116-540: Stevland Hardaway Morris ( / ˈ s t iː v ˌ l ə n d / ; né Judkins ; born May 13, 1950), known professionally as Stevie Wonder , is an American singer-songwriter, musician, and record producer. One of the most acclaimed and influential musicians of the 20th century, he is credited as a pioneer and influence by musicians across a range of genres that include R&B , pop , soul , gospel , funk , and jazz . A virtual one-man band , Wonder's use of synthesizers and other electronic musical instruments during
232-433: A Computer Music Melodian . It was also his first digital recording , and one of the earliest popular albums to use the technology, which Wonder used for all subsequent recordings. Wonder toured briefly with an orchestra in support of the album, and used a Fairlight CMI sampler onstage. In this year Wonder also wrote and produced the dance hit " Let's Get Serious ", performed by Jermaine Jackson and ranked by Billboard as
348-657: A federal holiday in the United States. In 2009, Wonder was named a United Nations Messenger of Peace , and in 2014, he was honored with the Presidential Medal of Freedom . Wonder was born Stevland Hardaway Judkins in Saginaw, Michigan , on May 13, 1950, the third of five children born to Lula Mae Hardaway , and the second of Hardaway's two children with Calvin Judkins. Wonder was born six weeks premature,
464-430: A focused two-dimensional image of the visual world on the retina, which then processes that image within the retina and sends nerve impulses along the optic nerve to the visual cortex to create visual perception . The retina serves a function which is in many ways analogous to that of the film or image sensor in a camera . The neural retina consists of several layers of neurons interconnected by synapses and
580-577: A man's surname at birth that has subsequently been replaced or changed. The diacritic mark (the acute accent ) over the e is considered significant to its spelling, and ultimately its meaning, but is sometimes omitted. According to Oxford University 's Dictionary of Modern English Usage , the terms are typically placed after the current surname (e.g., " Margaret Thatcher , née Roberts" or " Bill Clinton , né Blythe"). Since they are terms adopted into English (from French), they do not have to be italicized , but they often are. In Polish tradition ,
696-472: A soloist at age eight. His mother later rekindled her relationship with her first child's father (whose surname was also coincidentally Hardaway), changed her name back to Lula Hardaway, and had two more children. Wonder began playing instruments at an early age, including piano, harmonica, and drums. He formed a singing partnership with a friend; calling themselves Stevie and John, they played on street corners and occasionally at parties and dances. When Stevie
812-467: A Clown ", a No. 1 hit for Smokey Robinson and the Miracles (it was first released in 1967, mostly unnoticed as the last track of their Make It Happen LP, but eventually became a major success when re-released as a single in 1970, which prompted Robinson to reconsider his intention of leaving the group). In 1968, Wonder recorded an album of instrumental soul/jazz tracks, mostly harmonica solos, under
928-465: A central band known as the visual streak. Around the fovea extends the central retina for about 6 mm and then the peripheral retina. The farthest edge of the retina is defined by the ora serrata . The distance from one ora to the other (or macula), the most sensitive area along the horizontal meridian , is about 32 mm. In section, the retina is no more than 0.5 mm thick. It has three layers of nerve cells and two of synapses , including
1044-407: A condition that, along with the oxygen-rich atmosphere in the hospital incubator, resulted in retinopathy of prematurity , a disease that aborts eye growth and often causes the retinas to detach, which left him blind. When Wonder was four, his mother divorced his father and moved with her three children to Detroit . Wonder attended Whitestone Baptist Church, where he sang in the choir and became
1160-579: A considered view that the bird retina depends for nutrition and oxygen supply on a specialized organ, called the "pecten" or pecten oculi , located on the blind spot or optic disk. This organ is extremely rich in blood vessels and is thought to supply nutrition and oxygen to the bird retina by diffusion through the vitreous body. The pecten is highly rich in alkaline phosphatase activity and polarized cells in its bridge portion – both befitting its secretory role. Pecten cells are packed with dark melanin granules, which have been theorized to keep this organ warm with
1276-546: A duet with Andrea Bocelli on the latter's album Amore , offering harmonica and additional vocals on "Canzoni Stonate". Wonder also performed at Washington, D.C.'s 2006 A Capitol Fourth celebration. His other key appearances include performing at the opening ceremony of the 2002 Winter Paralympics in Salt Lake City , the 2005 Live 8 concert in Philadelphia , the pre-game show for Super Bowl XL in 2006,
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#17327805803071392-584: A far more pensive mood. Songs in the Key of Life won Album of the Year and two other Grammys. The album ranks 4th on Rolling Stone ' s 500 Greatest Albums of All Time. Also in 1976, Wonder heard about the demonstration of the Kurzweil Reading Machine, the first multi-font reading machine for the blind, on The Today Show , and later became the user of the first production unit, beginning
1508-511: A guest appearance on Busta Rhymes ' album The Big Bang , on the track "Been through the Storm". He sings the refrain and plays the piano on the Dr. Dre - and Sha Money XL –produced track. He appeared again on the last track of Snoop Dogg 's 2006 album Tha Blue Carpet Treatment , "Conversations". The song is a remake of "Have a Talk with God" from Songs in the Key of Life . In 2006, Wonder staged
