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148-481: Stephen Crane (November 1, 1871 – June 5, 1900) was an American poet, novelist, and short story writer. Prolific throughout his short life, he wrote notable works in the Realist tradition as well as early examples of American Naturalism and Impressionism . He is recognized by modern critics as one of the most innovative writers of his generation. The ninth surviving child of Methodist parents, Crane began writing at

296-617: A Black Forest sanatorium in Germany at the age of 28. At the time of his death, Crane was considered an important figure in American literature. After he was nearly forgotten for two decades, critics revived interest in his life and work. Crane's writing is characterized by vivid intensity, distinctive dialects , and irony . Common themes involve fear, spiritual crises and social isolation. Although recognized primarily for The Red Badge of Courage , which has become an American classic, Crane

444-638: A blockade of Boston Harbor and the Parliament of Great Britain passed the punitive Intolerable Acts in response to the Boston Tea Party . During the opening weeks of the Congress, the delegates conducted a spirited discussion about how the colonies could collectively respond to the British government's coercive actions, and they worked to make a common cause. As a prelude to its decisions,

592-468: A clear winter sky", according to H. L. Mencken , who was about 15 at the time. The novel also became popular in Britain; Joseph Conrad , a future friend of Crane, wrote that the novel "detonated... with the impact and force of a twelve-inch shell charged with a very high explosive". Appleton published two, possibly three, printings in 1895 and as many as eleven more in 1896. Although some critics considered

740-594: A collection under the title Stephen Crane: Sullivan County Tales and Sketches . Crane showed two of these works to New York Tribune editor Willis Fletcher Johnson , a family friend, who accepted them for publication. "Hunting Wild Dogs" and "The Last of the Mohicans" were the first of fourteen unsigned Sullivan County sketches and tales published in the Tribune between February and July 1892. Crane also showed Johnson an early draft of his first novel, Maggie: A Girl of

888-500: A contract to write a series on Civil War battlefields. Because it was a wish of his to "visit the battlefield—which I was to describe—at the time of year when it was fought", Crane agreed. Visiting battlefields in Northern Virginia , including Fredericksburg , he would later produce five more Civil War tales: "Three Miraculous Soldiers", "The Veteran", "An Indiana Campaign", "An Episode of War" and "The Little Regiment". At

1036-745: A drug addict who drifts in and out of her life. A sub-set of realism emerged in Australia's literary scene known as "dirty realism", typically written by "new, young authors" who examined "gritty, dirty, real existences", of lower-income young people, whose lives revolve around a nihilistic pursuit of casual sex , recreational drug use and alcohol , which are used to escape boredom . Examples of dirty-realism include Andrew McGahan 's Praise (1992), Christos Tsiolkas 's Loaded (1995), Justine Ettler 's The River Ophelia (1995) and Brendan Cowell 's How It Feels (2010), although many of these, including their predecessor Monkey Grip , are now labelled with

1184-763: A few days, Crane and Taylor settled in Ravensbrook, a plain brick villa in Oxted . Referring to themselves as Mr. and Mrs. Crane, the couple lived openly in England, but Crane concealed the relationship from friends and family in the United States. Admired in England, Crane thought himself attacked back home: "There seem so many of them in America who want to kill, bury and forget me purely out of unkindness and envy and—my unworthiness, if you choose", he wrote. Velestino

1332-499: A focus on everyday (middle-class) drama, ordinary speech, and dull settings. Realism and naturalism diverge chiefly on the degree of choice that characters have: while naturalism believes in the overall strength of external forces over internal decisions, realism asserts the power of the individual to choose (see A Doll's House ). Russia's first professional playwright, Aleksey Pisemsky , along with novelists Fyodor Dostoevsky and Leo Tolstoy ( The Power of Darkness (1886)), began

1480-579: A founder of New Haven Colony , who had migrated there from England in 1639. Stephen was named for a putative founder of Elizabethtown, New Jersey , who had, according to family tradition, come from England or Wales in 1665, as well as his great-great-grandfather Stephen Crane , a Revolutionary War patriot who served as New Jersey delegate to the First Continental Congress in Philadelphia . Crane later wrote that his father "was

1628-484: A full-time writer and reporter. He attended a Delta Upsilon chapter meeting on June 12, 1891, but shortly afterward left college for good. In the summer of 1891, Crane often camped with friends in the nearby area of Sullivan County, New York , where his brother Edmund occupied a house obtained as part of their brother William's Hartwood Club (Association) land dealings. He used this area as the geographic setting for several short stories, which were posthumously published in

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1776-606: A genre coined in 1995 as " grunge lit ". Ian Watt in The Rise of the Novel (1957) saw the novel as originating in the early 18th-century and he argued that the novel's 'novelty' was its 'formal realism': the idea 'that the novel is a full and authentic report of human experience'. His examples are novelists Daniel Defoe , Samuel Richardson and Henry Fielding . Watt argued that the novel's concern with realistically described relations between ordinary individuals, ran parallel to

1924-498: A great, fine, simple mind", who had written numerous tracts on theology. Although his mother was a popular spokeswoman for the Woman's Christian Temperance Union and a highly religious woman, Crane wrote that he did not believe "she was as narrow as most of her friends or family." The young Stephen was raised primarily by his sister Agnes, 15 years his senior. The family moved to Port Jervis, New York , in 1876, where Dr. Crane became

2072-497: A handsome man," she admired his "remarkable almond-shaped gray eyes." He begged her to elope with him, but her family opposed the match because Crane lacked money and prospects, and she declined. Their last meeting likely occurred in April 1898. Such an assemblage of the spraddle-legged men of the middle class, whose hands were bent and shoulders stooped from delving and constructing, had never appeared to an Asbury Park summer crowd, and

2220-575: A large audience. Later in the 19th century George Eliot 's (1819–1880) Middlemarch: A Study of Provincial Life (1871–72), described by novelists Martin Amis and Julian Barnes as the greatest novel in the English language, is a work of realism. Through the voices and opinions of different characters the reader becomes aware of important issues of the day, including the Reform Bill of 1832,

2368-648: A man who, ironically, falls from materialistic fortune by his own mistakes. One of the earliest examples of realism was Josiah Gilbert Holland’s second novel, Miss Gilbert’s Career, published “a full decade before any of the so-called pioneer American realistic novelists begin to publish.“ The 1860 novel “anticipated these much abler and more penetrating realists.“ This includes Samuel Clemens (1835–1910), better known by his pen name of Mark Twain , author of Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (1884), and Stephen Crane (1871–1900). Twain's style, based on vigorous, realistic, colloquial American speech, gave American writers

2516-498: A masterpiece by different critics and writers. In 1896, Crane endured a highly publicized scandal after appearing as a witness in the trial of a suspected prostitute, an acquaintance named Dora Clark. Late that year, he accepted an offer to travel to Cuba as a war correspondent . As he waited in Jacksonville, Florida , for passage, he met Cora Taylor , with whom he began a lasting relationship. En route to Cuba, Crane's vessel,

