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130-397: Suphannabhum became the center of Xiān , succeeding Phip Phli  [ th ] , no later than 1349, when Xiān was defeated by Luó hú ( Lavo ) and the tribute sent to China under the name of Xiānluó hú (Siam-Lavo or Ayutthaya Kingdom ) was led by Xiān's King of Su-men-bang , in which Su-men-bang has been identified with Suphanburi . Since then, it was one of the states under

260-546: A Burmese army of 40,000 to 60,000 (including 800 elephants and 10,000 horses) at the battle of Ngasaunggyan in 1277. However, some argue that the Chinese figures, which came from eye estimates of a single battle, are greatly exaggerated. As Harvey puts it: the Mongols "erred on the side of generosity as they did not wish to diminish the glory in defeating superior numbers". But assuming that the precolonial population of Myanmar

390-524: A chief justice and a chief minister. Pagan's military was the origin of the Royal Burmese Army . The army was organised into a small standing army of a few thousand, which defended the capital and the palace, and a much larger conscript-based wartime army. Conscription was based on the kyundaw system (called the ahmudan system by later dynasties), which required local chiefs to supply their predetermined quota of men from their jurisdiction on

520-449: A commander with 10,000 households, as an emissary to Xian but they were detained by Champa . Xiān was on the list of the entities that Kublai Khan prepared to conquer, together with Lavo and several kingdoms on the Malay peninsular , Sumatra , South India , and Ceylon after his final conquest of China in 1279. Ten years later, the first tribute sent to China by Xian

650-460: A golden age that would last for the next two centuries. Aside from a few occasional rebellions, the kingdom was largely peaceful during the period. King Kyansittha (r. 1084–1112) successfully melded the diverse cultural influences introduced into Pagan by Anawrahta's conquests. He patronised Mon scholars and artisans who emerged as the intellectual elite. He appeased the Pyus by linking his genealogy to

780-425: A growth in the number of population centres and a growing prosperous economy. The economy also benefited from the general absence of warfare that would stunt the economies of later dynasties. According to Victor Lieberman, the prosperous economy supported "a rich Buddhist civilization whose most spectacular feature was a dense forest of pagodas, monasteries, and temples, totaling perhaps 10,000 brick structures, of which

910-532: A large number of new weirs and diversionary canals, and Minbu a similarly well-watered district south of Pagan. After these hubs had been developed, in the mid-to-late 12th century, Pagan moved into as yet undeveloped frontier areas west of the Irrawaddy and south of Minbu. These new lands included both irrigable wet-rice areas and non-irrigable areas suitable for rain-fed rice, pulses, sesame, and millet. Agricultural expansion and temple construction in turn sustained

1040-662: A legendary progenitor of the Southwestern Tai -speaking peoples. Simon de la Loubère 's record, Du royaume de Siam , refers to the first Siamese king as a descendant of Chaiyasiri , son of a legendary King Phrom of the Singhanavati clan. The early era of the Suphannabhum dynasty and its relations with other dynasties are shown in the chart below. In case of the origin of Ayutthaya's first king, Uthong (Ramathibodi I), some historical records indicate that he

1170-430: A list where the preceding entry has the word vrau in the same sentence position (K127). The term vrau has been considered the name of an ethnolinguistic minority group, possibly ancestors of the modem Bru or Brau people . Therefore, syam may have similarly functioned at that time, perhaps as a toponym that could also be used to refer to people of the area. Siam later occurs in slave lists on inscriptions of

1300-606: A market in land and certain types of labour and materials. Land reclamation, religious donations, and building projects expanded slowly before 1050, increased to 1100, accelerated sharply with the opening of new lands between c. 1140 and c. 1210 and continued at a lower level from 1220 to 1300. By the second half of the 13th century, Pagan had developed an enormous amount of cultivated lands. Estimates based on surviving inscriptions alone range from 200,000 to 250,000 hectares. (In comparison, Pagan's contemporary Angkor relied on its main rice basin of over 13,000 hectares.) But donations to

