plough allowed the soil to be tilled to a greater depth. Horses took over from oxen as the main providers of traction, new ideas on crop rotation were developed and

6195-405: The causes of amphibian declines are still poorly understood, and the topic is currently a subject of ongoing research. Biomass of mammals on Earth as of 2018 The decline of wild mammal populations globally has been an occurrence spanning over the past 50,000 years, at the same time as the populations of humans and livestock have increased. Nowadays, the total biomass of wild mammals on land

6300-486: The centuries, being bred for such desirable characteristics as fecundity, productivity, docility and the ability to thrive under the prevailing conditions. Whereas in the past cattle had multiple functions, modern dairy cow breeding has resulted in specialised Holstein Friesian-type animals that produce large quantities of milk economically. Artificial insemination is widely available to allow farmers to select for

6405-524: The countryside to assist in pollination. Sericulture , the rearing of silkworms, was first adopted by the Chinese during the Shang dynasty . The only species farmed commercially is the domesticated silkmoth . When it spins its cocoon , each larva produces an exceedingly long, slender thread of silk. The larvae feed on mulberry leaves and in Europe, only one generation is normally raised each year as this

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6510-494: The distribution and abundance of prey species, which can then impact predator populations. Fossil fuel extraction and associated oil and gas pipelines have major impacts on the biodiversity of many biomes due to land conversion, habitat loss and degradation, and pollution. An example is the Western Amazon region. Exploitation of fossil fuels there has had significant impacts on biodiversity. As of 2018, many of

6615-436: The environment has driven a range of species extinct and is threatening even more today . Multiple organizations such as IUCN and Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew suggest that around 40% of plant species are threatened with extinction. The majority are threatened by habitat loss , but activities such as logging of wild timber trees and collection of medicinal plants, or the introduction of non-native invasive species , also play

6720-743: The farmer and the veterinarian . In the European Union, when farmers treat their own animals, they are required to follow the guidelines for treatment and to record the treatments given. Animals are susceptible to a number of diseases and conditions that may affect their health. Some, like classical swine fever and scrapie are specific to one type of stock, while others, like foot-and-mouth disease affect all cloven-hoofed animals. Animals living under intensive conditions are prone to internal and external parasites ; increasing numbers of sea lice are affecting farmed salmon in Scotland. Reducing

6825-422: The functioning and biodiversity of terrestrial as well as aquatic ecosystems. For example, "air pollution causes or contributes to acidification of lakes, eutrophication of estuaries and coastal waters, and mercury bioaccumulation in aquatic food webs". Noise generated by traffic, ships, vehicles, and aircraft can affect the survivability of wildlife species and can reach undisturbed habitats. Noise pollution

6930-444: The growing of crops for winter fodder gained ground. Peas, beans and vetches became common; they increased soil fertility through nitrogen fixation, allowing more livestock to be kept. Exploration and colonisation of North and South America resulted in the introduction into Europe of such crops as maize, potatoes, sweet potatoes and manioc, while the principal Old World livestock – cattle, horses, sheep and goats – were introduced into

7035-537: The history of agriculture. Pigs were domesticated in the Near East between 8,500 and 8000 BC, sheep and goats in or near the Fertile Crescent about 8,500 BC, and cattle from wild aurochs in the areas of modern Turkey and Pakistan around 8,500 BC. A cow was a great advantage to a villager as she produced more milk than her calf needed, and her strength could be put to use as a working animal , pulling

7140-480: The jungles of tropical Asia, but archaeologists believe that the original purpose of domestication was for the sport of cockfighting . Meanwhile, in South America, the llama and the alpaca had been domesticated, probably before 3,000 BC, as beasts of burden and for their wool. Neither was strong enough to pull a plough which limited the development of agriculture in the New World. Horses occur naturally on

7245-534: The last several decades. These tend to be directly or indirectly connected to climate change and can cause a deterioration of forest ecosystems. Groups that care about the environment have been working for many years to stop the decrease in biodiversity. Nowadays, many global policies include activities to stop biodiversity loss. For example, the UN Convention on Biological Diversity aims to prevent biodiversity loss and to conserve wilderness areas . However,

7350-479: The level of genetic or taxonomic diversity they formerly could while some more sensitive species may become locally extinct. Species abundance populations are reduced due to the reduced fragmented area of habitat. This causes an increase of species isolation and forces species toward edge habitats and to adapt to foraging elsewhere. Infrastructure development in Key Biodiversity Areas (KBA)

7455-538: The livestock known in ancient Egypt were available. In addition, rabbits were domesticated for food by the first century BC. To help flush them out from their burrows, the polecat was domesticated as the ferret , its use described by Pliny the Elder . In northern Europe, agriculture including animal husbandry went into decline when the Roman empire collapsed. Some aspects such as the herding of animals continued throughout