2664-571: A minister in the Methodist Episcopal church, and Mary Helen Peck Crane , daughter of a clergyman, George Peck . He was the fourteenth and last child born to the couple. At 45, Helen Crane had suffered the deaths of her previous four children in infancy. Nicknamed "Stevie" by the family, he joined eight surviving brothers and sisters—Mary Helen, George Peck, Jonathan Townley, William Howe , Agnes Elizabeth, Edmund Byran, Wilbur Fiske, and Luther. The Cranes were descended from Jaspar Crane,

2812-586: A more skeptical, hypocrisy-deflating tone. A storm of controversy erupted over a report he wrote on the Junior Order of United American Mechanics ' American Day Parade, titled "Parades and Entertainments." Published on August 21, the report juxtaposes the "bronzed, slope-shouldered, uncouth" marching men "begrimed with dust" and the spectators dressed in "summer gowns, lace parasols, tennis trousers, straw hats and indifferent smiles." Believing they were being ridiculed, some JOUAM marchers were outraged and wrote to

2960-563: A new appreciation of their national voice. Twain was the first major author to come from the interior of the country, and he captured its distinctive, humorous slang and iconoclasm. For Twain and other American writers of the late 19th century, realism was not merely a literary technique: It was a way of speaking truth and exploding worn-out conventions. Crane was primarily a journalist who also wrote fiction, essays, poetry, and plays. Crane saw life at its rawest, in slums and on battlefields. His haunting Civil War novel, The Red Badge of Courage ,

3108-539: A novel on the subject entitled Flowers of Asphalt , which he later abandoned. The manuscript has never been recovered. After discovering that McClure's could not afford to pay him, Crane took his war novel to Irving Bacheller of the Bacheller-Johnson Newspaper Syndicate, which agreed to publish The Red Badge of Courage in serial form. From December 3 to 9, The Red Badge of Courage was published in some half-dozen newspapers in

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3256-458: A novel that did not sell; he ended up giving a hundred copies away. He would later remember "how I looked forward to publication and pictured the sensation I thought it would make. It fell flat. Nobody seemed to notice it or care for it... Poor Maggie! She was one of my first loves." In March 1893, Crane spent hours in Linson's studio having his portrait painted. He became fascinated with issues of

3404-448: A number of newspapers, heavily edited. Crane was reportedly disgusted by the cuts, asking Linson, "Why the hell did they send me up there then? Do they want the public to think the coal mines gilded ball-rooms with the miners eating ice-cream in boiled shirt-fronts?" During the early part of his career, Crane was promoted by Elbert Hubbard , who commented on his works and featured them in his popular small magazine, The Philistine . Crane

3552-453: A poem about wanting a dog for Christmas. Entitled "I'd Rather Have –", it is his first surviving poem. Stephen was not regularly enrolled in school until January 1880, but he had no difficulty in completing two grades in six weeks. Recalling this feat, he wrote that it "sounds like the lie of a fond mother at a teaparty, but I do remember that I got ahead very fast and that father was very pleased with me." Dr. Crane died on February 16, 1880, at

3700-494: A result, naturalistic writers were frequently criticized for focusing too much on human vice and misery. Verismo (from Italian vero , meaning 'true, real') was an Italian literary movement which aimed to describe reality. Its main representatives were Giovanni Verga and Luigi Capuana , regarded as the authors of a " manifesto " of the genre. Among other exponents were Matilde Serao and 1926 Nobel Prize winner Grazia Deledda (see main article for more). Protagonists of

3848-591: A rooming house in Manhattan whose boarders were a group of medical students. During this time, he expanded or entirely reworked Maggie: A Girl of the Streets . In the winter of 1893, Crane took the manuscript of Maggie to Richard Watson Gilder , who rejected it for publication in The Century Magazine . Crane decided to publish it privately, with money he had inherited from his mother. The novella

3996-442: A sense, Émile Zola , whose naturalism is often regarded as an offshoot of realism. Theatrical realism was a general movement in 19th-century theatre from the time period of 1870–1960 that developed a set of dramatic and theatrical conventions with the aim of bringing a greater fidelity of real life to texts and performances. Part of a broader artistic movement , it shared many stylistic choices with naturalism , including

4144-538: A ship's cabin. There Crane ate one good meal a day, although friends were troubled by his "constant smoking, too much coffee, lack of food and poor teeth", as Nelson Greene put it. Living in near-poverty and greatly anticipating the publication of his books, Crane began work on two more novels: The Third Violet and George's Mother . The Black Riders was published by Copeland & Day shortly before his return to New York in May, but it received mostly negative criticism for

4292-413: A style of social realism . Its protagonists usually could be described as angry young men, and it often depicted the domestic situations of working-class Britons living in cramped rented accommodation and spending their off-hours drinking in grimy pubs , to explore social issues and political controversies. The films, plays and novels employing this style are set frequently in poorer industrial areas in

4440-638: A tradition of psychological realism in Russia which culminated with the establishment of the Moscow Art Theatre by Constantin Stanislavski and Vladimir Nemirovich-Danchenko . Their ground-breaking productions of the plays of Anton Chekhov in turn influenced Maxim Gorky and Mikhail Bulgakov . Stanislavski went on to develop his 'system' , a form of actor training that is particularly suited to psychological realism. 19th-century realism

4588-454: A woman married to another man. Stephen moved into his brother Edmund's house in Lakeview , a suburb of Paterson, New Jersey , in the fall of 1891. From there he made frequent trips into New York City , writing and reporting, particularly on its impoverished tenement districts. Crane focused particularly on The Bowery , a small and once prosperous neighborhood in southern Manhattan . After

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4736-798: A word. If he did change something, he would rewrite the whole page. While working on his second novel, Crane remained prolific, concentrating on publishing stories to stave off poverty; "An Experiment in Misery", based on Crane's experiences in the Bowery, was printed by the New York Press . He also wrote five or six poems a day. In early 1894, he showed some of his poems to Hamlin Garland, who said he read "some thirty in all" with "growing wonder". Although Garland and William Dean Howells encouraged him to submit his poetry for publication, Crane's free verse

4884-450: A young man, who soon deserts her. When her self-righteous mother rejects her, Maggie becomes a prostitute to survive but soon dies. Crane's earthy subject matter and his objective, scientific style, devoid of moralizing, earmark Maggie as a naturalist work. Other later American realists are John Steinbeck , Frank Norris , Theodore Dreiser , Upton Sinclair , Jack London , Edith Wharton and Henry James . Honoré de Balzac (1799–1850)

5032-413: Is Esther Waters (1894), was also influenced by the naturalism of Zola. William Dean Howells (1837–1920) was the first American author to bring a realist aesthetic to the literature of the United States. His stories of middle and upper class life set in the 1880s and 1890s are highly regarded among scholars of American fiction. His most popular novel, The Rise of Silas Lapham (1885), depicts

5180-571: Is a great thing to survey the army of the enemy. Just where and how it takes hold upon the heart is difficult of description." During this battle, Crane encountered "a fat waddling puppy" that he immediately claimed, dubbing it "Velestino, the Journal dog". Greece and Turkey signed an armistice on May 20; Crane and Taylor left Greece for England, taking with them Velestino and two Greek brothers as servants. After staying in Limpsfield , Surrey, for

