The Stallburg is a renaissance-style building in the Vienna city center located between Josefsplatz and Michaelerplatz. It is part of the Hofburg Palace .
95-545: Formerly the living quarters of Archduke Maximilian , later Emperor Maximilian II , it was built around 1558–1565 as a residence. From 1659 to 1776 it housed the art collection of Archduke Leopold Wilhelm , called the Stallburg gallery . This collection forms the core of the later Kunsthistorisches Museum from 1889. Later the building became the Imperial Stables used to house the imperial horses, and even today it
190-649: A papal bull issued by Pope Boniface VIII on 18 November 1302. The bull laid down dogmatic propositions on the unity of the Catholic Church , the necessity of belonging to it for eternal salvation ( Extra Ecclesiam nulla salus ), the position of the Pope as supreme head of the Church, and the duty thence arising of submission to the Pope in order to belong to the Church and thus to attain salvation. The bull ends, "Furthermore, we declare, we proclaim, we define that it
285-413: A "Christianity of Reason", in which human reason (initiated by criticism and dissent) would develop, even without help by divine revelation. His plays about Jewish characters and themes, such as "Die Juden" and " Nathan der Weise ", "have usually been considered impressive pleas for social and religious toleration". The latter work contains the famous parable of the three rings, in which three sons represent
380-801: A "remarkable feature" of the Achaemenid Empire of Persia. Cyrus the Great assisted in the restoration of the sacred places of various cities. In the Old Testament , Cyrus was said to have released the Jews from the Babylonian captivity in 539–530 BCE, and permitted their return to their homeland. The Hellenistic city of Alexandria , founded 331 BCE, contained a large Jewish community which lived in peace with equivalently sized Greek and Egyptian populations. According to Michael Walzer ,
475-452: A Christian delegation from the Sinai requested for the continued activity of the monastery, and regional Christianity per se . The original no longer exists, but a claimed 16th century copy of it remains on display in the monastery. While several twentieth century scholars accepted the document as a legitimate original, some modern scholars now question the documentary's authenticity. Since
570-459: A conversation about the nature of truth between seven cultivated men from diverse religious or philosophical backgrounds: a natural philosopher, a Calvinist, a Muslim, a Roman Catholic, a Lutheran, a Jew, and a skeptic. All agree to live in mutual respect and tolerance. Michel de Montaigne (1533–1592), French Catholic essayist and statesman, moderated between the Catholic and Protestant sides in
665-531: A general edict of toleration of Christianity, in his own name and in those of Licinius and Constantine I (who converted to Christianity the following year). Saint Catherine's Monastery of the Sinai region of Egypt claims to have once had possession of an original letter of protection from Mohammed , known as the Ashtiname of Muhammad and traditionally dated to 623 CE. The monastery's tradition holds that
760-721: A group of companions founded Connecticut . They combined the democratic form of government that had been developed by the Separatist Congregationalists in Plymouth Colony ( Pilgrim Fathers ) with unlimited freedom of conscience. Like Martin Luther, Hooker argued that as faith in Jesus Christ was the free gift of the Holy Spirit it could not be forced on a person. In 1649 Maryland passed
855-696: A large army and marched to fight the Ottomans. The Ottomans besieged and conquered Szigetvár in 1566, but their sultan , Suleiman the Magnificent , died of old age during the siege. With neither side winning a decisive engagement, Maximilian's ambassadors Antun Vrančić and Christoph Teuffenbach met with the Ottoman Grand Vizier Sokollu Mehmed Pasha in Adrianople to negotiate a truce in 1568. The terms of
950-607: A long tradition of religious freedom. The right to worship freely was a basic right given to all inhabitants of the Commonwealth throughout the 15th and early 16th centuries, however complete freedom of religion was officially recognized in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1573 in the Warsaw Confederation . The Commonwealth kept religious-freedom laws during an era when religious persecution
1045-472: A nation where Catholicism was the state religion. The main concern was civil unity —the edict separated civil law from religious rights, treated non-Catholics as more than mere schismatics and heretics for the first time, and opened a path for secularism and tolerance. In offering general freedom of conscience to individuals, the edict offered many specific concessions to the Protestants, such as amnesty and
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#17327728293601140-799: A number of Protestant theologians such as John Calvin , Martin Bucer , Wolfgang Capito , and Johannes Brenz as well as Landgrave Philip of Hesse opposed the execution of Anabaptists. Ulrich Zwingli demanded the expulsion of persons who did not accept the Reformed beliefs, in some cases the execution of Anabaptist leaders. The young Michael Servetus also defended tolerance since 1531, in his letters to Johannes Oecolampadius , but during those years some Protestant theologians such as Bucer and Capito publicly expressed they thought he should be persecuted. The trial against Servetus, an Antitrinitarian , in Geneva