1430-717: A move, reading “ do not harm Ma-li-yü-êrh (Melayu). The maritime Xian also attacked Samudera Pasai Sultanate on Sumatra probably between 1299–1310, but failed. The troops might have been launched by the southernmost Xian of Nakhon Si Thammarat Kingdom with either Takua Thalang or Trang or Syburi / Kedah as the navy bases. In the The Customs of Cambodia written by Zhou Daguan , who visited Zhenla as part of an official diplomatic delegation during 1296–1297, also referred to Siam people as: In recent years people from Siam have come to live in Cambodia , and unlike

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1560-501: A privy council of ministers, the forebear of the Hluttaw . But the seeds of Pagan's decline were sowed during this seemingly idyllic period. The state had stopped expanding, but the practice of donating tax-free land to religion had not. The continuous growth of tax-free religious wealth greatly reduced the tax base of the kingdom. Indeed, Htilominlo was the last of the temple builders although most of his temples were in remote lands not in

1690-490: A qualitative and quantitative standard that subsequent dynasties tried to emulate but never succeeded in doing. The court finally developed a complex organisation that became the model for later dynasties. the agricultural economy reached its potential in Upper Myanmar. The Buddhist clergy, the sangha , enjoyed one of its most wealthy periods. Civil and criminal laws were codified in the vernacular, Burmese , to become

1820-563: A small 9th-century settlement at Pagan (present-day Bagan) by the Mranma /Burmans. Over the next two hundred years, the small principality gradually grew to absorb its surrounding regions until the 1050s and 1060s when King Anawrahta founded the Pagan Empire, presumably for the first time unifying under one polity the Irrawaddy valley and its periphery. By the late 12th century, Anawrahta's successors had extended their influence farther to

1950-524: A smaller empire of the Irrawaddy valley and nearer periphery. Anawrahta's victory terracotta votive tablets emblazoned with his name in Sanskrit have been found along the Tenasserim coastline in the south, Katha in the north, Thazi in the east and Minbu in the west. In the northeast, a series of 43 forts Anawrahta established along the eastern foothills, of which 33 still exist as villages, reveal

2080-608: A violent overthrow. Radiocarbon dating shows that human activity existed until c. 870 at Halin , the Pyu city reportedly destroyed by an 832 Nanzhao raid. The region of Pagan received waves of Burman settlements in the mid-to-late 9th century, and perhaps well into the 10th century. Though Hmannan states that Pagan was fortified in 849—or more accurately, 876 after the Hmannan dates are adjusted to King Anawrahta 's inscriptionally verified accession date of 1044—the chronicle reported date

2210-500: Is likely the date of foundation, not fortification. Radiocarbon dating of Pagan's walls points to c. 980 at the earliest. (If an earlier fortification did exist, it must have been constructed using less durable materials such as mud.) Likewise, inscriptional evidence of the earliest Pagan kings points to 956. The earliest mention of Pagan in external sources occurs in Song Chinese records, which report that envoys from Pagan visited

2340-410: Is today Arakan . The younger son Kanyaza Nge ( ကံရာဇာငယ် ) succeeded his father, and was followed by a dynasty of 31 kings, and then another dynasty of 17 kings. Some three and a half centuries later, in 483 BC, scions of Tagaung founded yet another kingdom much farther down the Irrawaddy at Sri Ksetra , near modern Pyay (Prome). Sri Ksetra lasted nearly six centuries, and was succeeded in turn by

2470-521: The Champa and Khmer kingdoms , dated in the 11th and 12th centuries. From about the same period there is also a well-known bas relief panel of Angkor Wat showing mercenaries of the Khmer army, who are identified as syam-kuk , perhaps "of the land of Siam." One cannot be certain what ethnolinguistic group these mercenaries belonged to, but many scholars have thought them to be Siam people . At about