5328-434: Is a writing style or sub-genre of realistic fiction centered around historical events and time periods. In historical realism, the structure and context of a text is usually solely derived from a real historical event or time period. As a consequence of this, many texts that fall under this category are philosophical by nature. In the early nineteenth century, there was growing impetus to establish an Australian culture that

5476-600: Is also known for his poetry, journalism, and short stories such as "The Open Boat", " The Blue Hotel ", " The Bride Comes to Yellow Sky ", and The Monster . His writing made a deep impression on 20th-century writers, most prominent among them Ernest Hemingway , and is thought to have inspired the Modernists and the Imagists . Stephen Crane was born on November 1, 1871, in Newark, New Jersey , to Jonathan Townley Crane ,

5624-513: Is apparent in the fantastic The Temptation of Saint Anthony (final version published 1874) and the baroque and exotic scenes of ancient Carthage in Salammbô (1862). In German literature , 19th-century realism developed under the name of "Poetic Realism" or "Bourgeois Realism," and major figures include Theodor Fontane , Gustav Freytag , Gottfried Keller , Wilhelm Raabe , Adalbert Stifter , and Theodor Storm . In Italian literature ,

5772-649: Is closely connected to the development of modern drama, which, as Martin Harrison explains, "is usually said to have begun in the early 1870s" with the "middle-period" work of the Norwegian dramatist Henrik Ibsen . Ibsen's realistic drama in prose has been "enormously influential." In opera , verismo refers to a post-Romantic Italian tradition that sought to incorporate the naturalism of Émile Zola and Henrik Ibsen. It included realistic – sometimes sordid or violent – depictions of contemporary everyday life, especially

5920-617: Is considered mere reportage , not art, and based on naïve metaphysics . First Continental Congress The First Continental Congress was a meeting of delegates of 12 of the Thirteen Colonies held from September 5 to October 26, 1774, at Carpenters' Hall in Philadelphia at the beginning of the American Revolution . The meeting was organized by the delegates after the British Navy implemented

6068-453: Is not necessarily a 'Red Badge of Courage.' " A couple of weeks after her trial, Clark pressed charges of false arrest against the officer who had arrested her. The next day, the officer physically attacked Clark in the presence of witnesses. Crane, who initially went briefly to Philadelphia to escape the pressure of publicity, returned to New York to give testimony at Becker's trial despite advice given to him from Theodore Roosevelt , who

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6216-618: Is possible. However, the changes were gradual since the social realism tradition was so ingrained into the psyche of the Soviet literati that even dissidents followed the habits of this type of composition, rarely straying from its formal and ideological mold. The Soviet socialist realism did not exactly emerge on the very day it was promulgated in the Soviet Union in 1932 by way of a decree that abolished independent writers' organizations. This movement had existed for at least fifteen years and

6364-414: Is seen as tantamount to complicity in a creating a process wherein "the artefactual nature of reality is overlooked or even concealed." According to Catherine Gallagher , realistic fiction invariably undermines, in practice, the ideology it purports to exemplify because if appearances were self-sufficient, there would probably be no need for novels. This can be demonstrated in literary naturalism's focus in

6512-443: Is the most prominent representative of 19th-century realism in fiction through the inclusion of specific detail and recurring characters. His La Comédie humaine , a vast collection of nearly 100 novels, was the most ambitious scheme ever devised by a writer of fiction—nothing less than a complete contemporary history of his countrymen. Realism is also an important aspect of the works of Alexandre Dumas, fils (1824–1895). Many of

6660-415: Is the usage of a language which coincides with the characters' social condition and their level of education: therefore, if the protagonists of the story are e.g., peasants, they will use a popular, lowbrow language; middle class characters will speak in a higher, more raffinate way. The works often present terms deriving from vernaculars and regional Italian , especially Sicilian . Historical realism

6808-518: The Century that were largely devoted to famous battles and military leaders from the Civil War . Frustrated with the dryly written stories, Crane stated, "I wonder that some of those fellows don't tell how they felt in those scraps. They spout enough of what they did , but they're as emotionless as rocks." Crane returned to these magazines during subsequent visits to Linson's studio, and eventually

6956-628: The Committee of Correspondence of a colony. Loyalist sentiments outweighed Patriot views in Georgia , leading that colony to not immediately join the revolutionary cause until the following year when it sent delegates to the Second Continental Congress . Peyton Randolph was elected as president of the Congress on the opening day, and he served through October 22 when ill health forced him to retire, and Henry Middleton

7104-500: The Commodore . The disaster was reported on the front pages of newspapers across the country. Rumors that the ship had been sabotaged were widely circulated but never substantiated. Portrayed favorably and heroically by the press, Crane emerged from the ordeal with his reputation enhanced, if not restored. Meanwhile, Crane's affair with Taylor blossomed. Archaeological investigations were conducted in 2002–2004 to examine and document

7252-638: The Edenton Tea Party ) in response to the Intolerable Acts that focused on producing goods for the colonies. Additionally, Great Britain's colonies in the West Indies were threatened with a boycott unless they agreed to non-importation of British goods. Imports from Britain dropped by 97 percent in 1775, compared with the previous year. Committees of observation and inspection were to be formed in each Colony to ensure compliance with

7400-461: The Grand Guignol at the end of the century. Aleksis Kivi (1834–1872), known today as the "national author of Finland", wrote his only novel The Seven Brothers (1870), which was strongly influenced by Cervantes , and which received at time a very negative reception from critics because its contemporary descriptions of the life of a Finnish peasants in an unadorned realism, long before

7548-655: The North of England , and use the rough-hewn speaking accents and slang heard in those regions. The film It Always Rains on Sunday (1947) is a precursor of the genre, and the John Osborne play Look Back in Anger (1956) is thought of as the first of the genre. The gritty love-triangle of Look Back in Anger , for example, takes place in a cramped, one-room flat in the English Midlands . The conventions of

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7696-590: The SS Commodore , sank off the coast of Florida, leaving him adrift for 30 hours in a dinghy . Crane described the ordeal in " The Open Boat ". During the final years of his life, he covered conflicts in Greece (accompanied by Cora, recognized as the first woman war correspondent) and later lived in England with her. He was befriended by writers such as Joseph Conrad and H. G. Wells . Plagued by financial difficulties and ill health, Crane died of tuberculosis in

7844-509: The nom de plume was the "commonest name I could think of. I had an editor friend named Johnson, and put in the 't', and no one could find me in the mob of Smiths". Hamlin Garland reviewed the work in the June 1893 issue of The Arena , calling it "the most truthful and unhackneyed study of the slums I have yet read, fragment though it is". Despite this early praise, Crane became depressed and destitute from having spent $ 869 for 1,100 copies of

7992-694: The Bacheller-Johnson syndicate to work as a war correspondent in Cuba as the Spanish–American War was pending, the 25-year-old Crane left New York on November 27, 1896, on a train bound for Jacksonville, Florida . Upon arrival in Jacksonville, he registered at the St. James Hotel under the alias of Samuel Carleton to maintain anonymity while seeking passage to Cuba. He toured the city and visited