1235-598: Is absolutely necessary for salvation that every human creature be subject to the Roman Pontiff." In Poland in 1264, the Statute of Kalisz was issued, guaranteeing freedom of religion for the Jews in the country. In 1348, Pope Clement VI (1291–1352) issued a bull pleading with Catholics not to murder Jews, whom they blamed for the Black Death . He noted that Jews died of the plague like anyone else, and that
1330-512: Is furthered by a more harmonious relationship between interlocutors." Although Erasmus did not oppose the punishment of heretics, in individual cases he generally argued for moderation and against the death penalty. He wrote, "It is better to cure a sick man than to kill him." Saint Thomas More (1478–1535), Catholic Lord Chancellor of King Henry VIII and author, described a world of almost complete religious toleration in Utopia (1516), in which
1425-592: Is still used by the Spanish Riding School (Spanische Hofreitschule). Before moving to Vienna in 1659, Archduke Leopold Wilhelm formed his art collection of 1400 paintings in Brussels , where David Teniers the Younger painted views of his Brussels gallery, which are now spread among various collections. He made many miniatures of the paintings for use as models by engravers and published a catalog of
1520-667: Is wrong to dismiss Maximilian as a failure. According to Marshall, through his religious tolerance as well as his encouragement of arts and sciences, he succeeded in maintaining a precarious peace. Maximilian was born in Vienna , Austria , the second child and eldest son of the Habsburg King Ferdinand I , younger brother of Emperor Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor , and the Jagiellonian Princess Anne of Bohemia and Hungary (1503–1547). He
1615-732: The Castile residence of Valladolid . By the marriage his uncle intended to strengthen the ties with the Spanish branch of the Habsburgs, but also to consolidate his nephew's Catholic faith. Maximilian temporarily acted as the emperor's representative in Spain , however not as stadtholder of the Habsburg Netherlands as he had hoped for. To his indignation, King Ferdinand appointed his younger brother Ferdinand II administrator in
1710-709: The Council of Constance in 1414, presented a thesis, Tractatus de potestate papae et respectu infidelium (Treatise on the Power of the Pope and the Emperor Respecting Infidels). In it he argued that pagan and Christian nations could coexist in peace and criticized the Teutonic Order for its wars of conquest of native non-Christian peoples in Prussia and Lithuania. Vladimiri strongly supported
1805-616: The Diet of Worms (1521), Martin Luther refused to recant his beliefs citing freedom of conscience as his justification. According to Historian Hermann August Winkler, the individual's freedom of conscience became the hallmark of Protestantism . Luther was convinced that faith in Jesus Christ was the free gift of the Holy Spirit and could therefore not be forced on a person. Heresies could not be met with force, but with preaching
1900-491: The Edict of Torda decreeing religious toleration of all Christian denominations except Romanian Orthodoxy . It did not apply to Jews or Muslims but was nevertheless an extraordinary achievement of religious tolerance by the standards of 16th-century Europe. In 1571, Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian II granted religious toleration to the nobles of Lower Austria, their families and workers. The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth had
1995-552: The Lutheran Imperial estates with a view to overcome the denominational schism, which ultimately failed. He also was faced with the ongoing Ottoman–Habsburg wars and rising conflicts with his Spanish Habsburg cousins. According to Fichtner, Maximilian failed to achieve his three major aims: rationalizing the government structure, unifying Christianity, and evicting the Turks from Hungary. Peter Marshall opines that it
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#17327728293602090-710: The Maryland Toleration Act , also known as the Act Concerning Religion, a law mandating religious tolerance for Trinitarian Christians only (excluding Nontrinitarian faiths). Passed on September 21, 1649 by the assembly of the Maryland colony, it was the first law requiring religious tolerance in the British North American colonies. The Calvert family sought enactment of the law to protect Catholic settlers and some of
2185-628: The Masses of the Catholic Church. In November 1562 Maximilian was chosen King of the Romans , or German king, by the electoral college at Frankfurt , where he was crowned a few days later, after assuring the Catholic electors of his fidelity to their faith, and promising the Protestant electors that he would publicly accept the confession of Augsburg when he became emperor. He also took
2280-485: The Netherlands , and nothing was done in this direction, although some assistance was voted for the defense of Austria. The religious demands of the Protestants were still unsatisfied, while the policy of toleration had failed to give peace to Austria. Maximilian's power was very limited; it was inability rather than unwillingness that prevented him from yielding to the entreaties of Pope Pius V to join in an attack on