2600-534: The Dade Nanhai-zhi 大德南海志 mentions that Sù gū dǐ (速孤底, Sukhothai ) rely on Xian : "Xian controlled Sù gū dǐ , which is located upstream." ( 暹国管 上水速孤底 ). This makes Tatsuro assume that Sukhothai was controlled by Xian . However, a Thai academic, Keatkhamjorn Meekanon, proposes that Sukhothai may have had to use Xian to export. Xian additionally sent tribute to China in April and July 1314, 1319, and

2730-673: The Dvaravati period, found in the area together with the existing Dvaravati evidence—were probably the Buddism Mon .  The migration of the Tai-speaking people from the north to the Chao Phraya River basin happened around the 9th century. It was speculated that the trade interaction between the polities as well as the intermarriage caused a language assimilation among the people in this area. According to

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2860-828: The Khâm định Việt sử Thông giám cương mục Volume 9. In another Vietnamese chronicle, Đại Việt sử ký toàn thư , Xiān is also mentioned during the Lý dynasty and Trần dynasty periods, as follows: Xian or Siam people are described as maritime-oriented groups as said in the Chinese Daoyi Zhilüe : Its people are aggressive. Whenever they see another country in a state of disorder, they immediately dispatch as many as one hundred ships full of sago to invade it. Recently more than seventy ships invaded Dān mǎ xī ( 單馬錫 , identified as far as Tumasik, or Singapore ), and Xī lǐ ( 昔里 ) When someone dies, mercury will be injected into

2990-545: The Kra Isthmus as before 500 C.E., as well as the degradation of paper, which is more favored as a recording material in the Buddhist -dominated area. Pagan kingdom 21°10′20″N 94°51′37″E  /  21.17222°N 94.86028°E  / 21.17222; 94.86028 The Pagan Kingdom ( Burmese : ပုဂံပြည် , pronounced [bəɡàɰ̃ kʰɪʔ] , lit.   ' Bagan State ' ; also known as

3120-468: The Kyaukse district , east of Pagan. The newly irrigated regions attracted people, giving him an increased manpower base. He graded every town and village according to the levy it could raise. The region, known as Ledwin ( လယ်တွင်း , lit. "rice country"), became the granary, the economic key of the north country. History shows that one who gained control of Kyaukse became kingmaker in Upper Myanmar. By

3250-617: The Lingwai Daida , written in 1178, is believed to have been an early Chinese attempt to transcribe the name of the country or the people of the upper and central Menam , which Khmer inscriptions had called Syam and which the Chinese were soon to call Xiān and Xiānluó . In the Shū yù zhōu zī lù  [ zh ] 殊域周咨錄 , written in 1583, states that when the Sui dynasty dynasty send an embassy to Chi Tu probably between 605 and 618,

3380-523: The Pagan invasion of Menam Valley around the mid-11th century. All of these are probably the causes of the decline of the initial states in this area. The region, as well as Junk Ceylon ( Phuket ) and Tambralinga , were once raid by the Mau Shans from Shan States in his Indo-China raid campaign between 1220 and 1230. Prince Damrong , who constructed a unilinear system of Thai history that

3510-779: The Pagan dynasty and the Pagan Kingdom ; also the Bagan dynasty or Bagan Kingdom ) was the first Burmese kingdom to unify the regions that would later constitute modern-day Myanmar . Pagan's 250-year rule over the Irrawaddy valley and its periphery laid the foundation for the ascent of Burmese language and culture , the spread of Bamar ethnicity in Upper Myanmar , and the growth of Theravada Buddhism in Myanmar and in mainland Southeast Asia . The kingdom grew out of

3640-574: The Pyu , Mon and Pali norms by the late 12th century. Theravada Buddhism slowly began to spread to the village level although Tantric , Mahayana , Brahmanic , and animist practices remained heavily entrenched at all social strata. Pagan's rulers built over 10,000 Buddhist temples in the Bagan Archaeological Zone of which over 2000 remain. The wealthy donated tax-free land to religious authorities. The kingdom went into decline in