8140-468: The Civil War, Bowery shops and mansions had given way to saloons, dance halls, brothels and flophouses , all of which Crane frequented. He later said he did so for research. He was attracted to the human nature found in the slums, considering it "open and plain, with nothing hidden." Believing nothing honest and unsentimental had been written about the Bowery, Crane became determined to do so himself; this

8288-614: The Congress's first action was the adoption of the Suffolk Resolves , a measure drawn up by several counties in Massachusetts that included a declaration of grievances, called for a trade boycott of British goods, and urged each colony to set up and train its own militia. A less radical plan was then proposed to create a Union of Great Britain and the Colonies , but the delegates tabled the measure and later struck it from

8436-550: The Cuban rebels. On the St. Johns River and less than 2 miles (3.2 km) from Jacksonville, Commodore struck a sandbar in a dense fog and damaged its hull. Although towed off the sandbar the following day, it was beached again in Mayport and again damaged. A leak began in the boiler room that evening and, as a result of malfunctioning water pumps, the ship came to a standstill about 16 miles (26 km) from Mosquito Inlet. As

8584-513: The English constitution. Roger Sherman denied the legislative authority of Parliament, and Patrick Henry believed that the Congress needed to develop a completely new system of government, independent from Great Britain, for the existing Colonial governments were already dissolved. In contrast to these ideas, Joseph Galloway put forward a " Plan of Union " which suggested that an American legislative body should be formed with some authority, whose consent would be required for imperial measures. In

8732-517: The Introduction to The Human Comedy (1842) Balzac "claims that poetic creation and scientific creation are closely related activities, manifesting the tendency of realists towards taking over scientific methods". The artists of realism used the achievements of contemporary science, the strictness and precision of the scientific method, in order to understand reality. The positivist spirit in science presupposes feeling contempt towards metaphysics,

8880-579: The Mexican peasants' contentment and "even refuse[d] to pity them". Returning to New York five months later, Crane joined the Lantern (alternately spelled "Lanthom" or "Lanthorne") Club organized by a group of young writers and journalists. The club, located on the roof of an old house on William Street near the Brooklyn Bridge , served as a drinking establishment and was decorated to look like

9028-551: The Polish-born novelist Joseph Conrad in October 1897, with whom he would have what Crane called a "warm and endless friendship". Literary realism Broadly defined as "the representation of reality", realism in the arts is the attempt to represent subject matter truthfully, without artificiality and avoiding artistic conventions, as well as implausible, exotic and supernatural elements. Realism has been prevalent in

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9176-502: The Streets . Later that summer, Crane met and befriended author Hamlin Garland , who had been lecturing locally on American literature and arts. On August 17, Garland gave a talk on novelist William Dean Howells , which Crane wrote up for the Tribune . Garland became a mentor for and champion of the young writer, whose intellectual honesty impressed him. Their relationship suffered in later years, however, because Garland disapproved of Crane's alleged immorality, related to his living with

9324-435: The United States during the late nineteenth century on the larger forces that determine the lives of its characters, as depicted in agricultural machines portrayed as immense and terrible, shredding "entangled" human bodies without compunction. The machines were used as a metaphor , but the metaphor contributed to the perception that such narratives were more like myth than reality. There are also critics who fault realism in

9472-521: The United States. Although it was greatly cut for syndication, Bacheller attested to its causing a stir, saying "its quality [was] immediately felt and recognized." The lead editorial in the Philadelphia Press of December 7 said that Crane "is a new name now and unknown, but everybody will be talking about him if he goes on as he has begun". At the end of January 1895, Crane left on what he called "a very long and circuitous newspaper trip" to

9620-651: The West Indies. Spending three weeks in New York, he completed "The Open Boat" and periodically visited Port Jervis to see family. By this time, however, blockades had formed along the Florida coast as tensions rose with Spain, and Crane concluded that he would never be able to travel to Cuba. He sold "The Open Boat" to Scribner's for $ 300 in early March. Determined to work as a war correspondent, Crane signed on with William Randolph Hearst 's New York Journal to cover

9768-560: The absence of a fixed definition. The argument is that there is no pure form of realism and the position that it is almost impossible to find literature that is not in fact realist, at least to some extent while, and that whenever one searches for pure realism, it vanishes. J.P. Stern countered this position when he maintained that this "looseness" or "untidiness" makes the term indispensable in common and literary discourse alike. Others also dismiss it as obvious and simple-minded while denying realistic aesthetic, branding as pretentious since it

9916-448: The age of 24, Crane, who was reveling in his success, became involved in a highly publicized case involving a suspected prostitute named Dora Clark. At 2 a.m. on September 16, 1896, he escorted two chorus girls and Clark from New York City's Broadway Garden, a popular "resort" where he had interviewed the women for a series he was writing. As Crane saw one woman safely to a streetcar , a plainclothes policeman named Charles Becker arrested

10064-579: The age of 28. Crane wrote his first known story, "Uncle Jake and the Bell Handle", when he was 14. In late 1885, he enrolled at Pennington Seminary , a ministry-focused coeducational boarding school 7 miles (11 km) north of Trenton . His father had been principal there from 1849 to 1858. Soon after her youngest son left for school, Mrs. Crane began suffering what the Asbury Park Shore Press reported as "a temporary aberration of

10212-648: The age of 60; Stephen was eight years old. Some 1,400 people attended his funeral, more than double the size of his congregation. After her husband's death, Mrs. Crane moved to Roseville , near Newark, leaving Stephen in the care of his older brother Edmund, with whom the young boy lived with cousins in Sussex County . He next lived with his brother William, a lawyer, in Port Jervis for several years. His older sister Helen took him to Asbury Park to be with their brother Townley and his wife, Fannie. Townley

10360-485: The age of four and had several articles published by 16. Having little interest in university studies though he was active in a fraternity, he left Syracuse University in 1891 to work as a reporter and writer. Crane's first novel was the 1893 Bowery tale Maggie: A Girl of the Streets , generally considered by critics to be the first work of American literary Naturalism. He won international acclaim for his Civil War novel The Red Badge of Courage (1895), considered

10508-458: The artist, who can in turn represent this 'reality' faithfully. As literary critic Ian Watt states in The Rise of the Novel , modern realism "begins from the position that truth can be discovered by the individual through the senses" and as such "it has its origins in Descartes and Locke , and received its first full formulation by Thomas Reid in the middle of the eighteenth century." In

10656-427: The arts at many periods, and is in large part a matter of technique and training, and the avoidance of stylization. In the visual arts, illusionistic realism is the accurate depiction of lifeforms, perspective, and the details of light and colour. Realist works of art may emphasize the ugly or sordid, such as works of social realism , regionalism , or kitchen sink realism . There have been various realism movements in