1624-509: A linear model, this response profile is well described by a difference of Gaussians and is the basis for edge detection algorithms. Beyond this simple difference, ganglion cells are also differentiated by chromatic sensitivity and the type of spatial summation. Cells showing linear spatial summation are termed X cells (also called parvocellular, P, or midget ganglion cells), and those showing non-linear summation are Y cells (also called magnocellular, M, or parasol retinal ganglion cells), although
1740-439: A long-term association between himself and Ray Kurzweil . Until 1979's Stevie Wonder's Journey Through "The Secret Life of Plants" , his only further 1970s release was the retrospective three-disc album Looking Back (1977), an anthology of his early Motown period. The mainly instrumental soundtrack album Stevie Wonder's Journey Through "The Secret Life of Plants" (1979), was composed using an early music sampler called
1856-403: A more complex structure such as the inverted retina can generally come about as a consequence of two alternate processes - an advantageous "good" compromise between competing functional limitations, or as a historical maladaptive relic of the convoluted path of organ evolution and transformation. Vision is an important adaptation in higher vertebrates. A third view of the "inverted" vertebrate eye
1972-461: A result, the useful lifetime of photoreceptors in invertebrates is much shorter than in vertebrates. Having easily replaced stalk eyes (some lobsters) or retinae (some spiders, such as Deinopis ) rarely occurs. The cephalopod retina does not originate as an outgrowth of the brain, as the vertebrate one does. This difference suggests that vertebrate and cephalopod eyes are not homologous , but have evolved separately. From an evolutionary perspective,
2088-510: A retrospective of his 1970s work with Stevie Wonder's Original Musiquarium , which included four new songs: the ten-minute funk classic " Do I Do " (which featured Dizzy Gillespie ), " That Girl " (one of the year's biggest singles to chart on the R&;B side), " Front Line ", a narrative about a soldier in the Vietnam War that Wonder wrote and sang in the first person, and " Ribbon in
2204-435: A rolling five-year contract in which royalties would be held in trust until Wonder was 21. He and his mother would be paid a weekly stipend to cover their expenses: Wonder received $ 2.50 (equivalent to $ 25.49 in 2023) per week, and a private tutor was provided when Wonder was on tour. Wonder was put in the care of producer and songwriter Clarence Paul, and for a year they worked together on two albums. Tribute to Uncle Ray
2320-455: A slower pace. He recorded a soundtrack album for Spike Lee 's film Jungle Fever in 1991. From this album, singles and videos were released for "Gotta Have You", "Fun Day" (remix only), "These Three Words" and "Jungle Fever". The B-side to the "Gotta Have You" single was "Feeding Off The Love of the Land", which was played during the end credits of the movie Jungle Fever but was not included on
2436-840: A two-hour set at the Bonnaroo Music Festival in Manchester, Tennessee , a stop at the Hard Rock Calling festival in Hyde Park , London, and appearances at England's Glastonbury Festival , Rotterdam's North Sea Jazz Festival , a concert in Bergen , Norway, and a concert in Dublin , Ireland, at The O 2 on June 24. Wonder's harmonica playing can be heard on the 2009 Grammy-nominated "Never Give You Up", featuring CJ Hilton and Raphael Saadiq . Wonder sang at
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#17327805803072552-528: Is a lack of one or more of the cone subtypes that causes individuals to have deficiencies in colour vision or various kinds of colour blindness . These individuals are not blind to objects of a particular colour, but are unable to distinguish between colours that can be distinguished by people with normal vision. Humans have this trichromatic vision , while most other mammals lack cones with red sensitive pigment and therefore have poorer dichromatic colour vision. However, some animals have four spectral subtypes, e.g.
2668-417: Is also available. Changes in retinal blood circulation are seen with aging and exposure to air pollution, and may indicate cardiovascular diseases such as hypertension and atherosclerosis. Determining the equivalent width of arterioles and venules near the optic disc is also a widely used technique to identify cardiovascular risks. The retina translates an optical image into neural impulses starting with
2784-537: Is called mesopic vision . At mesopic light levels, both the rods and cones are actively contributing pattern information. What contribution the rod information makes to pattern vision under these circumstances is unclear. The response of cones to various wavelengths of light is called their spectral sensitivity. In normal human vision, the spectral sensitivity of a cone falls into one of three subtypes, often called blue, green, and red, but more accurately known as short, medium, and long wavelength-sensitive cone subtypes. It
2900-464: Is hyperpolarised. The amount of neurotransmitter released is reduced in bright light and increases as light levels fall. The actual photopigment is bleached away in bright light and only replaced as a chemical process, so in a transition from bright light to darkness the eye can take up to thirty minutes to reach full sensitivity. When thus excited by light, the photoceptor sends a proportional response synaptically to bipolar cells which in turn signal
3016-403: Is most enhanced. The choroid supplies about 75% of these nutrients to the retina and the retinal vasculature only 25%. When light strikes 11-cis-retinal (in the disks in the rods and cones), 11-cis-retinal changes to all-trans-retinal which then triggers changes in the opsins. Now, the outer segments do not regenerate the retinal back into the cis- form once it has been changed by light. Instead
3132-438: Is not direct. Since about 150 million receptors and only 1 million optic nerve fibres exist, convergence and thus mixing of signals must occur. Moreover, the horizontal action of the horizontal and amacrine cells can allow one area of the retina to control another (e.g. one stimulus inhibiting another). This inhibition is key to lessening the sum of messages sent to the higher regions of the brain. In some lower vertebrates (e.g.