7560-619: The lowest trophic level require increased conservation to reduce negative impacts at higher trophic levels. In 2022, scientists warned that a third of tree species are threatened with extinction. This will significantly alter the world's ecosystems because their carbon, water and nutrient cycles will be affected. Forest areas are degraded due to common factors such as logging, fire, and firewood harvesting. The GTA (global tree assessment) has determined that "17,510 (29.9%) tree species are considered threatened with extinction. In addition, there are 142 tree species recorded as Extinct or Extinct in

7665-406: The main reason for biodiversity loss is a growing human population because this leads to human overpopulation and excessive consumption . Others disagree, saying that loss of habitat is caused mainly by "the growth of commodities for export" and that population has very little to do with overall consumption. More important are wealth disparities between and within countries. Climate change

7770-424: The most numerous and widespread class in the animal kingdom , accounting for up to 90% of all animal species. In the 2010s, reports emerged about the widespread decline in insect populations across multiple insect orders . The reported severity shocked many observers, even though there had been earlier findings of pollinator decline . There has also been anecdotal reports of greater insect abundance earlier in

7875-510: The most widely held position in the western world, a form of utilitarianism : that it is morally acceptable for humans to use non-human animals, provided that no unnecessary suffering is caused, and that the benefits to humans outweigh the costs to the livestock. An opposing view is that animals have rights , should not be regarded as property, are not necessary to use, and should never be used by humans. Live export of animals has risen to meet increased global demand for livestock such as in

7980-593: The ocean or in estuaries . By 2018, approximately 240,000 marine species had been documented. But many marine species—estimates range between 178,000 and 10 million oceanic species—remain to be described. It is therefore likely that a number of rare species (not seen for decades in the wild) have already disappeared or are on the brink of extinction, unnoticed. Human activities have a strong and detrimental influence on marine biodiversity. The main drivers of marine species extinction are habitat loss, pollution, invasive species , and overexploitation. Greater pressure

8085-501: The overall methane emissions of the planet. Further, livestock production is responsible for 65% of all human-related emissions of nitrous oxide . Since the 18th century, people have become increasingly concerned about the welfare of farm animals . Possible measures of welfare include longevity , behavior , physiology , reproduction , freedom from disease , and freedom from immunosuppression . Standards and laws for animal welfare have been created worldwide, broadly in line with

8190-480: The parasite burdens of livestock results in increased productivity and profitability. Where the condition is serious, governments impose regulations on import and export, on the movement of stock, quarantine restrictions and the reporting of suspected cases. Vaccines are available against certain diseases, and antibiotics are widely used where appropriate. At one time, antibiotics were routinely added to certain compound foodstuffs to promote growth, but this practice

8295-406: The particular traits that suit their circumstances. Whereas in the past cows were kept in small herds on family farms , grazing pastures and being fed hay in winter, nowadays there is a trend towards larger herds, more intensive systems, the feeding of silage and "zero grazing", a system where grass is cut and brought to the cow, which is housed year-round. In many communities, milk production

8400-564: The period. By the 11th century, the economy had recovered and the countryside was again productive. The Domesday Book recorded every parcel of land and every animal in England: "there was not one single hide, nor a yard of land, nay, moreover ... not even an ox, nor a cow, nor a swine was there left, that was not set down in [the king's] writ." For example, the royal manor of Earley in Berkshire , one of thousands of villages recorded in

8505-532: The pollutants sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides . Once sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide are introduced into the atmosphere, they can react with cloud droplets ( cloud condensation nuclei ), raindrops, or snowflakes, forming sulfuric acid and nitric acid . With the interaction between water droplets and sulfuric and nitric acids, wet deposition occurs and creates acid rain . A 2009 review studied four air pollutants (sulfur, nitrogen, ozone, and mercury) and several types of ecosystems. Air pollution affects

8610-410: The promotion of biodiversity . This strategy is declining in Europe today due to the intensification of agriculture. The mechanized and chemical methods used are causing biodiversity to decline. Traditionally, animal husbandry was part of the subsistence farmer's way of life, producing not only the food needed by the family but also the fuel, fertiliser, clothing, transport and draught power. Killing

8715-561: The raising of livestock . Husbandry has a long history, starting with the Neolithic Revolution when animals were first domesticated , from around 13,000 BC onwards, predating farming of the first crops . During the period of ancient societies like ancient Egypt , cattle , sheep , goats , and pigs were being raised on farms. Major changes took place in the Columbian exchange , when Old World livestock were brought to