10804-660: The arts, such as the opera style of verismo , literary realism, theatrical realism and Italian neorealist cinema . The realism art movement in painting began in France in the 1850s, after the 1848 Revolution . The realist painters rejected Romanticism , which had come to dominate French literature and art, with roots in the late 18th century. Realism as a movement in literature was a post-1848 phenomenon, according to its first theorist Jules-Français Champfleury. It aims to reproduce " objective reality ", and focuses on showing every day, quotidian activities and life, primarily among

10952-611: The baseball team. Attending just one class (English Literature) during the middle trimester, he remained in residence while taking no courses in the third. Concentrating on his writing, Crane began to experiment with tone and style while trying out different subjects. He published his fictional story, "Great Bugs of Onondaga," simultaneously in the Syracuse Daily Standard and the New York Tribune . Declaring college "a waste of time", Crane decided to become

11100-483: The beginnings of the railways, and the state of contemporary medical science. Middlemarch also shows the deeply reactionary mindset within a settled community facing the prospect of what to many is unwelcome social, political and technological change. While George Gissing (1857–1903), author of New Grub Street (1891), amongst many other works, has traditionally been viewed as a naturalist, mainly influenced by Émile Zola , Jacob Korg has suggested that George Eliot

11248-462: The book as "so much trash". Crane was pleased that the book was "making some stir". In contrast to the reception for Crane's poetry, The Red Badge of Courage was welcomed with acclaim after its publication by Appleton in September 1895. For the next four months, the book was in the top six on bestseller lists around the country. It arrived on the literary scene "like a flash of lightning out of

11396-403: The boycott. It was further agreed that if the Intolerable Acts were not repealed, the colonies would also cease exports to Britain after September 10, 1775. The Houses of Assembly of each participating colony approved the proceedings of the Congress, with the exception of New York . The boycott was successfully implemented, but its potential for altering British colonial policy was cut off by

11544-413: The captain) foundered off the coast of Florida for a day and a half before trying to land the dinghy at Daytona Beach . The small boat overturned in the surf, forcing the exhausted men to swim to shore; one died. Having lost the gold given to him for his journey, Crane wired Cora Taylor for help. She traveled to Daytona and returned to Jacksonville with Crane the next day, only four days after he had left on

11692-402: The copy editor." Hamlin Garland and biographer John Barry attested that Crane told them he had been dismissed by the Tribune . Although Willis Fletcher Johnson later denied this, the paper did not publish any of Crane's work after 1892. Crane struggled to make a living as a freelance writer, contributing sketches and feature articles to various New York newspapers. In October 1892, he moved into

11840-399: The cult of the fact, experiment and proof, confidence in science and the progress that it brings, as well as striving to give a scientific form to studying social and moral phenomena." In the late 18th century Romanticism was a revolt against the aristocratic social and political norms of the previous Age of Reason and a reaction against the scientific rationalization of nature found in

11988-465: The dog sickened and died soon after their arrival in England, on August 1. Crane, who had a great love for dogs, wrote an emotional letter to a friend an hour after the dog's death, stating that "for eleven days we fought death for him, thinking nothing of anything but his life." The Limpsfield-Oxted area was home to members of the socialist Fabian Society and a magnet for writers such as Edmund Gosse , Ford Madox Ford and Edward Garnett . Crane also met

12136-675: The dominant philosophy of the 18th century, as well as a reaction to the Industrial Revolution . It was embodied most strongly in the visual arts, music, and literature, but had a major impact on historiography, education and the natural sciences . 19th-century realism was in its turn a reaction to Romanticism, and for this reason it is also commonly derogatorily referred to as traditional or "bourgeois realism". However, not all writers of Victorian literature produced works of realism. The rigidities, conventions, and other limitations of Victorian realism prompted in their turn

12284-497: The editor. The owner of the Tribune , Whitelaw Reid , was that year's Republican vice-presidential candidate, and this likely increased the sensitivity of the paper's management to the issue. Although Townley wrote a piece for the Asbury Park Daily Press in his brother's defense, the Tribune quickly apologized to its readers, calling Stephen Crane's piece "a bit of random correspondence, passed inadvertently by

12432-651: The end, the voices of compromise carried the day. Rather than calling for independence, the First Continental Congress passed and signed the Continental Association in its Declaration and Resolves , which called for a boycott of British goods to take effect in December 1774. After Congress signed on October 20, 1774, embracing non exportation they also planned nonimportation of slaves beginning December 1, which would have abolished

12580-474: The event. In a concluding note, Hubbard commented, "to the mass, he is known, if at all, only as the author of The Black Riders in verse, and of the Red Badge of Courage in prose; efforts, both, that challenge study and baffle understanding rather than soothe superficiality or pander to the wishes of mental indolence." Sources report that following an encounter with a male prostitute that spring, Crane began

12728-499: The everyday conditions of the working classes and the poor, and who are critical of the social structures that maintain these conditions. While the movement's artistic styles vary from nation to nation, it almost always uses a form of descriptive or critical realism. Kitchen sink realism (or kitchen sink drama) is a term coined to describe a British cultural movement that developed in the late 1950s and early 1960s in theatre , art , novels , film and television plays , which used

12876-427: The exposed remains of a wreck near Ponce Inlet, Florida , conjectured to be that of the SS Commodore . The collected data, and other accumulated evidence, finally substantiated the identification of the Commodore . Despite contentment in Jacksonville and the need for rest after his ordeal, Crane became restless. He left Jacksonville on January 11 for New York City, where he applied for a passport to Cuba, Mexico and

13024-603: The following May, shortly after the Battles of Lexington and Concord , to organize the defense of the colonies as the American Revolutionary War . The Congress met from September 5 to October 26, 1774, in Carpenters' Hall in Philadelphia with delegates from 12 of the Thirteen Colonies participating. The delegates were elected by the people of the respective colonies, the colonial legislature, or by

13172-402: The genre have continued into the 2000s, finding expression in such television shows as Coronation Street and EastEnders . In art, "Kitchen Sink School" was a term used by critic David Sylvester to describe painters who depicted social realist –type scenes of domestic life. Socialist realism is the official Soviet art form that was institutionalized by Joseph Stalin in 1934 and

13320-399: The genre were often (yet not always) poor, disadvantaged and scarcely educated people, who struggled against adversities. They often came from popular environments and their lifestyle was challenged by the progress that society was experiencing in the late 19th century; such characters usually could not adapt themselves to that progress. Other times, the protagonists were Bourgeois . Verismo

13468-450: The glory of war and then quickly becomes disillusioned, Crane borrowed the private's surname, "Fleming", from his sister-in-law's maiden name. He later said that the first paragraphs came to him with "every word in place, every comma, every period fixed". He wrote from around midnight until four or five in the morning. Because he could not afford a typewriter, he wrote carefully in ink on legal-sized paper, seldom crossing through or interlining

13616-400: The idea of writing a war novel overtook him. He would later state that he "had been unconsciously working the detail of the story out through most of his boyhood" and had imagined "war stories ever since he was out of knickerbockers ". This novel would ultimately become The Red Badge of Courage . A river, amber-tinted in the shadow of its banks, purled at the army's feet; and at night, when