2375-537: The Protestant Reformation began discussion of the circumstances under which dissenting religious thought should be permitted. Toleration "as a government-sanctioned practice" in Christian countries, "the sense on which most discussion of the phenomenon relies—is not attested before the sixteenth century". Centuries of Roman Catholic intoleration of other faiths was exemplified by Unam sanctam ,
2470-739: The Renaissance Stallburg wing, the site of the later Spanish Riding School , and also ordered the construction of Neugebäude Palace in Simmering . In the 1550s, Vienna had more than 50,000 inhabitants, making it the largest city in Central Europe with Prague and before Nuremberg (40,000 inhabitants). The religious views of the future King of Bohemia had always been somewhat uncertain, and he had probably learned something of Lutheranism in his youth; but his amicable relations with several Protestant princes, which began about
2565-486: The Treaty of Adrianople required the emperor to recognise Ottoman suzerainty over Transylvania , Wallachia , and Moldavia . Meanwhile, the relations between Maximilian and Philip of Spain had improved, and the emperor's increasingly cautious and moderate attitude in religious matters was doubtless because the death of Philip's son, Don Carlos , had opened the way for the succession of Maximilian, or of one of his sons, to
2660-516: The Wars of Religion . Montaigne's theory of skepticism led to the conclusion that we cannot precipitously decide the error of others' views. Montaigne wrote in his famous "Essais": "It is putting a very high value on one's conjectures, to have a man roasted alive because of them...To kill people, there must be sharp and brilliant clarity." In 1568, King John II Sigismund of Hungary, encouraged by his Unitarian Minister Francis David (Dávid Ferenc), issued
2755-486: The gospel revealed in the Bible. Luther: "Heretics should not be overcome with fire, but with written sermons." In Luther's view, the worldly authorities were entitled to expel heretics. Only if they undermine the public order, should they be executed. Later proponents of tolerance such as Sebastian Franck and Sebastian Castellio cited Luther's position. He had overcome, at least for the Protestant territories and countries,
2850-539: The "weeds" (heretics) in the world, because civil persecution often inadvertently hurts the "wheat" (believers) too. Instead, Williams believed it was God's duty to judge in the end, not man's. This parable lent further support to Williams' belief in a wall of separation between church and state as described in his 1644 book, The Bloody Tenent of Persecution . In the Middle Ages , there were instances of toleration of particular groups. The Latin concept tolerantia
2945-502: The 19th century, Western intellectuals and spiritualists have viewed Buddhism as an unusually tolerant faith. James Freeman Clarke said in Ten Great Religions (1871) that "Buddhists have founded no Inquisition; they have combined the zeal which converted kingdoms with a toleration almost inexplicable to our Western experience." Bhikkhu Bodhi , an American-born Buddhist convert, stated: Buddhist tolerance springs from
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3040-420: The Catholic Church, and when his father Ferdinand became emperor in 1558 he was prepared to assure Pope Paul IV that his son should not succeed him if he took this step. Eventually Maximilian remained nominally an adherent of the older faith, although his views were tinged with Lutheranism until the end of his life. After several refusals he consented in 1560 to the banishment of Pfauser, and began again to attend
3135-449: The Church of England such as Baptists and Congregationalists. They were allowed their own places of worship and their own teachers, if they accepted certain oaths of allegiance. The Act, however, did not apply to Catholics and non-trinitarians, and continued the existing social and political disabilities of Dissenters, including their exclusion from political office and from the universities of Oxford and Cambridge . François-Marie Arouet,
3230-594: The Dominicans of Cologne, to confiscate all religious texts from the Jews as a first step towards their forcible conversion to the Catholic religion. Despite occasional spontaneous episodes of pogroms and killings, as during the Black Death, Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth was a relatively tolerant home for the Jews in the medieval period. In 1264, the Statute of Kalisz guaranteed safety, personal liberties, freedom of religion , trade, and travel to Jews. By
3325-551: The French writer, historian and philosopher known as Voltaire (1694–1778) published his Treatise on Toleration in 1763. In it he attacked religious views, but also said, "It does not require great art, or magnificently trained eloquence, to prove that Christians should tolerate each other. I, however, am going further: I say that we should regard all men as our brothers. What? The Turk my brother? The Chinaman my brother? The Jew? The Siam? Yes, without doubt; are we not all children of
3420-713: The German Protestant princes by his refusal to invest Lutheran administrators of prince-bishoprics with their imperial fiefs. Yet on a personal basis he granted freedom of worship to the Protestant nobility and worked for reform in the Roman Catholic Church, including the right of priests to marry. This failed because of Spanish opposition. Maximilian II was a member of the Order of the Golden Fleece . Under Ferdinand I and Maximilian II,