3248-672: Is one of the best-selling music artists of all time , with sales of over 100 million records worldwide. He has won 25 Grammy Awards (the most by a male solo artist) and one Academy Award ( Best Original Song , for the 1984 film The Woman in Red ). Wonder has been inducted into the Rhythm and Blues Music Hall of Fame , Rock and Roll Hall of Fame and Songwriters Hall of Fame . He is also noted for his political activism, including his 1980 campaign to make Martin Luther King Jr. 's birthday
3364-423: Is partly transparent, and the accompanying glial cells have been shown to act as fibre-optic channels to transport photons directly to the photoreceptors, light scattering does occur. Some vertebrates, including humans, have an area of the central retina adapted for high-acuity vision. This area, termed the fovea centralis , is avascular (does not have blood vessels), and has minimal neural tissue in front of
3480-475: Is supported by an outer layer of pigmented epithelial cells. The primary light-sensing cells in the retina are the photoreceptor cells , which are of two types: rods and cones . Rods function mainly in dim light and provide monochromatic vision. Cones function in well-lit conditions and are responsible for the perception of colour through the use of a range of opsins , as well as high-acuity vision used for tasks such as reading. A third type of light-sensing cell,
3596-528: Is that it combines two benefits - the maintenance of the photoreceptors mentioned above, and the reduction in light intensity necessary to avoid blinding the photoreceptors, which are based on the extremely sensitive eyes of the ancestors of modern hagfish (fish that live in very deep, dark water). A recent study on the evolutionary purpose for the inverted retina structure from the APS (American Physical Society) says that "The directional of glial cells helps increase
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3712-416: Is the feminine past participle of naître , which means "to be born". Né is the masculine form. The term née , having feminine grammatical gender , can be used to denote a woman's surname at birth that has been replaced or changed. In most English-speaking cultures, it is specifically applied to a woman's maiden name after her surname has changed due to marriage. The term né can be used to denote
3828-504: The Kurzweil K250 in 1984. In 1983, Wonder performed the song "Stay Gold", the theme to Francis Ford Coppola 's film adaptation of S. E. Hinton 's novel The Outsiders . Wonder wrote the lyrics. In 1983, he scheduled an album to be entitled People Work, Human Play . The album never surfaced and instead 1984 saw the release of Wonder's soundtrack album for The Woman in Red . The lead single, " I Just Called to Say I Love You ",
3944-567: The Michael Jackson memorial service in 2009, at Etta James ' funeral, in 2012, a month later at Whitney Houston 's memorial service, and at the funeral of Aretha Franklin in 2018. Wonder appeared on singer Celine Dion 's studio album Loved Me Back to Life , performing a cover of his 1985 song "Overjoyed". The album was released in October 2013. He was also featured on two tracks on Mark Ronson 's 2015 album Uptown Special , and
4060-612: The Obama Inaugural Celebration in 2009, and the opening ceremony of the 2011 Special Olympics World Summer Games in Athens , Greece. Wonder's first new album in 10 years, A Time to Love , was released in October 2005 to lower sales than previous albums, and lukewarm reviews—most reviewers appearing frustrated at the end of the long delay to get an album that mainly copied the style of Wonder's "classic period" without doing anything new. The first single, " So What
4176-408: The ophthalmic artery bifurcates and supplies the retina via two distinct vascular networks: the choroidal network, which supplies the choroid and the outer retina, and the retinal network, which supplies the retina's inner layer. Although the inverted retina of vertebrates appears counter-intuitive, it is necessary for the proper functioning of the retina. The photoreceptor layer must be embedded in
4292-425: The outer plexiform layer and the inner plexiform layer . In the outer neuropil layer, the rods and cones connect to the vertically running bipolar cells , and the horizontally oriented horizontal cells connect to ganglion cells. The central retina predominantly contains cones, while the peripheral retina predominantly contains rods. In total, the retina has about seven million cones and a hundred million rods. At
4408-463: The photosensitive ganglion cell , is important for entrainment of circadian rhythms and reflexive responses such as the pupillary light reflex . Light striking the retina initiates a cascade of chemical and electrical events that ultimately trigger nerve impulses that are sent to various visual centres of the brain through the fibres of the optic nerve . Neural signals from the rods and cones undergo processing by other neurons, whose output takes
4524-412: The photosensitive ganglion cells ; and transmission along the optic nerve. At each synaptic stage, horizontal and amacrine cells also are laterally connected. The optic nerve is a central tract of many axons of ganglion cells connecting primarily to the lateral geniculate body , a visual relay station in the diencephalon (the rear of the forebrain). It also projects to the superior colliculus ,
4640-787: The pigeon ), control of messages is "centrifugal" – that is, one layer can control another, or higher regions of the brain can drive the retinal nerve cells, but in primates, this does not occur. Using optical coherence tomography (OCT), 18 layers can be identified in the retina. The layers and anatomical correlation are: From innermost to outermost, the layers identifiable by OCT are as follows: on OCT anatomical boundaries? references (unclear if it can be observed on OCT) b) Müller cell nuclei (obliquely orientated fibres; not present in mid-peripheral or peripheral retina) Poorly distinguishable from RPE. Previously: "cone outer segment tips line" (COST) homogenous region of variable reflectivity Retinal development begins with
4756-403: The receptive field of the cell. The receptive fields of retinal ganglion cells comprise a central, approximately circular area, where light has one effect on the firing of the cell, and an annular surround, where light has the opposite effect. In ON cells, an increment in light intensity in the centre of the receptive field causes the firing rate to increase. In OFF cells, it makes it decrease. In
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4872-425: The retinal ganglion cells . The photoreceptors are also cross-linked by horizontal cells and amacrine cells , which modify the synaptic signal before it reaches the ganglion cells, the neural signals being intermixed and combined. Of the retina's nerve cells, only the retinal ganglion cells and few amacrine cells create action potentials . In the retinal ganglion cells there are two types of response, depending on