13764-478: The idea that we do not often understand what is real correctly. To present reality, we draw on what is "real" according to how we remember it as well as how we experience it. However, remembered or experienced reality does not always correspond to what the truth is. Instead, we often obtain a distorted version of it that is only related to what is out there or how things really are. Realism is criticized for its supposed inability to address this challenge and such failure

13912-504: The impending Greco-Turkish conflict . He brought along Taylor, who sold the Hotel de Dream. On March 20, they sailed first to England, where Crane was warmly received. They arrived in Athens in early April; between April 17 (when Turkey declared war on Greece) and April 22, Crane wrote his first published report of the war, "An Impression of the 'Concert' ". When he left for Epirus in

14060-562: The largest fraternity, Delta Upsilon . He also joined both rival literary societies, named for (George) Washington and (Benjamin) Franklin. Crane infrequently attended classes and ended the semester with grades for four of his seven courses. After one semester, Crane transferred to Syracuse University , where he enrolled as a non-degree candidate in the College of Liberal Arts. He roomed in the Delta Upsilon fraternity house and joined

14208-554: The latter was vaguely amused. — Stephen Crane, account of the JOUAM parade as it appeared in the Tribune Between July 2 and September 11, 1892, Crane published more than ten news reports on Asbury Park affairs. Although a Tribune colleague stated that Crane "was not highly distinguished above any other boy of twenty who had gained a reputation for saying and writing bright things," that summer his reporting took on

14356-488: The life of rural dwellers, including bullock drivers , squatters and itinerant travellers, in southern New South Wales and Victoria , during the 1880s. Catherine Helen Spence 's Clara Morison (1854), which detailed a Scottish woman's immigration to Adelaide, South Australia , in a time when many people were leaving the freely settled state of South Australia to claim fortunes in the gold rushes of Victoria and New South Wales. The burgeoning literary concept that Australia

14504-456: The life of the lower classes. In France in addition to melodramas , popular and bourgeois theater in the mid-century turned to realism in the "well-made" bourgeois farces of Eugène Marin Labiche and the moral dramas of Émile Augier . Critics of realism cite that depicting reality is not often realistic, with some observers calling it "imaginary" or "project[ed]". This argument is based on

14652-501: The local brothels . Within days he met 31-year-old Cora Taylor , proprietor of the downtown bawdy house Hotel de Dream. Born into a respectable Boston family, Taylor (whose legal name was Cora Ethel Stewart) had already had two brief marriages; her first husband, Vinton Murphy, divorced her on grounds of adultery. In 1889, she had married British Captain Donald William Stewart . She left him in 1892 for another man, but

14800-511: The middle- or lower-class society, without romantic idealization or dramatization. It may be regarded as the general attempt to depict subjects as they are considered to exist in third person objective reality , without embellishment or interpretation and "in accordance with secular, empirical rules." As such, the approach inherently implies a belief that such reality is ontologically independent of man's conceptual schemes, linguistic practices and beliefs, and thus can be known (or knowable) to

14948-450: The mind." She had apparently recovered by early 1886, but later that year, her son, 23-year-old Luther Crane, died after falling in front of an oncoming train while working as a railroad flagman. It was the fourth death in six years among Stephen's immediate family. After two years, Crane left Pennington for Claverack College , a quasi-military school. He later looked back on his time at Claverack as "the happiest period of my life although I

15096-405: The more general development of philosophical realism, middle-class economic individualism and Puritan individualism. He also claims that the form addressed the interests and capacities of the new middle-class reading public and the new book trade evolving in response to them. As tradesmen themselves, Defoe and Richardson had only to 'consult their own standards' to know that their work would appeal to

15244-611: The northwest, Taylor remained in Athens, where she became the war's first woman war correspondent. She wrote under the pseudonym "Imogene Carter" for the New York Journal , a job that Crane had secured for her. They wrote frequently, traveling throughout the country separately and together. The first large battle that Crane witnessed was the Turks' assault on General Constantine Smolenski's Greek forces at Velestino. Crane wrote: "It

15392-407: The novels in this period, including Balzac's, were published in newspapers in serial form , and the immensely popular realist "roman feuilleton" tended to specialize in portraying the hidden side of urban life (crime, police spies, criminal slang), as in the novels of Eugène Sue . Similar tendencies appeared in the theatrical melodramas of the period and, in an even more lurid and gruesome light, in

15540-419: The other two for solicitation ; Crane was threatened with arrest when he tried to interfere. One of the women was released after Crane confirmed her erroneous claim that she was his wife, but Clark was charged and taken to the precinct. Against the advice of the arresting sergeant, Crane made a statement confirming Dora Clark's innocence, stating that "I only know that while with me she acted respectably, and that

15688-523: The outbreak of hostilities in April 1775. Congress also voted to meet again the following year if their grievances were not addressed satisfactorily. Anticipating that there would be cause to convene a second congress, delegates resolved to send letters of invitation to those colonies that had not joined them in Philadelphia , including Quebec , Saint John's Island (now Prince Edward Island), Nova Scotia , Georgia, East Florida , and West Florida . Of these, only Georgia would ultimately send delegates to

15836-535: The pastor of Drew Methodist Church, a position that he retained until his death. As a child, Crane was often sickly and afflicted by constant colds . When the boy was almost two, his father wrote in his diary that his youngest son became "so sick that we are anxious about him." Despite his fragile nature, Crane was an intelligent child who taught himself to read before the age of four. At the age of three, while imitating his brother Townley's writing, he asked his mother, "how do you spell O ?" In December 1879, Crane wrote

15984-683: The poems' unconventional style and use of free verse. A piece in the Bookman called Crane "the Aubrey Beardsley of poetry" and a commentator from the Chicago Daily Inter-Ocean stated that "there is not a line of poetry from the opening to the closing page. Whitman 's Leaves of Grass were luminous in comparison. Poetic lunacy would be a better name for the book." In June, the New York Tribune dismissed

16132-476: The policeman's charge was false." On the basis of Crane's testimony, Clark was discharged. The media seized upon the story; news spread to Philadelphia, Boston and beyond, with papers focusing on Crane's courage. The Stephen Crane story, as it became known, soon became a source for ridicule; the Chicago Dispatch quipped that "Stephen Crane is respectfully informed that association with women in scarlet

16280-647: The realism genre developed a detached description of the social and economic conditions of people in their time and environment. Major figures of Italian Verismo include Luigi Capuana , Giovanni Verga , Federico De Roberto , Matilde Serao , Salvatore Di Giacomo , and Grazia Deledda , who in 1926 received the Nobel Prize for Literature . Later realist writers included Fyodor Dostoevsky , Leo Tolstoy , Benito Pérez Galdós , Guy de Maupassant , Anton Chekhov , Leopoldo Alas (Clarín) , Machado de Assis , Eça de Queiroz , Henryk Sienkiewicz , Bolesław Prus and, in

16428-564: The record of their proceedings. The First Continental Congress agreed on a Declaration and Resolves that included the Continental Association , a proposal for an embargo on British trade. They also drew up a Petition to the King pleading for redress of their grievances and repeal of the Intolerable Acts. That appeal was unsuccessful, leading delegates from the colonies to convene the Second Continental Congress , also held in Philadelphia.