3515-740: The Habsburg territories or of the Netherlands. His eldest daughter, Anna, married Philip II of Spain. Another daughter, Elizabeth , married Charles IX of France . Maximilian's policies of religious neutrality and peace in the empire afforded its Roman Catholics and Protestants a breathing space after the first struggles of the Reformation . His reign also saw the high point of Protestantism in Austria and Bohemia and unlike his successors, Maximilian did not try to suppress it. He disappointed
3610-538: The Imperial Paintings Gallery in the Stallburg" appeared in four volumes from 1720 to 1733. Charles VI also commissioned Francesco Solimena to commemorate the re-arrangement of the gallery with a painting. The name of the building comes from the horses of the imperial family, who were housed on the ground floor under the reign of Emperor Charles VI . The fountain with wrought iron railings in
3705-546: The Italian paintings in the 1660s called Theatrum Pictorium . After Teniers, Anton Joseph von Prenner was the next to make an illustrated catalog of the paintings there in the 1720s, which included the additions of the Naples collection of Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor . Charles VI commissioned Ferdinand Storffer to oversee color miniatures as well as engravings for it. The resulting document "The Newly Arranged Inventory of
3800-672: The Kingdom of Bohemia, nevertheless Maximilian's right of succession as the future king was recognised in 1549. He returned to Germany in December 1550 in order to take part in the discussion over the Imperial succession. Maximilian's relations with his uncle worsened, as Charles V, again embattled by rebellious Protestant princes led by Elector Maurice of Saxony , wished his son Philip II of Spain to succeed him as emperor. However, Charles' brother Ferdinand, who had already been elected as
3895-912: The Lutheran teaching and early on corresponded with the Protestant prince Augustus of Saxony . From the age of 17, he gained some experience of warfare during the Italian War campaign of his uncle Charles V against King Francis I of France in 1544, and also during the Schmalkaldic War . Upon Charles' victory in the 1547 Battle of Mühlberg , Maximilian put in a good word for the Schmalkaldic leaders, Elector John Frederick I, Elector of Saxony and Philip I, Landgrave of Hesse , and soon began to take part in Imperial business. On 13 September 1548 Emperor Charles V married Maximilian to Charles's daughter (Maximilian's cousin) Maria of Spain in
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3990-477: The Romans ) on 24 November 1562. On 8 September 1563, he was crowned King of Hungary and Croatia in the Hungarian capital Pressburg (Pozsony in Hungarian; now Bratislava, Slovakia). On 25 July 1564, he succeeded his father Ferdinand I as Holy Roman Emperor. Maximilian's rule was shaped by the confessionalization process after the 1555 Peace of Augsburg . Though a Habsburg and a Catholic, he approached
4085-431: The Romans , was to govern Germany. This arrangement was not carried out, and is only important because the insistence of the emperor seriously disturbed the harmonious relations that had hitherto existed between the two branches of the Habsburg family; an illness that befell Maximilian in 1552 was attributed to poison given to him in the interests of his cousin and brother-in-law, Philip II of Spain. The relationship between
4180-426: The Spanish throne. Evidence of this friendly feeling was given in 1570, when the emperor's daughter, Anna , became the fourth wife of Philip; but Maximilian was unable to moderate the harsh proceedings of the Spanish king against the revolting inhabitants of the Netherlands . In 1570 the emperor met the Diet of Speyer and asked for aid to place his eastern borders in a state of defence, and also for power to repress
4275-559: The Tares , which speaks of the difficulty of distinguishing wheat from weeds before harvest time, has also been invoked in support of religious toleration. In his "Letter to Bishop Roger of Chalons", Bishop Wazo of Liege (c. 985–1048) relied on the parable to argue that "the church should let dissent grow with orthodoxy until the Lord comes to separate and judge them". Roger Williams used this parable to support government toleration of all of
4370-520: The Turks both before and after the victory of Lepanto in 1571; and he remained inert while the authority of the empire in north-eastern Europe was threatened. In 1576, Maximilian was elected by the part of Polish and Lithuanian magnates to be the King of Poland in opposition to Stephan IV Bathory , but he did not manage to become widely accepted there and was forced to leave Poland. Maximilian died on 12 October 1576 in Regensburg while preparing to invade Poland. On his deathbed he refused to receive
4465-410: The Utopians "can hold various religious beliefs without persecution from the authorities." However, More's work is subject to various interpretations, and it is not clear that he felt that earthly society should be conducted the same way as in Utopia. Thus, in his three years as Lord Chancellor, More actively approved of the persecution of those who sought to undermine the Catholic faith in England. At
4560-490: The bonds of human society, can have no hold upon an atheist". A passage Locke later added to An Essay Concerning Human Understanding questioned whether atheism was necessarily inimical to political obedience. Pierre Bayle (1647–1706) was a French Protestant scholar and philosopher who went into exile in Holland. In his " Dictionnaire Historique et Critique " and "Commentaire Philosophique" he advanced arguments for religious toleration (though, like some others of his time, he