4988-431: The suprachiasmatic nucleus , and the nucleus of the optic tract . It passes through the other layers, creating the optic disc in primates. Additional structures, not directly associated with vision, are found as outgrowths of the retina in some vertebrate groups. In birds , the pecten is a vascular structure of complex shape that projects from the retina into the vitreous humour ; it supplies oxygen and nutrients to
5104-557: The "Little" from his name, Moy and Wonder worked together to create the hit " Uptight (Everything's Alright) ", and Wonder went on to have a number of other hits during the mid-1960s, including "With a Child's Heart", and " Blowin' in the Wind ", a Bob Dylan song, co-sung by his mentor, producer Clarence Paul. He also began to work in the Motown songwriting department, composing songs both for himself and his label mates, including " The Tears of
5220-460: The 1970s reshaped the conventions of contemporary R&B . He also helped drive such genres into the album era , crafting his LPs as cohesive and consistent, in addition to socially conscious statements with complex compositions. Blind since shortly after his birth, Wonder was a child prodigy who signed with Motown 's Tamla label at the age of 11, where he was given the professional name Little Stevie Wonder . Wonder's single " Fingertips "
5336-595: The 1994 tribute album Kiss My Ass: Classic Kiss Regrooved ; sang at the 1996 Summer Olympics closing ceremony ; collaborated in 1997 with Babyface on " How Come, How Long ", a song about domestic violence that was nominated for a Grammy award; and played harmonica on Sting 's 1999 " Brand New Day ". In early 1999, Wonder performed in the Super Bowl XXXIII halftime show . In May 1999, Rutgers University presented Wonder with an honorary doctorate degree in fine arts . In December 1999, Wonder announced that he
5452-508: The Blind in Lansing, Michigan . In 1961, at the age of 11, Wonder sang his own composition, "Lonely Boy", to Ronnie White of the Miracles ; White then took Wonder and his mother to an audition at Motown , where CEO Berry Gordy signed Wonder to Motown's Tamla label. Before signing, producer Clarence Paul gave him the name Little Stevie Wonder . Because of Wonder's age, the label drew up
5568-716: The Fuss ", was released in April. A second single, " From the Bottom of My Heart ", was a hit on adult-contemporary R&B radio. The album also featured a duet with India Arie on the title track "A Time to Love". Wonder did a 13-date tour of North America in 2007, starting in San Diego on August 23; this was his first U.S. tour in more than 10 years. On September 8, 2008, he started the European leg of his Wonder Summer's Night Tour,
5684-675: The German television show Musikladen . On his return to the United States, he played a sold-out concert at Madison Square Garden in March 1974, highlighting both up-tempo material and long, building improvisations on mid-tempo songs such as " Living for the City ". The album Fulfillingness' First Finale appeared in July 1974 and set two hits high on the pop charts: the No. 1 " You Haven't Done Nothin' " and
5800-588: The Key of Life (1976) all won the Grammy Award for Album of the Year , making him the only artist to have won the award with three consecutive album releases. Wonder began his "commercial period" in the 1980s; he achieved his biggest hits and highest level of fame, had increased album sales, charity participation, high-profile collaborations (including with Paul McCartney and Michael Jackson ), political impact, and television appearances. Wonder has continued to remain active in music and political causes. Wonder
5916-523: The N-T axis is coordinated by expression of the forkhead transcription factors FOXD1 and FOXG1 . Additional gradients are formed within the retina. This spatial distribution may aid in proper targeting of RGC axons that function to establish the retinotopic map. The retina is stratified into distinct layers, each containing specific cell types or cellular compartments that have metabolisms with different nutritional requirements. To satisfy these requirements,
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#17327805803076032-424: The No. 1 R&B single of 1980. Hotter than July (1980) became Wonder's first platinum-selling single album, and its single " Happy Birthday " was a successful vehicle for his campaign to establish Martin Luther King Jr. 's birthday as a national holiday . The album also included " Master Blaster (Jammin') ", " I Ain't Gonna Stand for It ", and the sentimental ballad, " Lately ". In 1982, Wonder released
6148-531: The R&;B charts. Popular ballads such as "Golden Lady" and "All in Love Is Fair" were also present, in a mixture of moods that nevertheless held together as a unified whole. Innervisions generated three more Grammy Awards, including Album of the Year . The album is ranked No. 34 on Rolling Stone 's 500 Greatest Albums of All Time . Wonder had become the most influential and acclaimed black musician of
6264-563: The Sky ", one of his many classic compositions. He also gained a No. 1 hit that year in collaboration with Paul McCartney in their paean to racial harmony, " Ebony and Ivory ". Also in 1982, Wonder invited Raymond Kurzweil to his Los Angeles recording studio, Wonderland, and asked if "we could use the extraordinarily flexible computer control methods on the beautiful sounds of acoustic instruments?" In response, and with Wonder as musical advisor, Kurzweil founded Kurzweil Music Systems , which unveiled
6380-662: The Sunshine of My Life ", which also peaked at No. 1. During the same time as the album's release, Wonder began touring with the Rolling Stones to alleviate the negative effects from being pigeonholed as an R&B artist in America. His touring with the Stones was also a factor behind the success of both "Superstition" and "You Are the Sunshine of My Life". Between them, the two songs won three Grammy Awards . On an episode of
6496-761: The Supremes or the Tempts could have, now didn't he? —Review of Stevie Wonder's Greatest Hits Vol. 2 in Christgau's Record Guide: Rock Albums of the Seventies (1981) At the end of 1962, when Wonder was 12 years old, he joined the Motortown Revue , touring the " Chitlin' Circuit " of theatres across America that accepted black artists. At the Regal Theater , Chicago, his 20-minute performance
6612-485: The Top Ten " Boogie on Reggae Woman ". The Album of the Year was again one of three Grammys won. The same year, Wonder took part in a Los Angeles jam session with ex- Beatles John Lennon and Paul McCartney that would become known as the bootleg album A Toot and a Snore in '74 . He also co-wrote and produced the 1974 Syreeta Wright album Stevie Wonder Presents: Syreeta . On October 4, 1975, Wonder performed at