3770-613: The Sakya clan ( သကျ သာကီဝင် မင်းမျိုး ) – the clan of the Buddha – left his homeland with followers in 850 BC after military defeat by the neighbouring kingdom of Panchala ( ပဉ္စာလရာဇ် ). They settled at Tagaung in present-day northern Myanmar and founded a kingdom . The chronicle does not claim that he had arrived in an empty land, only that he was the first king. Abhiraja had two sons. The elder son Kanyaza Gyi ( ကံရာဇာကြီး ) ventured south, and in 825 BC founded his own kingdom in what

3900-550: The South China Sea since the beginning of the 1st millennium, the historical records about them were rarely found, and most of the existing evidence is local legends. The ancient entities mentioned in the Chinese records potentially located in the region are the five cities of Tun Sun and its northern neighbor Chin Lin . This is most likely owing to the change in maritime trade routes, which no longer need to cross

4030-578: The Sukhothai region. Xiān city-states were formed around the 11th century in the late Dvaravati period, which was potentially declined due to the Menam Valley and the upper Malay peninsula conquered of Tambralinga 's king Sujita who also seized Lavo in the mid-9th century. the 9-year civil wars in the Angkor in the early 11th century, which led to the devastation of Lavo , as well as

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4160-633: The Sukhothai Kingdom in 1283, as recorded in the Ram Khamhaeng Inscription . However, after the death of Sukhothai 's Ram Khamhaeng in 1298, several tributary states of Sukhothai, which included Suphannabhum, began to break away rapidly. Via Royal intermarriage , Suphannabhum united with the eastern neighboring Lavo Kingdom , to establish a confederated polity seat in Ayodhya in 1351. Suphannabhum gained recognition in

4290-525: The Suphannabhum Kingdom centered in the present Suphanburi Province as some tributary missions sent to the Chinese in the Hongwu era were done under the name of King of Su-men-bang 蘇門邦 of Xiānluó hú , in which the term Su-men-bang has been identified with Suphanburi . In 1295, an envoy led by Xian's king Gan-mu-ding from Pi-ch'a-pu-li , which identified with Phetchaburi , visit

4420-464: The governorship of Martaban in 1285, consolidated Mon -speaking regions of Lower Myanmar, and declared Ramannadesa (Land of the Mon) independent on 30 January 1287. In the west too, Arakan stopped paying tribute. The chronicles report that the eastern territories including trans-Salween states of Keng Hung, Kengtung and Chiang Mai stopped paying tribute although most scholars attribute Pagan's limits to

4550-484: The mandala confederatin of Ayutthaya Kingdom and was completely merged to the Ayutthaya in 1438. Under the name of Xiānluó hú or Xiānluó , the state performed 41 tributary missions to the Chinese court during the Hongwu era, 33 in the name of Xiānluó hú and as Xiānluó for the remaining. In the era of Ankorian king Jayavarman VII (r.1181–1218), an inscription called Prasat Phra Khan (จารึกปราสาทพระขรรค์)

4680-531: The 11th century, Pagan consolidated its hold of Upper Burma, and established its authority over Lower Burma. The emergence of Pagan Empire would have a lasting impact on Burmese history as well as the history of mainland Southeast Asia . The conquest of Lower Burma checked the Khmer Empire's encroachment into the Tenasserim coast, secured control of the peninsular ports, which were transit points between

4810-600: The 2nd and 5th centuries AD, scholars to between the 8th and 10th centuries CE. (A minority view led by Htin Aung contends that the arrival of Burmans may have been a few centuries earlier, perhaps the early 7th century. The earliest human settlement at Bagan is radiocarbon dated to c. 650 AD. But evidence is inconclusive to prove that it was specifically a Burman (and not just another Pyu) settlement.) Thant Myint-U summarises that "the Nanzhao Empire had washed up on

4940-581: The 3rd Ayutthaya' king Borommarachathirat I – the first king from Suphannabhum clan, might have lineage from Sukhothai as he married to a princess in Sukhothai 's Loe Thai and royal intermarriages between his descendants and the Sukhothai dynasty happened multiple times. Furthermore, political movements and architectural styles in Suphanburi during the Ayutthaya period demonstrate a tight relationship between these two dynasties. The kinship between