4655-401: The bonds of peace, pending the day when we shall attain unity of faith." Castellio is remembered for the often quoted statement, "To kill a man is not to protect a doctrine, but it is to kill a man. Jean Bodin (1530–1596) was a French Catholic jurist and political philosopher. His Latin work Colloquium heptaplomeres de rerum sublimium arcanis abditis ("The Colloqium of the Seven") portrays
4750-593: The botanist Carolus Clusius and the diplomat Ogier Ghiselin de Busbecq . Maximilian's library curated by Hugo Blotius later became the nucleus of the Austrian National Library . He implemented the Roman School of composition with his court orchestra, however, his plans to win Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina as Kapellmeister foundered on financial reasons. On 13 September 1548, Maximilian married his first cousin Maria of Spain , daughter of Emperor Charles V and Isabella of Portugal . Despite Maria's commitment to Habsburg Spain and her strong Catholic manners,
4845-521: The city provided "a useful example of what we might think of as the imperial version of multiculturalism." Before Christianity became the state church of the Roman Empire , it encouraged conquered peoples to continue worshipping their own gods. "An important part of Roman propaganda was its invitation to the gods of conquered territories to enjoy the benefits of worship within the imperium ." Christians were singled out for persecution because of their own rejection of Roman pantheism and refusal to honor
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#17327728293604940-401: The city with a large entourage including the elephant Suleiman . While his father Ferdinand concluded the 1552 Treaty of Passau with the Protestant estates and finally reached the Peace of Augsburg in 1555, Maximilian was engaged mainly in the government of the Austrian hereditary lands and in defending them against Ottoman incursions. In Vienna, he had his Hofburg residence extended with
5035-477: The concept. A distinction began to develop between civil tolerance , concerned with "the policy of the state towards religious dissent"., and ecclesiastical tolerance , concerned with the degree of diversity tolerated within a particular church. John Milton (1608–1674), English Protestant poet and essayist, called in the Areopagitica for "the liberty to know, to utter, and to argue freely according to conscience, above all liberties" (applied, however, only to
5130-411: The conflicting Protestant denominations, and not to atheists, Jews, Muslims or even Catholics). "Milton argued for disestablishment as the only effective way of achieving broad toleration. Rather than force a man's conscience, government should recognize the persuasive force of the gospel." In 1609, Rudolph II decreed religious toleration in Bohemia . In 1636, Roger Williams and companions at
5225-519: The contrary endeavoring each to crush and destroy the other by methods of Persecution. In a word, all the Mischief arises not from Toleration, but from the want of it." Following the Glorious Revolution , when the Dutch king William came to the English throne, the Toleration Act 1688 adopted by the English Parliament allowed freedom of worship to Nonconformists who had pledged to the oaths of Allegiance and Supremacy and rejected transubstantiation . The Nonconformists were Protestants who dissented from
5320-408: The disease also flourished in areas where there were no Jews. Christians who blamed and killed Jews had been "seduced by that liar, the Devil". He took Jews under his personal protection at Avignon , but his calls for other clergy to do so failed to be heeded. Johann Reuchlin (1455–1522) was a German humanist and a scholar of Greek and Hebrew who opposed efforts by Johannes Pfefferkorn , backed by
5415-405: The disorder caused by troops in the service of foreign powers passing through Germany. He proposed that his consent should be necessary before any soldiers for foreign service were recruited in the empire; but the estates were unwilling to strengthen the imperial authority, the Protestant princes regarded the suggestion as an attempt to prevent them from assisting their co-religionists in France and
5510-496: The divine everywhere and in every way in accordance with our ancestral traditions, but also force all others to honour it. Those who attempt to distort our religion with strange rites you should hate and punish, not only for the sake of the gods … but also because such people, by bringing in new divinities, persuade many folks to adopt foreign practices, which lead to conspiracies, revolts, and factions, which are entirely unsuitable for monarch". In 311 CE, Roman Emperor Galerius issued
5605-417: The emperor as a god. There were some other groups that found themselves to be exceptions to Roman tolerance, such as the Druids , the early followers of the cult of Isis , the Bacchanals , the Manichaens and the priests of Cybele , and Temple Judaism was also suppressed. In the early 3rd century, Cassius Dio outlined the Roman imperial policy towards religious tolerance: You should not only worship