6728-549: The Year Grammy for his Still Crazy After All These Years , he wryly noted: "I'd like to thank Stevie Wonder, who didn't make an album this year." The double album-with-extra- EP , Songs in the Key of Life , was released in September 1976. Sprawling in style and sometimes lyrically difficult to fathom, the album was hard for some listeners to assimilate, yet is regarded by many as Wonder's crowning achievement and one of
6844-488: The absorption of stray light falling on the pecten. This is considered to enhance metabolic rate of the pecten, thereby exporting more nutritive molecules to meet the stringent energy requirements of the retina during long periods of exposure to light. The bifurcations and other physical characteristics of the inner retinal vascular network are known to vary among individuals, and these individual variances have been used for biometric identification and for early detection of
6960-419: The age of 20, Wonder married Syreeta Wright , a songwriter and former Motown secretary. Wright and Wonder worked together on the next album, Where I'm Coming From (1971), Wonder writing the music, and Wright helping with the lyrics. Around this time, Wonder became interested in utilizing synthesizers after hearing albums by electronic group Tonto's Expanding Head Band . Wonder and Wright wanted to "touch on
7076-753: The all-star charity single for African Famine Relief, " We Are the World ", and he was part of another charity single the following year (1986), the AIDS -inspired " That's What Friends Are For ". He played harmonica on the album Dreamland Express by John Denver in the song "If Ever", a song Wonder co-wrote with Stephanie Andrews; wrote the track "I Do Love You" for the Beach Boys ' 1985 self-titled album ; and played harmonica on " Can't Help Lovin' That Man " on The Broadway Album by Barbra Streisand . In 1987, Wonder appeared on Michael Jackson 's Bad album, on
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#17327805803077192-454: The brain, the retina is isolated from the vascular system by the blood–brain barrier . The retina is the part of the body with the greatest continuous energy demand. The vertebrate retina is inverted in the sense that the light-sensing cells are in the back of the retina, so that light has to pass through layers of neurons and capillaries before it reaches the photosensitive sections of the rods and cones. The ganglion cells, whose axons form
7308-411: The centre of the macula is the foveal pit where the cones are narrow and long, and arranged in a hexagonal mosaic , the most dense, in contradistinction to the much fatter cones located more peripherally in the retina. At the foveal pit, the other retinal layers are displaced, before building up along the foveal slope until the rim of the fovea, or parafovea , is reached, which is the thickest portion of
7424-494: The charts in a big way before Stevie turned twenty-one [in 1971]. Because he's grown up fast, the love lyrics are less teen-specific than a lot of early Smokey , say, but the music is pure puberty . Stevie's rockers are always one step ahead of themselves—their gawky groove is so disorienting it makes you pay attention, like a voice that's perpetually changing. The ballads conceive coming of age more conventionally, and less felicitously. But he sure covered Tony Bennett better than
7540-421: The children's television show Sesame Street that aired in April 1973, Wonder and his band performed "Superstition", as well as an original called "Sesame Street Song", which demonstrated his abilities with television. Wonder's studio album Innervisions , released in 1973, featured " Higher Ground " (No. 4 on the pop charts) as well as the trenchant " Living for the City " (No. 8). Both songs reached No. 1 on
7656-483: The clarity of human vision. But we also noticed something rather curious: the colours that best passed through the glial cells were green to red, which the eye needs most for daytime vision. The eye usually receives too much blue—and thus has fewer blue-sensitive cones. Further computer simulations showed that green and red are concentrated five to ten times more by the glial cells, and into their respective cones, than blue light. Instead, excess blue light gets scattered to
7772-422: The correspondence between X and Y cells (in the cat retina) and P and M cells (in the primate retina) is not as simple as it once seemed. In the transfer of visual signals to the brain, the visual pathway , the retina is vertically divided in two, a temporal (nearer to the temple) half and a nasal (nearer to the nose) half. The axons from the nasal half cross the brain at the optic chiasma to join with axons from
7888-412: The duet "Just Good Friends". Jackson also sang a duet with him entitled "Get It" on Wonder's 1987 album Characters . This was a minor hit single, as were "Skeletons" and "You Will Know". Wonder played harmonica on a remake of his own song, "Have a Talk with God" (from Songs in the Key of Life in 1976), on Jon Gibson 's album Body & Soul (1989). Wonder continued to release new material, but at
8004-646: The early 1970s. On August 6, 1973, Wonder was injured in a serious automobile accident while on tour in North Carolina , when a car in which he was riding hit the back of a truck. This left him in a coma for four days and resulted in a partial loss of his sense of smell and a temporary loss of sense of taste. Despite orders from his doctor to refrain from performing, Wonder performed at a homecoming benefit for Shaw University in Raleigh , in November 1973. Shaw
8120-428: The episode "A Touch of Wonder", where he demonstrated his ability to sample. The following year's In Square Circle featured the No. 1 pop hit " Part-Time Lover ". The album also has a Top 10 Hit with "Go Home". It also featured the ballad " Overjoyed ", which was originally written for Journey Through "The Secret Life of Plants" , but did not make the album. He performed "Overjoyed" on Saturday Night Live when he
8236-532: The establishment of the eye fields mediated by the SHH and SIX3 proteins, with subsequent development of the optic vesicles regulated by the PAX6 and LHX2 proteins. The role of Pax6 in eye development was elegantly demonstrated by Walter Gehring and colleagues, who showed that ectopic expression of Pax6 can lead to eye formation on Drosophila antennae, wings, and legs. The optic vesicle gives rise to three structures:
8352-407: The eye, and may also aid in vision. Reptiles have a similar, but much simpler, structure. In adult humans, the entire retina is about 72% of a sphere about 22 mm in diameter. The entire retina contains about 7 million cones and 75 to 150 million rods. The optic disc, a part of the retina sometimes called "the blind spot" because it lacks photoreceptors, is located at the optic papilla , where