5070-433: The 7th century. It is probably a toponym referring to some location in the lower Chao Phraya Basin . In surviving inscriptions of this period, syam occurs four times to designate female slaves ("ku syam", Inscriptions K557 (dated 611 CE), K127 (683 CE), K154 (685 CE), and K904 (713 CE) ) and once to identify a landlord-official ("pon syam"), who donates rice fields to a temple (K79 639 CE). In one case syam occurs in

5200-455: The Ayutthaya and Thonburi eras with short periods of independence and was demoted to Rattanakosin 's province in 1782. As described in the Chinese Daoyi Zhilüe , Xiān was surrounded by height mountains and deep valleys and was not located in the infertile land, which made the polities have to depend upon the neighbor Luó hú ( Lavo ) for the rice supply. It supports the people with commerce. Several studies propose that Xiān might refer to

5330-484: The Burman ethnicity. Sithu II's success in state building created stability and prosperity throughout the kingdom. His immediate successors Htilominlo and Kyaswa (r. 1235–1249) were able to live off the stable and bountiful conditions he passed on with little state-building on their part. Htilomino hardly did any governing. A devout Buddhist and scholar, the king gave up the command of the army, and left administration to

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5460-525: The Chinese court to present the tribute with a golden plate in 1295. The tribute was sent from Xian again the following year. In 1297, emissaries from Xian , Luó hú (羅斛, Lavo ), and Jambi ( Srivijaya ) were recorded. In 1299, both Xian and Sù gǔ chí (速古漦, Sukhothai ) sent tribute to China. These last two records indicate that Xian is not Sukhothai and the polities in the Chao Phraya River basin at that time consisted of at least 3 polities, including Lavo , Sukhothai , and Xian . In 1304,

5590-550: The Chinese court. These correspond with the Chinese The Customs of Cambodia by Zhou Daguan in 1296–1297, who records that Xiān is on the southwest of Chenla . In the Jinakalamali , a local Pali chronicle of the northern Thai principality of Lan Na ( Chiang Mai ) mentions siam-desa and siam-rattha refer to the "area (desa) or state (rattha) of Siam," which one passage further identifies as

5720-533: The Chinese records, the early Xian or Siam probably consisted of at least two main polities, including Phip Phli  [ th ] , which sent emissaries to the Yuan dynasty during the late 13th century to the early 14th century, and Su-men-bang ( Suphannabhum ), which later joined Lavo in the Ayutthaya Kingdom formation. Ligor became Siam proper after the preceding Tambralinga fall due to

5850-533: The First Burmese Empire—the "charter polity" that formed the basis of modern-day Burma/Myanmar. Historically verifiable Burmese history begins with his accession. Anawrahta proved an energetic king. His acts as king were to strengthen his kingdom's economic base. In the first decade of his reign, he invested much effort into turning the arid parched lands of central Myanmar into a rice granary, successfully building/enlarging weirs and canals, mainly around

5980-461: The Hluttaw grew greatly in the following decades. It came to manage not only day-to-day affairs but also military affairs of the kingdom. (No Pagan king after Sithu II ever took command of the army again.) The powerful ministers also became kingmakers. Their support was an important factor in the accession of the last kings of Pagan from Htilominlo (r. 1211–1235) to Kyawswa (r. 1289–1297). The court

6110-604: The Indian Ocean and China, and facilitated growing cultural exchange with the external world: Mons of Lower Burma, India and Ceylon. Equally important was Anawrahta's conversion to Theravada Buddhism from his native Ari Buddhism . The Burmese king provided the Buddhist school, which had been in retreat elsewhere in South Asia and Southeast Asia, a much needed reprieve and a safe shelter. By the 1070s, Pagan had emerged as

6240-471: The Irrawaddy basin and had founded one of Southeast Asia's earliest urban centres. By the early centuries AD, several walled cities and towns, including Tagaung, the birthplace of the first Burman kingdom according to the chronicles, had emerged. The architectural and artistic evidence indicates the Pyu realm's contact with Indian culture by the 4th century AD. The city-states boasted kings and palaces, moats and massive wooden gates, and always 12 gates for each of