5700-508: The foundation of Rhode Island entered into a compact binding themselves "to be obedient to the majority only in civil things". Williams spoke of "democracie or popular government." Lucian Johnston writes, "Williams' intention was to grant an infinitely greater religious liberty than what existed anywhere in the world outside of the Colony of Maryland." In 1663, Charles II granted the colony a charter guaranteeing complete religious toleration. Also in 1636, Congregationalist Thomas Hooker and
5795-443: The idea of conciliarism and pioneered the notion of peaceful coexistence among nations—a forerunner of modern theories of human rights . Throughout his political, diplomatic and university career, he expressed the view that a world guided by the principles of peace and mutual respect among nations was possible and that pagan nations had a right to peace and to possession of their own lands. Desiderius Erasmus Roterodamus (1466–1536),
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#17327728293605890-435: The imperial court itself became the centre of humanist scholarship. The court held close ties to the University of Vienna but the university, that reached its summit under Maximilian I , had been severely diminished due to wars and civil disturbances. In his court, Catholic and Prostestant scholars equally thrived. Many artists and scholars came from Spain, Italy and Spanish Netherlands. Maximilian employed scholars like
5985-457: The key to a well-functioning civil society, Locke argued that more religious groups actually prevent civil unrest. In his opinion, civil unrest results from confrontations caused by any magistrate's attempt to prevent different religions from being practiced, rather than tolerating their proliferation. However, Locke denies religious tolerance for Catholics, for political reasons, and also for atheists because "Promises, covenants, and oaths, which are
6080-405: The last sacraments of the Church. He is buried in St. Vitus Cathedral in Prague . By his wife Maria he had a family of ten sons and six daughters. He was succeeded by his eldest surviving son, Rudolf , who had been chosen king of the Romans in October 1575. Another of his sons, Matthias , also became emperor; three others, Ernest , Albert and Maximilian , took some part in the government of
6175-507: The marriage was a happy one. The couple had sixteen children in just nineteen years, but only nine of them lived to adulthood: Religious tolerance Religious tolerance or religious toleration may signify "no more than forbearance and the permission given by the adherents of a dominant religion for other religions to exist, even though the latter are looked on with disapproval as inferior, mistaken, or harmful". Historically, most incidents and writings pertaining to toleration involve
6270-423: The mid-16th century, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth was home to 80% of the world's Jewish population. Jewish worship was officially recognized, with a Chief Rabbi originally appointed by the monarch. Jewish property ownership was also protected for much of the period, and Jews entered into business partnerships with members of the nobility. Paulus Vladimiri (c. 1370–1435) was a Polish scholar and rector who at
6365-430: The middle of the yard was built in 1675. The building was heavily damaged in 1945 just before the end of the Second World War by bombs but was faithfully restored during the years 1947–1948. The passage to the arcades between Hofburg and Stallburg was opened on July 1, 1948. Today Lipizzaners of the Spanish Riding School are housed there, the associated stud is located in Piber in Styria . From Reitschulgasse one can see
6460-411: The more readily accept them with full confidence and conviction." English philosopher John Locke (1632–1704) published A Letter Concerning Toleration in 1689. Locke's work appeared amidst a fear that Catholicism might be taking over England, and responds to the problem of religion and government by proposing religious toleration as the answer. Unlike Thomas Hobbes , who saw uniformity of religion as
6555-433: The necessity for a thorough reform of the Church. He was unable, however, to obtain the consent of Pope Pius IV to the marriage of the clergy, and in 1568 the concession of communion in both kinds to the laity was withdrawn. On his part Maximilian granted religious liberty to the Lutheran nobles and knights in Austria, and refused to allow the publication of the decrees of the Council of Trent . Amidst general expectations on
6650-403: The next occupant of the imperial throne, and his son Maximilian objected to this proposal. Maximilian sought the support of the German princes such as Albert V, Duke of Bavaria and even contacted Protestant leaders like Maurice of Saxony and Christoph, Duke of Württemberg . At length a compromise was reached: Philip was to succeed Ferdinand, but during the former's reign Maximilian, as King of
6745-528: The other denominations that did not conform to the dominant Anglicanism of England and her colonies. In 1657, New Amsterdam , governed by Dutch Calvinists , granted religious toleration to Jews. They had fled from Portuguese persecution in Brazil. In the Province of Pennsylvania , William Penn and his fellow Quakers heavily imprinted their religious values of toleration on the Pennsylvania government. The Pennsylvania 1701 Charter of Privileges extended religious freedom to all monotheists, and government