16576-407: The revolt of modernism . Starting around 1900, the driving motive of modernist literature was the criticism of the 19th-century bourgeois social order and world view, which was countered with an antirationalist, antirealist and antibourgeois program. Social realism is an international art movement that includes the work of painters, printmakers, photographers and filmmakers who draw attention to

16724-433: The ship took on more water, Crane described the engine room as resembling "a scene at this time taken from the middle kitchen of hades ." The Commodore ' s lifeboats were lowered early on January 2, 1897, and the ship ultimately sank at 7 a.m. Crane was one of the last to leave in a 10-foot (3.0 m) dinghy . In an ordeal that he recounted in the short story " The Open Boat ", Crane and three other men (including

16872-498: The slave trade in the United States of America 33 years before it actually ended. The primary accomplishment of the First Continental Congress was a compact among the colonies to boycott British goods beginning on December 1, 1774, unless parliament should rescind the Intolerable Acts. While delegates convened in the First Continental Congress, fifty-one women in Edenton, North Carolina formed their own association (now referred to as

17020-528: The spring of 1894, Crane offered the finished manuscript of The Red Badge of Courage to McClure's Magazine , which had become the foremost magazine for Civil War literature. While McClure's delayed giving him an answer on his novel, they offered him an assignment writing about the Pennsylvania coal mines . "In the Depths of a Coal Mine", a story with pictures by Linson, was syndicated by McClure's in

17168-413: The stream had become of a sorrowful blackness, one could see across it the red, eyelike gleam of hostile camp-fires set in the low brows of distant hills. — Stephen Crane, The Red Badge of Courage Crane wished to show how it felt to be in a war by writing "a psychological portrayal of fear". Conceiving his story from the point of view of a young private who is at first filled with boyish dreams of

17316-486: The trial ended on October 16, the arresting officer was exonerated, and Crane's reputation was ruined. None of them knew the color of the sky. Their eyes glanced level and were fastened upon the waves that swept toward them. These waves were of the hue of slate, save for the tops, which were of foaming white, and all of the men knew the colors of the sea. — Stephen Crane, "The Open Boat" Given $ 700 in Spanish gold by

17464-550: The twentieth century, as the working-class community of Sydney proliferated, the focus was shifted from the bush archetype to a more urban, inner-city setting: William Lane 's The Working Man's Paradise (1892), Christina Stead 's Seven Poor Men of Sydney (1934) and Ruth Park 's The Harp in the South (1948) all depicted the harsh, gritty reality of working class Sydney. Patrick White 's novels Tree of Man (1955) and Voss (1957) fared particularly well and in 1973 White

17612-426: The underlying forces (e.g., the environment or heredity) influencing the actions of its subjects. Naturalistic works often include supposed sordid subject matter, for example, Émile Zola 's frank treatment of sexuality , as well as pervasive pessimism. Naturalistic works tend to focus on the darker aspects of life, including poverty, racism , violence, prejudice, disease, corruption, prostitution , and filth. As

17760-552: The way it supposedly defines itself as a reaction to the excesses of literary genres such as Romanticism and the Gothic – those that focus on the exotic, sentimental, and sensational narratives. Some scholars began to call this an impulse to contradict so that in the end, the limit that it imposes on itself leads to "either the representation of verifiable and objective truth or the merely relative, some partial, subjective truth, therefore no truth at all." There are also critics who cite

17908-500: The way their characters act. This does not happen in Verismo: in fact, Verist authors such as Giovanni Verga usually believe that reality cannot be changed through literature, so they do not make any comment on their characters and tend to distance themselves from the narration, by adopting an objective, non-intrusive perspective (yet the authors somehow manage to let the readers understand their point of view). A typical feature of Verismo

18056-468: The west. While writing feature articles for the Bacheller syndicate, he traveled to Saint Louis, Missouri , Nebraska , New Orleans , Galveston, Texas , and Mexico City . Irving Bacheller would later state that he "sent Crane to Mexico for new color", which the author found in the form of Mexican slum life. Whereas he found the lower class in New York pitiful, he was impressed by the "superiority" of

18204-412: The work achieved the status of a national novel. Gustave Flaubert 's (1821–1880) acclaimed novels Madame Bovary (1857), which reveals the tragic consequences of romanticism on the wife of a provincial doctor, and Sentimental Education (1869) represent perhaps the highest stages in the development of French realism. Flaubert also wrote other works in an entirely different style and his romanticism

18352-421: The work overly graphic and profane, it was widely heralded for its realistic portrayal of war and unique writing style. The Detroit Free Press declared that The Red Badge would give readers "so vivid a picture of the emotions and the horrors of the battlefield that you will pray your eyes may never look upon the reality." Wanting to capitalize on the success of The Red Badge , McClure Syndicate offered Crane

18500-426: Was Police Commissioner and a new acquaintance of Crane. The defense targeted Crane: police raided his apartment and interviewed people who knew him, trying to find incriminating evidence to lessen the effect of his testimony. A vigorous cross-examination sought to portray Crane as a man of dubious morals; while the prosecution proved that he frequented brothels, Crane claimed this was merely for research purposes. After

18648-748: Was a greater influence. Other novelists, such as Arnold Bennett (1867–1931) and Anglo-Irishman George Moore (1852–1933), consciously imitated the French realists. Bennett's most famous works are the Clayhanger trilogy (1910–18) and The Old Wives' Tale (1908). These books draw on his experience of life in the Staffordshire Potteries , an industrial area encompassing the six towns that now make up Stoke-on-Trent in Staffordshire , England. George Moore, whose most famous work

18796-481: Was a mainly unorganized literary movement that sought to depict believable everyday reality , as opposed to such movements as Romanticism or Surrealism , in which subjects may receive highly symbolic, idealistic or even supernatural treatment. Naturalism was an outgrowth of literary realism, influenced by Charles Darwin 's theory of evolution. Whereas realism seeks only to describe subjects as they really are, naturalism also attempts to determine "scientifically"

18944-980: Was a professional journalist; he headed the Long Branch department of both the New-York Tribune and the Associated Press , and also served as editor of the Asbury Park Shore Press . Agnes, another Crane sister, joined the siblings in New Jersey . She took a position at Asbury Park's intermediate school and moved in with Helen to care for the young Stephen. Within a couple of years, the Crane family suffered more losses. First, Townley and his wife lost their two young children. His wife Fannie died of Bright's disease in November 1883. Agnes Crane became ill and died on June 10, 1884, of meningitis at

19092-600: Was a rejection of, according to what the Sydney Bulletin called in 1881 a "romantic identity" of the country. Most of the earliest writing in the colony was not literature in the most recent international sense, but rather journals and documentations of expeditions and environments, although literary style and preconceptions entered into the journal writing. Oftentimes in early Australian literature, romanticism and realism co-existed, as exemplified by Joseph Furphy 's Such Is Life (1897)–a fictional account of