8820-1033: The rearing process to enhance production, such as regular stocking, feeding, protection from predators, etc. Farming also implies individual or corporate ownership of the stock being cultivated." In practice it can take place in the sea or in freshwater, and be extensive or intensive. Whole bays, lakes or ponds may be devoted to aquaculture, or the farmed animal may be retained in cages (fish), artificial reefs , racks or strings (shellfish). Fish and prawns can be cultivated in rice paddies , either arriving naturally or being introduced, and both crops can be harvested together. Fish hatcheries provide larval and juvenile fish, crustaceans and shellfish, for use in aquaculture systems. When large enough these are transferred to growing-on tanks and sold to fish farms to reach harvest size. Some species that are commonly raised in hatcheries include shrimps , prawns , salmon , tilapia , oysters and scallops . Similar facilities can be used to raise species with conservation needs to be released into

8925-475: The restoration of ecosystems and biodiversity. In the 2010s over 80% of all global farmland was used to rear animals. As of 2022, 44% of Earth's land area required conservation attention, which may include declaring protected areas and following land-use policies . Air pollution adversely affects biodiversity. Pollutants are emitted into the atmosphere by the burning of fossil fuels and biomass , for example. Industrial and agricultural activity releases

9030-507: The simultaneous halving of plant biomass, these striking declines are considered part of the prehistoric phase of the Holocene extinction . Some pesticides , like insecticides , likely play a role in reducing the populations of specific bird species. According to a study funded by BirdLife International , 51 bird species are critically endangered and eight could be classified as extinct or in danger of extinction. Nearly 30% of extinction

9135-460: The soil and plant roots that earthworms use to create their biomass. This interferes with carbon and nitrogen cycles . Knowledge of earthworm species diversity is quite limited as not even 50% of them have been described. Sustainable agriculture methods could help prevent earthworm diversity decline, for example reduced tillage. The Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity

9240-536: The soils of fields used for intensive agriculture. Earthworms play an important role in ecosystem function, helping with biological processing in soil, water, and even greenhouse gas balancing. There are five reasons for the decline of earthworm diversity: "(1) soil degradation and habitat loss, (2) climate change, (3) excessive nutrient and other forms of contamination load, (4) over-exploitation and unsustainable management of soil, and (5) invasive species". Factors like tillage practices and intensive land use decimate

9345-421: The south. The crickets are kept in pens, boxes or drawers and fed on commercial pelleted poultry food, while the palm weevil larvae live on cabbage palm and sago palm trees, which limits their production to areas where these trees grow. Another delicacy of this region is the bamboo caterpillar , and the best rearing and harvesting techniques in semi-natural habitats are being studied. Animal husbandry has

9450-779: The steppes of Central Asia and their domestication began around 3,000 BC in the Black Sea and Caspian Sea region. Although horses were originally seen as a source of meat, their use as pack animals and for riding followed. Around the same time, the wild ass was being tamed in Egypt. Camels were domesticated soon after this, with the Bactrian camel in Mongolia and the Arabian camel becoming beasts of burden. By 1000 BC, caravans of Arabian camels were linking India with Mesopotamia and

9555-551: The uplands of the United Kingdom, sheep are turned out on the fells in spring and graze the abundant mountain grasses untended, being brought to lower altitudes late in the year, with supplementary feeding being provided in winter. In rural locations, pigs and poultry can obtain much of their nutrition from scavenging, and in African communities, hens may live for months without being fed, and still produce one or two eggs

9660-612: The valleys. Animals can be kept extensively or intensively. Extensive systems involve animals roaming at will, or under the supervision of a herdsman, often for their protection from predators . Ranching in the Western United States involves large herds of cattle grazing widely over public and private lands. Similar cattle stations are found in South America, Australia and other places with large areas of land and low rainfall. Ranching systems have been used for sheep , deer , ostrich , emu , llama and alpaca . In

9765-487: The whole range of available plant material. Cattle, sheep, goats, deer and antelopes are ruminants ; they digest food in two steps, chewing and swallowing in the normal way, and then regurgitating the semidigested cud to chew it again and thus extract the maximum possible food value. The dietary needs of these animals is mostly met by eating grass. Grasses grow from the base of the leaf-blade, enabling it to thrive even when heavily grazed or cut. In many climates grass growth

9870-523: The wild long before that. Fixed comb hives are used in many parts of the world and are made from any locally available material. In more advanced economies, where modern strains of domestic bee have been selected for docility and productiveness, various designs of hive are used which enable the combs to be removed for processing and extraction of honey. Quite apart from the honey and wax they produce, honey bees are important pollinators of crops and wild plants, and in many places hives are transported around

9975-536: The wild, or game fish for restocking waterways. Important aspects of husbandry at these early stages include selection of breeding stock, control of water quality and nutrition. In the wild, there is a massive amount of mortality at the nursery stage; farmers seek to minimise this while at the same time maximising growth rates. Bees have been kept in hives since at least the First Dynasty of Egypt , five thousand years ago, and man had been harvesting honey from