6840-457: The part of the Protestants he met his first summoned Diet of Augsburg in March 1566. He refused to accede to the demands of the Lutheran princes; on the other hand, although the increase of sectarianism was discussed, no decisive steps were taken to suppress it, and the only result of the meeting was a grant of assistance for the war with the Turks , which had just been renewed. Maximilian gathered
6935-414: The recognition that the dispositions and spiritual needs of human beings are too vastly diverse to be encompassed by any single teaching, and thus that these needs will naturally find expression in a wide variety of religious forms. The Edicts of Ashoka issued by King Ashoka the Great (269–231 BCE), a Buddhist, declared ethnic and religious tolerance. His Edict in the 12th main stone writing of Girnar on
7030-567: The reinstatement of their civil rights, including the right to work in any field or for the State, and to bring grievances directly to the king. The edict marked the end of the religious wars in France that tore apart the population during the second half of the 16th century. The Edict of Nantes was revoked in 1685 by King Louis XIV with the Edict of Fontainebleau , leading to renewed persecution of Protestants in France. Although strict enforcement of
7125-495: The revocation was relaxed during the reign of Louis XV , it was not until 102 years later, in 1787, when Louis XVI signed the Edict of Versailles —known as the Edict of Tolerance —that civil status and rights to form congregations by Protestants were restored. Beginning in the Enlightenment commencing in the 1600s, politicians and commentators began formulating theories of religious toleration and basing legal codes on
7220-463: The same father and creatures of the same God?" On the other hand, Voltaire in his writings on religion was spiteful and intolerant of the practice of the Christian religion, and Orthodox rabbi Joseph Telushkin has claimed that the most significant of Enlightenment hostility against Judaism was found in Voltaire. Gotthold Ephraim Lessing (1729–1781), German dramatist and philosopher, trusted in
7315-630: The status of minority and dissenting viewpoints in relation to a dominant state religion . However, religion is also sociological, and the practice of toleration has always had a political aspect as well. An overview of the history of toleration and different cultures in which toleration has been practiced, and the ways in which such a paradoxical concept has developed into a guiding one, illuminates its contemporary use as political, social, religious, and ethnic, applying to LGBT individuals and other minorities, and other connected concepts such as human rights . Religious toleration has been described as
7410-458: The suppression of this freedom", and defending, "as a political ideal, the tolerant, secular, and democratic polity". After interpreting certain Biblical texts , Spinoza opted for tolerance and freedom of thought in his conclusion that "every person is in duty bound to adapt these religious dogmas to his own understanding and to interpret them for himself in whatever way makes him feel that he can
7505-624: The third century BCE which state that "Kings accepted religious tolerance and that Emperor Ashoka maintained that no one would consider his / her is to be superior to other and rather would follow a path of unity by accuring the essence of other religions". However, Buddhism has also had controversies regarding toleration. In addition, the question of possible intolerance among Buddhists in Sri Lanka and Myanmar, primarily against Muslims, has been raised by Paul Fuller. The books of Exodus , Leviticus and Deuteronomy make similar statements about
7600-479: The time of the discussion over the succession, were probably due more to political than to religious considerations. However, in Vienna he became very intimate with Sebastian Pfauser [ de ] , a court preacher influenced by Heinrich Bullinger with strong leanings towards Lutheranism, and his religious attitude caused some uneasiness to his father. Fears were freely expressed that he would definitely leave
7695-457: The treatment of strangers. For example, Exodus 22:21 says: "Thou shalt neither vex a stranger, nor oppress him: for ye were strangers in the land of Egypt". These texts are frequently used in sermons to plead for compassion and tolerance of those who are different from us and less powerful. Julia Kristeva elucidated a philosophy of political and religious toleration based on all of our mutual identities as strangers. The New Testament Parable of
7790-451: The two cousins was uneasy. While Philip had been raised a Spaniard and barely travelled out of the kingdom during his life, Maximilian identified himself as the quintessential German prince and often displayed a strong dislike of Spaniards, whom he considered as intolerant and arrogant. While his cousin was reserved and shy, Maximilian was outgoing and charismatic. His adherence to humanism and religious tolerance put him at odds with Philip who
7885-601: The usual oath to protect the Church, and his election was afterwards confirmed by the papacy. He was the first King of the Romans not to be crowned in Aachen . In September 1563 he was crowned King of Hungary by the Archbishop of Esztergom , Nicolaus Olahus , and on his father's death, in July 1564, he succeeded to the empire and to the kingdoms of Hungary, Croatia and Bohemia. The new emperor had already shown that he believed in