8468-836: The first time he had toured Europe in more than a decade. His opening show was at the National Indoor Arena in Birmingham , in the English Midlands . During the tour, he played eight UK gigs; four at the O2 Arena in London (filmed in HD and subsequently released as a live-in-concert release on DVD and Blu-Ray, Live At Last ), two in Birmingham and two at the M.E.N. Arena in Manchester . Wonder's other stop in
8584-499: The form of action potentials in retinal ganglion cells whose axons form the optic nerve. In vertebrate embryonic development , the retina and the optic nerve originate as outgrowths of the developing brain, specifically the embryonic diencephalon ; thus, the retina is considered part of the central nervous system (CNS) and is actually brain tissue. It is the only part of the CNS that can be visualized noninvasively . Like most of
8700-577: The historic " Wonder Dream Concert " in Kingston , Jamaica, a benefit for the Jamaican Institute for the Blind. In 1975, he played harmonica on two tracks on Billy Preston 's album It's My Pleasure . By 1975, at the age of 25, Wonder had won two consecutive Grammy Awards : in 1974 for Innervisions and in 1975 for Fulfillingness' First Finale . In 1976, when Paul Simon won the Album of
8816-480: The hit " It's a Shame " for fellow Motown act the Spinners . His contribution was meant to be a showcase of his talent and thus a weapon in his ongoing negotiations with Gordy about creative autonomy. Reaching his 21st birthday on May 13, 1971, Wonder allowed his Motown contract to expire. During this period, Wonder independently recorded two albums and signed a new contract with Motown Records. The 120-page contract
8932-515: The instrumental parts himself. Music of My Mind marked the beginning of a long collaboration with Tonto's Expanding Head Band ( Robert Margouleff and Malcolm Cecil ), and with lyricist Yvonne Wright . Released in late 1972, Wonder's album Talking Book featured the No. 1 hit " Superstition ", which is one of the most distinctive and famous examples of the sound of the Hohner Clavinet keyboard. Talking Book also featured " You Are
9048-572: The most recognizable and accomplished albums in pop music history. The album became the first by an American artist to debut straight at No. 1 in the Billboard charts, where it stood for 14 non-consecutive weeks. Two tracks became No. 1 Pop/R&B hits: " I Wish " and " Sir Duke ". The baby-celebratory " Isn't She Lovely ?" was written about his newborn daughter Aisha, while songs such as " Love's in Need of Love Today " and "Village Ghetto Land" reflected
9164-511: The neural retina, the retinal pigmented epithelium, and the optic stalk. The neural retina contains the retinal progenitor cells (RPCs) that give rise to the seven cell types of the retina. Differentiation begins with the retinal ganglion cells and concludes with production of the Muller glia. Although each cell type differentiates from the RPCs in a sequential order, there is considerable overlap in
9280-601: The occasion of his 35th birthday, Stevie Wonder was honored by the United Nations Special Committee Against Apartheid for his stance against racism in South Africa that same year (1985). The album also featured a guest appearance by Dionne Warwick , singing the duet "It's You" with Stevie and a few songs of her own. Following the success of the album and its lead single, Wonder made an appearance on The Cosby Show , in
9396-521: The onset of disease. The mapping of vascular bifurcations is one of the basic steps in biometric identification. Results of such analyses of retinal blood vessel structure can be evaluated against the ground truth data of vascular bifurcations of retinal fundus images that are obtained from the DRIVE dataset. In addition, the classes of vessels of the DRIVE dataset have also been identified, and an automated method for accurate extraction of these bifurcations
9512-445: The optic nerve are devoted to the fovea. The resolution limit of the fovea has been determined to be around 10,000 points. The information capacity is estimated at 500,000 bits per second (for more information on bits, see information theory ) without colour or around 600,000 bits per second including colour. When the retina sends neural impulses representing an image to the brain, it spatially encodes (compresses) those impulses to fit
9628-421: The optic nerve, are at the front of the retina; therefore, the optic nerve must cross through the retina en route to the brain. No photoreceptors are in this region, giving rise to the blind spot . In contrast, in the cephalopod retina, the photoreceptors are in front, with processing neurons and capillaries behind them. Because of this, cephalopods do not have a blind spot. Although the overlying neural tissue
9744-478: The optic-nerve fibres leave the eye. It appears as an oval white area of 3 mm . Temporal (in the direction of the temples) to this disc is the macula , at whose centre is the fovea , a pit that is responsible for sharp central vision, but is actually less sensitive to light because of its lack of rods. Human and non-human primates possess one fovea, as opposed to certain bird species, such as hawks, that are bifoviate, and dogs and cats, that possess no fovea, but
9860-747: The patterned excitation of the colour-sensitive pigments of its rods and cones, the retina's photoreceptor cells . The excitation is processed by the neural system and various parts of the brain working in parallel to form a representation of the external environment in the brain. The cones respond to bright light and mediate high-resolution colour vision during daylight illumination (also called photopic vision ). The rod responses are saturated at daylight levels and do not contribute to pattern vision. However, rods do respond to dim light and mediate lower-resolution, monochromatic vision under very low levels of illumination (called scotopic vision ). The illumination in most office settings falls between these two levels and
9976-560: The person's legal name . The assumption in the Western world is often that the name from birth (or perhaps from baptism or brit milah ) will persist to adulthood in the normal course of affairs—either throughout life or until marriage. Some reasons for changes of a person's name include middle names , diminutive forms, changes relating to parental status (due to one's parents' divorce or adoption by different parents), and gender transition . The French and English-adopted née