10080-651: The world is covered with biodiversity loss hotspots, and even though only a small percentage of the world is covered in hotspots, it host a large fraction (50%) of vascular plant species. In 2021, about 28 percent of the 134,400 species assessed using the IUCN Red List criteria are now listed as threatened with extinction —a total of 37,400 species compared to 16,119 threatened species in 2006. A 2022 study that surveyed more than 3,000 experts found that "global biodiversity loss and its impacts may be greater than previously thought", and estimated that roughly 30% of species "have been globally threatened or driven extinct since

10185-475: The world's fresh water, Livestock, and the production of feed for them, occupy about a third of the Earth's ice-free land. Livestock production contributes to species extinction , desertification , and habitat destruction . and is the primary driver of the Holocene extinction . Some 70% of the agricultural land and 30% of Earth's land surface is involved directly or indirectly in animal husbandry. Habitat

10290-495: The world's meat is produced from animals grazing on open ranges or on enclosed pastures, the other half being produced intensively in various factory-farming systems; these are mostly cows, pigs or poultry, and often reared indoors, typically at high densities. Poultry, kept for their eggs and for their meat, include chickens, turkeys, geese and ducks. The great majority of laying birds used for egg production are chickens. Methods for keeping layers range from free-range systems, where

10395-764: The world, averaging about 8% of man's energy intake. The actual types eaten depend on local preferences, availability, cost and other factors, with cattle, sheep, pigs and goats being the main species involved. Cattle generally produce a single offspring annually which takes more than a year to mature; sheep and goats often have twins and these are ready for slaughter in less than a year; pigs are more prolific, producing more than one litter of up to about 11 piglets each year. Horses, donkeys, deer, buffalo, llamas, alpacas, guanacos and vicunas are farmed for meat in various regions. Some desirable traits of animals raised for meat include fecundity, hardiness, fast growth rate, ease of management and high food conversion efficiency. About half of

10500-1016: The world. Insect farming , as well as aquaculture of fish , molluscs , and crustaceans , is widespread. Modern animal husbandry relies on production systems adapted to the type of land available. Subsistence farming is being superseded by intensive animal farming in the more developed parts of the world, where, for example, beef cattle are kept in high-density feedlots , and thousands of chickens may be raised in broiler houses or batteries . On poorer soil, such as in uplands, animals are often kept more extensively and may be allowed to roam widely, foraging for themselves. Animal agriculture at modern scale drives climate change , ocean acidification , and biodiversity loss . Most livestock are herbivores , except for pigs and chickens which are omnivores . Ruminants like cattle and sheep are adapted to feed on grass; they can forage outdoors or may be fed entirely or in part on rations richer in energy and protein, such as pelleted cereals. Pigs and poultry cannot digest

10605-491: The year 1500." Research published in 2023 found that, out of 70,000 species, about 48% are facing decreasing populations due to human activities, while only 3% are seeing an increase in populations. Biologists define biodiversity as the "totality of genes , species and ecosystems of a region". To measure biodiversity loss rates for a particular location, scientists record the species richness and its variation over time in that area. In ecology , local abundance

10710-531: The year, silage or hay is made to cover the times of year when the grass stops growing, and fertiliser, feed, and other inputs are brought onto the farm from outside. Animals used as livestock are predominantly herbivorous , the main exceptions being the pig and the chicken which are omnivorous. The herbivores can be divided into "concentrate selectors" which selectively feed on seeds, fruits and highly nutritious young foliage, "grazers" which mainly feed on grass, and "intermediate feeders" which choose their diet from

10815-417: Was driven by the need to have food on hand when hunting was unproductive. The desirable characteristics of a domestic animal are that it should be useful to the domesticator, should be able to thrive in his or her company, should breed freely, and be easy to tend. Domestication was not a single event, but a process repeated at various periods in different places. Sheep and goats were the animals that accompanied

10920-512: Was improved by Bakewell and in turn the Lincoln was used to develop the subsequent breed, named the New (or Dishley) Leicester. It was hornless and had a square, meaty body with straight top lines. These sheep were exported widely and have contributed to numerous modern breeds. Under his influence, English farmers began to breed cattle for use primarily as beef. Long-horned heifers were crossed with

11025-540: Was traced back to pigs becoming ill after contact with fruit-eating flying foxes , their faeces and urine. The pigs in turn passed the infection to humans. Avian flu H5N1 is present in wild bird populations and can be carried large distances by migrating birds. This virus is easily transmissible to domestic poultry, and to humans living in close proximity with them. Other infectious diseases affecting wild animals, farm animals and humans include rabies , leptospirosis , brucellosis , tuberculosis and trichinosis . There

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