7980-589: The violent medieval criminal procedures of dealing with heretics. But Luther remained rooted in the Middle Ages insofar as he considered the Anabaptists ' refusal to take oaths, do military service, and the rejection of private property by some Anabaptist groups to be a political threat to the public order which would inevitably lead to anarchy and chaos. So Anabaptists were persecuted not only in Catholic but also in Lutheran and Reformed territories. However,
8075-584: The yard. Next to it was the now closed Lipizzan Museum . 48°12′26″N 16°22′02″E / 48.2072°N 16.3672°E / 48.2072; 16.3672 Emperor Maximilian II Maximilian II (31 July 1527 – 12 October 1576) was Holy Roman Emperor from 1564 until his death in 1576. A member of the Austrian House of Habsburg , he was crowned King of Bohemia in Prague on 14 May 1562 and elected King of Germany ( King of
8170-563: Was a "highly-developed political and judicial concept in medieval scholastic theology and canon law." Tolerantia was used to "denote the self-restraint of a civil power in the face of" outsiders, like infidels, Muslims or Jews, but also in the face of social groups like prostitutes and lepers. Heretics such as the Cathari , Waldensians , Jan Hus , and his followers, the Hussites , were persecuted. Later theologians belonging or reacting to
8265-481: Was a Dutch Renaissance humanist and Catholic whose works laid a foundation for religious toleration. For example, in De libero arbitrio , opposing certain views of Martin Luther , Erasmus noted that religious disputants should be temperate in their language, "because in this way the truth, which is often lost amidst too much wrangling may be more surely perceived." Gary Remer writes, "Like Cicero , Erasmus concludes that truth
8360-583: Was a French Protestant theologian who in 1554 published under a pseudonym the pamphlet Whether heretics should be persecuted (De haereticis, an sint persequendi) criticizing John Calvin 's execution of Michael Servetus : "When Servetus fought with reasons and writings, he should have been repulsed by reasons and writings." Castellio concluded: "We can live together peacefully only when we control our intolerance. Even though there will always be differences of opinion from time to time, we can at any rate come to general understandings, can love one another, and can enter
8455-633: Was an everyday occurrence in the rest of Europe. The Warsaw Confederation was a private compact signed by representatives of all the major religions in Polish and Lithuanian society, in which they pledged each other mutual support and tolerance. The confederation was incorporated into the Henrican articles , which constituted a virtual Polish–Lithuanian constitution. The Edict of Nantes , issued on April 13, 1598, by Henry IV of France , granted Protestants—notably Calvinist Huguenots —substantial rights in
8550-466: Was more committed to the defence of the Catholic faith. Also, he was considered a promising commander, while Philip disliked war and only once personally commanded an army. Nonetheless, the two remained committed to the unity of their dynasty. In 1551 Maximilian attended the Council of Trent and the next year took up his residence at the Hofburg palace in Vienna, celebrated by a triumphal return into
8645-727: Was named after his great-grandfather, Emperor Maximilian I . At the time of his birth, his father Ferdinand succeeded his brother-in-law King Louis II in the Kingdom of Bohemia and the Kingdom of Hungary , greatly expanding the Habsburg monarchy . Having spent his childhood years at his father's court in Innsbruck , Tyrol , Maximilian was educated principally in Italy. Among his teachers were humanist scholars like Kaspar Ursinus Velius and Georg Tannstetter . He also came in contact with
8740-570: Was not a case of church discipline but a criminal procedure based on the legal code of the Holy Roman Empire . Denying the Trinity doctrine was long considered to be the same as atheism in all churches. The Anabaptists made a considerable contribution to the development of tolerance in the early-modern era by incessantly demanding freedom of conscience and standing up for it with their patient suffering. Sebastian Castellio (1515–1563)
8835-400: Was not anxious to extend the same protection to Catholics he would to differing Protestant sects). Among his arguments were that every church believes it is the right one so "a heretical church would be in a position to persecute the true church". Bayle wrote that "the erroneous conscience procures for error the same rights and privileges that the orthodox conscience procures for truth." Bayle
8930-565: Was open to all Christians. Baruch Spinoza (1632–1677) was a Dutch Jewish philosopher. He published the Theological-Political Treatise anonymously in 1670, arguing (according to the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy) that "the freedom to philosophize can not only be granted without injury to piety and the peace of the Commonwealth, but that the peace of the Commonwealth and Piety are endangered by
9025-635: Was repelled by the use of scripture to justify coercion and violence: "One must transcribe almost the whole New Testament to collect all the Proofs it affords us of that Gentleness and Long-suffering, which constitute the distinguishing and essential Character of the Gospel." He did not regard toleration as a danger to the state, but to the contrary: "If the Multiplicity of Religions prejudices the State, it proceeds from their not bearing with one another but on
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