10092-499: The photoreceptors, thereby minimizing light scattering. The cephalopods have a non-inverted retina, which is comparable in resolving power to the eyes of many vertebrates. Squid eyes do not have an analog of the vertebrate retinal pigment epithelium (RPE). Although their photoreceptors contain a protein, retinochrome, that recycles retinal and replicates one of the functions of the vertebrate RPE, cephalopod photoreceptors are likely not maintained as well as in vertebrates, and that as
10208-464: The resting state the cell is depolarised. The photon causes the retinal bound to the receptor protein to isomerise to trans-retinal . This causes the receptor to activate multiple G-proteins . This in turn causes the Ga-subunit of the protein to activate a phosphodiesterase (PDE6), which degrades cGMP, resulting in the closing of Na+ cyclic nucleotide-gated ion channels (CNGs). Thus the cell
10324-450: The retina. The macula has a yellow pigmentation, from screening pigments, and is known as the macula lutea. The area directly surrounding the fovea has the highest density of rods converging on single bipolar cells. Since its cones have a much lesser convergence of signals, the fovea allows for the sharpest vision the eye can attain. Though the rod and cones are a mosaic of sorts, transmission from receptors, to bipolars, to ganglion cells
10440-514: The retinal is pumped out to the surrounding RPE where it is regenerated and transported back into the outer segments of the photoreceptors. This recycling function of the RPE protects the photoreceptors against photo-oxidative damage and allows the photoreceptor cells to have decades-long useful lives. The bird retina is devoid of blood vessels, perhaps to give unobscured passage of light for forming images, thus giving better resolution. It is, therefore,
10556-490: The retinal pigment epithelium (RPE), which performs at least seven vital functions, one of the most obvious being to supply oxygen and other necessary nutrients needed for the photoreceptors to function. The energy requirements of the retina are even greater than that of the brain. This is due to the additional energy needed to continuously renew the photoreceptor outer segments, of which 10% are shed daily. Energy demands are greatest during dark adaptation when its sensitivity
10672-500: The rods and cones. Light is absorbed by the retinal pigment epithelium or the choroid (both of which are opaque). The white blood cells in the capillaries in front of the photoreceptors can be perceived as tiny bright moving dots when looking into blue light. This is known as the blue field entoptic phenomenon (or Scheerer's phenomenon). Between the ganglion-cell layer and the rods and cones are two layers of neuropils , where synaptic contacts are made. The neuropil layers are
10788-680: The social problems of the world", and for the lyrics "to mean something". The album was released at around the same time as Marvin Gaye 's What's Going On . As both albums had similar ambitions and themes, they have been compared; in a contemporaneous review by Vince Aletti in Rolling Stone , Gaye's was seen as successful, while Wonder's was seen as failing due to "self-indulgent and cluttered" production, "undistinguished" and "pretentious" lyrics, and an overall lack of unity and flow. Also in 1970, Wonder co-wrote (and played numerous instruments on)
10904-554: The songs featured on Conversation Peace , and he would describe in a 1995 interview the powerful impact his visit to that country had: "I'd only been there for 18 hours when I decided I'd eventually move there permanently." In 1994, as co-chair of Panafest that year, he headlined a concert at the National Theatre in Accra . Among his other activities, Wonder played harmonica on the track " Deuce " (sung by Lenny Kravitz ) for
11020-514: The soundtrack. A piano and vocal version of "Feeding Off The Love of the Land" was also released on the Nobody's Child: Romanian Angel Appeal compilation. Conversation Peace and the live album Natural Wonder were released in the 1990s. In 1992, Wonder went to perform at Panafest , a new international festival of music held biennially in Ghana ; it was during this trip that he composed many of
11136-418: The surrounding rods. This optimization is such that color vision during the day is enhanced, while night-time vision suffers very little". The vertebrate retina has 10 distinct layers. From closest to farthest from the vitreous body: These layers can be grouped into four main processing stages—photoreception; transmission to bipolar cells ; transmission to ganglion cells , which also contain photoreceptors,
11252-450: The temporal half of the other eye before passing into the lateral geniculate body . Although there are more than 130 million retinal receptors, there are only approximately 1.2 million fibres (axons) in the optic nerve. So, a large amount of pre-processing is performed within the retina. The fovea produces the most accurate information. Despite occupying about 0.01% of the visual field (less than 2° of visual angle ), about 10% of axons in
11368-452: The term z domu (literally meaning "of the house", de domo in Latin ) may be used, with rare exceptions, meaning the same as née . Retina The retina (from Latin rete 'net'; pl. retinae or retinas ) is the innermost, light-sensitive layer of tissue of the eye of most vertebrates and some molluscs . The optics of the eye create
11484-430: The timing of when individual cell types differentiate. The cues that determine a RPC daughter cell fate are coded by multiple transcription factor families including the bHLH and homeodomain factors. In addition to guiding cell fate determination, cues exist in the retina to determine the dorsal-ventral (D-V) and nasal-temporal (N-T) axes. The D-V axis is established by a ventral to dorsal gradient of VAX2 , whereas
11600-733: The title Eivets Rednow , which is "Stevie Wonder" spelled backward. The album failed to get much attention, and its only single, a cover of Burt Bacharach's and Hal David's " Alfie ", only reached number 66 on the U.S. Pop charts and number 11 on the U.S. Adult Contemporary charts. Nonetheless, he managed to score several hits between 1967 and 1970 such as " I Was Made to Love Her ", " For Once in My Life " and " Signed, Sealed, Delivered I'm Yours ". A number of Wonder's early hits, including " My Cherie Amour ", "I Was Made to Love Her", and "Uptight (Everything's Alright)", were co-written with Henry Cosby . The hit single " Signed, Sealed, Delivered I'm Yours "
11716-460: The tour's European leg also found him performing in the Netherlands (Rotterdam), Sweden (Stockholm), Germany (Cologne, Mannheim and Munich), Norway (Hamar), France (Paris), Italy (Milan) and Denmark (Aalborg). Wonder also toured Australia (Perth, Adelaide, Melbourne, Sydney and Brisbane) and New Zealand (Christchurch, Auckland and New Plymouth) in October and November. His 2010 tour included