19240-414: Was aloof, reserved and not generally popular. Although academically weak, Crane gained experience at Claverack that provided background (and likely some anecdotes from the Civil War veterans on the staff) for The Red Badge of Courage . In mid-1888, Crane became his brother Townley's assistant at a New Jersey shore news bureau, working there every summer until 1892. Crane's first publication under his byline

19388-673: Was an article on the explorer Henry M. Stanley 's quest to find the Scottish missionary David Livingstone in Africa. It appeared in the February 1890 Claverack College Vidette . Within a few months, Crane was persuaded by his family to forgo a military career and transfer to Lafayette College in Easton, Pennsylvania , to pursue a mining engineering degree. He registered at Lafayette on September 12; he promptly took up baseball again and joined

19536-456: Was an extension of another, more distant country, was beginning to infiltrate into writing: "[those] who have at last understood the significance of Australian history as a transplanting of stocks and the sending down of roots in a new soil". Henry Handel Richardson , author of post- Federation novels such as Maurice Guest (1908) and The Getting of Wisdom (1910), was said to have been heavily influenced by French and Scandinavian realism. In

19684-546: Was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature . A new kind of literary realism emerged in the late twentieth century, helmed by Helen Garner 's Monkey Grip (1977) which revolutionised contemporary fiction in Australia, though it has since emerged that the novel was diaristic and based on Garner's own experiences. Monkey Grip concerns itself with a single-mother living in a succession of Melbourne share-houses, as she navigates her increasingly obsessive relationship with

19832-492: Was customary among other students, he took to signing his name "Stephen T. Crane" in order "to win recognition as a regular fellow". Crane was seen as friendly, but also moody and rebellious. He sometimes skipped class to play baseball, a game in which he starred as catcher . He was also greatly interested in the school's military training. He rose rapidly in the ranks of the student battalion. One classmate described him as "indeed physically attractive without being handsome", but he

19980-718: Was elected in his place for the balance of the session. Charles Thomson , leader of the Philadelphia Committee of Correspondence, was selected as the congressional secretary. The rules adopted by the delegates were designed to guard the equality of participants and to promote free-flowing debate. As the deliberations progressed, it became clear that those in attendance were not of one mind concerning why they were there. Conservatives such as Joseph Galloway , John Dickinson , John Jay , and Edward Rutledge believed their task to be forging policies to pressure Parliament to rescind its unreasonable acts. Their ultimate goal

20128-619: Was first seen during the Bolshevik Revolution . The 1934 declaration only formalized its canonical formulation through the speeches of the Andrei Zhdanov , the representative of the Party's Central Committee. The official definition of socialist realism has been criticized for its conflicting framework. While the concept itself is simple, discerning scholars struggle in reconciling its elements. According to Peter Kenez, "it

20276-457: Was impossible to reconcile the teleological requirement with realistic presentation," further stressing that "the world could either be depicted as it was or as it should be according to theory, but the two are obviously not the same." Naturalism was a literary movement or tendency from the 1880s to 1930s that used detailed realism to suggest that social conditions, heredity , and environment had inescapable force in shaping human character. It

20424-431: Was inspired by French Naturalism, but differed from it in a significant way: in fact, Naturalist authors were more optimistic and believed that literature could have an influence on society and its development, therefore conceived the writer's role as charged with moral responsibilities and this is reflected in their works, which usually present comments by the authors and digressions where they express their opinion about

20572-463: Was later adopted by allied Communist parties worldwide. This form of realism held that successful art depicts and glorifies the proletariat 's struggle toward socialist progress. The Statute of the Union of Soviet Writers in 1934 stated that socialist realism The strict adherence to the above tenets, however, began to crumble after the death of Stalin when writers started expanding the limits of what

20720-406: Was not aware of it." A classmate remembered him as a highly literate but erratic student, lucky to pass examinations in math and science, and yet "far in advance of his fellow students in his knowledge of History and Literature", his favorite subjects. While he held an impressive record on the drill field and baseball diamond, Crane generally did not excel in the classroom. Not having a middle name, as

20868-596: Was published in late February or early March 1893 by a small printing shop that usually printed medical books and religious tracts. The typewritten title page for the Library of Congress copyright application read simply: "A Girl of the Streets, / A Story of New York. / —By—/Stephen Crane." The name "Maggie" was added to the title later. Crane used the pseudonym "Johnston Smith" for the novella's initial publication, later telling friend and artist Corwin Knapp Linson that

21016-578: Was published to great acclaim in 1895, but he barely had time to bask in the attention before he died, at 28, having neglected his health. He has enjoyed continued success ever since—as a champion of the common man, a realist, and a symbolist. Crane's Maggie: A Girl of the Streets (1893), is one of the best, if not the earliest, naturalistic American novel. It is the harrowing story of a poor, sensitive young girl whose uneducated, alcoholic parents utterly fail her. In love, and eager to escape her violent home life, she allows herself to be seduced into living with

21164-656: Was separate from its English Colonial beginnings. Common artistic motifs and characters that were represented in Australian realism were the Australian Outback , known simply as "the bush", in its harsh and volatile beauty, the British settlers, the Indigenous Australian , the squatter and the digger —although some of these bordered into a more mythic territory in much of Australia's art scene. A significant portion of Australia's early realism

21312-469: Was still legally married. By the time Crane arrived, Taylor had been in Jacksonville for two years. She lived a bohemian lifestyle , owned a hotel of assignation, and was a respected local figure. The two spent much time together while Crane awaited his departure. He was finally cleared to leave for the Cuban port of Cienfuegos on New Year's Eve aboard the SS Commodore . The ship sailed from Jacksonville with 27 or 28 men and supplies and ammunition for

21460-458: Was the guest of honor at the first annual meeting of the Society of Philistines in 1895 when he was relatively unknown. Although Crane was severely teased during the meeting, they remained friendly and their association proved mutually beneficial. Seven of Crane’s poems and a short story were published in the first issue of The Roycroft Quarterly (another of Hubbard’s magazines) which commemorated

21608-452: Was the setting of his first novel. On December 7, 1891, Crane's mother died at the age of 64, and the 20-year-old appointed Edmund as his guardian. In the spring of 1892, Crane began a romance with Lily Brandon Munroe, a married woman who was estranged from her husband. He did so despite being frail, undernourished, and suffering from a hacking cough – none of which prevented him from smoking cigarettes. Although Munroe later said Crane "was not

21756-486: Was to develop a reasonable solution to the difficulties and bring about reconciliation between the Colonies and Great Britain. Others such as Patrick Henry , Roger Sherman , Samuel Adams , and John Adams believed their task to be developing a decisive statement of the rights and liberties of the Colonies. Their ultimate goal was to end what they felt to be the abuses of parliamentary authority and to retain their rights, which had been guaranteed under Colonial charters and

21904-423: Was too unconventional for most. After brief wrangling between poet and publisher, Copeland & Day accepted Crane's first book of poems, The Black Riders and Other Lines , although it would not be published until after The Red Badge of Courage . He received a 10 percent royalty and the publisher assured him that the book would be in a form "more severely classic than any book ever yet issued in America". In

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