11832-423: The track " Stop Trying to Be God " on Travis Scott 's 2018 album Astroworld . Birth name#Maiden and married names A birth name is the name given to a person upon birth. The term may be applied to the surname , the given name , or the entire name. Where births are required to be officially registered, the entire name entered onto a birth certificate or birth register may by that fact alone become
11948-479: The trout adds an ultraviolet subgroup to short, medium, and long subtypes that are similar to humans. Some fish are sensitive to the polarization of light as well. In the photoreceptors, exposure to light hyperpolarizes the membrane in a series of graded shifts. The outer cell segment contains a photopigment . Inside the cell the normal levels of cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP) keep the Na+ channel open, and thus in
12064-436: The unique ribbon synapse . The optic nerve carries the ganglion-cell axons to the brain, and the blood vessels that supply the retina. The ganglion cells lie innermost in the eye while the photoreceptive cells lie beyond. Because of this counter-intuitive arrangement, light must first pass through and around the ganglion cells and through the thickness of the retina, (including its capillary vessels, not shown) before reaching
12180-644: Was a No. 1 hit on the Billboard Hot 100 in 1963, when he was 13, making him the youngest solo artist ever to top the chart. Wonder's critical success was at its peak in the 1970s. His "classic period" began in 1972 with the releases of Music of My Mind and Talking Book , the latter featuring " Superstition ", which is one of the most distinctive and famous examples of the sound of the Hohner Clavinet keyboard. His works Innervisions (1973), Fulfillingness' First Finale (1974) and Songs in
12296-572: Was a No. 1 pop and R&B hit in both the United States and the United Kingdom, where it was placed 13th in the list of best-selling singles in the UK published in 2002. It went on to win an Academy award for best song in 1985. Wonder accepted the award in the name of Nelson Mandela and was subsequently banned from all South African radio by the Government of South Africa . Incidentally, on
12412-515: Was a precedent at Motown and gave Wonder a much higher royalty rate. He returned to Motown in March 1972 with Music of My Mind . Unlike most previous albums on Motown, which usually consisted of a collection of singles, B-sides and covers, Music of My Mind was a full-length artistic statement with songs flowing together thematically. Wonder's lyrics dealt with social, political, and mystical themes as well as standard romantic ones, while musically he began exploring overdubbing and recording most of
12528-548: Was aged 13, making him the youngest artist ever to top the chart. The single was simultaneously No. 1 on the R&B chart, the first time that had occurred. His next few recordings were not successful; his voice was changing as he got older, and some Motown executives were considering cancelling his recording contract. During 1964, Wonder appeared in two films as himself, Muscle Beach Party and Bikini Beach , but these were not successful either. Sylvia Moy persuaded label owner Berry Gordy to give Wonder another chance. Dropping
12644-774: Was facing financial difficulties, so Wonder, who was a member of the university's board of trustees, rallied other acts including Exuma , LaBelle , and the Chambers Brothers to join the concert, which raised more than $ 10,000 for the school's scholarship fund. Wonder embarked on a European tour in early 1974, performing in France at the Midem convention in Cannes , in England at the Rainbow Theatre in London, and on
12760-503: Was his first-ever self-produced song. In 1969, Wonder participated in the Sanremo Music Festival with the song "Se tu ragazzo mio", in conjunction with Gabriella Ferri . Between 1967 and 1970, he recorded four 45 rpm singles and an Italian LP. Wonder's appearance at the 1969 Harlem Cultural Festival opens the 2021 music documentary, Summer of Soul . Wonder plays a drum solo during his set. In September 1970, at
12876-458: Was interested in pursuing an intraocular retinal prosthesis to partially restore his sight. In 2000, Wonder contributed two new songs to the soundtrack for Spike Lee 's Bamboozled album ("Misrepresented People" and "Some Years Ago"). Wonder continues to record and perform; though mainly occasional appearances and guest performances, he did do two tours, and released one album of new material, 2005's A Time to Love . In June 2006, Wonder made
12992-475: Was recorded and released in May 1963 as the album Recorded Live: The 12 Year Old Genius . A single, " Fingertips ", from the album was also released in May, and became a major hit. The song, featuring a confident and enthusiastic Wonder returning for a spontaneous encore that catches out the replacement bass player, who is heard to call out "What key? What key?", was a No. 1 hit on the Billboard Hot 100 when Wonder
13108-412: Was recorded first, when Wonder was still 11 years old. Mainly covers of Ray Charles 's songs, the album included a Wonder and Paul composition, "Sunset". The Jazz Soul of Little Stevie was recorded next, an instrumental album consisting mainly of Paul's compositions, two of which, "Wondering" and "Session Number 112", were co-written with Wonder. Feeling Wonder was now ready, a song, "Mother Thank You",
13224-808: Was recorded for release as a single, but then pulled and replaced by the Berry Gordy song "I Call It Pretty Music, But the Old People Call It the Blues" as his début single; released summer 1962, it almost broke into the Billboard 100, spending one week of August at 101. Two follow-up singles, "Little Water Boy" and "Contract on Love", both had no success, and the two albums, released in reverse order of recording— The Jazz Soul of Little Stevie in September 1962 and Tribute to Uncle Ray in October 1962—also met with little success. Most of these songs hit
13340-538: Was signed by Motown in 1961, his surname was legally changed to Morris, which (according to Lula Mae Hardaway's authorized biography) was an old family name. Berry Gordy was responsible for creating the stage name of "Little Stevie Wonder". Wonder attended Fitzgerald Elementary School in Detroit. After his first album was released, The Jazz Soul of Little Stevie (1962), he enrolled in Michigan School for
13456-468: Was the host. He was also featured in Chaka Khan 's cover of Prince 's " I Feel For You ", alongside Melle Mel , playing his signature harmonica. In roughly the same period he was also featured on harmonica on Eurythmics ' single " There Must Be an Angel (Playing with My Heart) " and Elton John 's " I Guess That's Why They Call It the Blues ". Wonder was in a featured duet with Bruce Springsteen on
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