6370-677: The Khmer Empire in Southeast Asia, recognised as a sovereign kingdom by the Chinese Song dynasty , and the Indian Chola dynasty . Several diverse elements—art, architecture, religion, language, literature, ethnic plurality—had begun to synthesize. Pagan's rise continued under Alaungsithu (r. 1112–1167), who focused on standardising administrative and economic systems. The king, also known as Sithu I, actively expanded frontier colonies and built new irrigation systems throughout

6500-526: The Mongols under Kublai Khan systematically invaded the country. The first invasion in 1277 defeated the Burmese at the Battle of Ngasaunggyan , and secured their hold of Kanngai (modern-day Yingjiang, Yunnan, 112 kilometres (70 mi) north of Bhamo ). In 1283–85, their forces moved south and occupied the land down to Hanlin. Instead of defending the country, the king fled Pagan for Lower Myanmar, where he

6630-533: The Pagan line continued to be claimed by successive Burmese dynasties down to the last Burmese dynasty Konbaung . Pagan's government can be generally described by the mandala system in which the sovereign exercised direct political authority in the core region ( pyi , lit. "country", ပြည် , [pjì] ), and administered farther surrounding regions as tributary vassal states ( naingngans , lit. "conquered lands", နိုင်ငံ , [nàiɴŋàɴ] ). In general,

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6760-513: The Pagan region, reflecting the deteriorating state of royal treasury. By the mid-13th century, the problem had worsened considerably. The Upper Myanmar heartland over which Pagan exercised most political control had run out of easily reclaimed irrigable tracts. Yet their fervent desire to accumulate religious merit for better reincarnations made it impossible for Pagan kings to halt entirely their own or other courtiers' donations. The crown did try to reclaim some of these lands by periodically purging

6890-421: The Pagan society—members of the royalty, senior court officials, and wealthy laymen—donated to the clergy enormous acreages of agricultural land, along with hereditary tied cultivators to attain religious merit. (Both religious lands and cultivators were permanently tax exempt.) Although it ultimately became a major burden on the economy, the practice initially helped expand the economy for some two centuries. First,

7020-485: The Pyu realm in the 830s and 840s, and settled at the confluence of the Irrawaddy and Chindwin rivers, perhaps to help the Nanzhao pacify the surrounding countryside. Indeed, the naming system of the early Pagan kings—Pyusawhti and his descendants for six generations—was identical to that of the Nanzhao kings where the last name of the father became the first name of the son. The chronicles date these early kings to between

7150-603: The Salween. At any rate, the 250-year-old Pagan Empire had ceased to exist. After their 1287 invasion, the Mongols continued to control down to Tagaung but refused to fill the power vacuum they had created farther south. Indeed, Emperor Kublai Khan never sanctioned an actual occupation of Pagan. His real aim appeared to have been "to keep the entire region of Southeast Asia broken and fragmented." At Pagan, one of Narathihapate's sons Kyawswa emerged as king of Pagan in May 1289. But

7280-585: The Song capital Bianjing in 1004. Mon inscriptions first mentioned Pagan in 1093, respectively. Below is a partial list of early Pagan kings as reported by Hmannan , shown in comparison with Hmannan dates adjusted to 1044 and the list of Zatadawbon Yazawin (the Royal Horoscopes Chronicle). Prior to Anawrahta, inscriptional evidence exists thus far only for Nyaung-u Sawrahan and Kunhsaw Kyaunghpyu . The list starts from Pyinbya ,

7410-522: The Suphannabhum dynasty and the Sukhothai dynasty has also been observed. The origin of the Suphannabhum dynasty remains unclear. Previous scholars believed that the first king of the Ayutthaya Kingdom , later called by modern historians King Uthong , once ruled the city of Uthong , but the theory has been proven to be false. It was expected that Khun Laung Pho Ngouy , who was later known as

7540-500: The agricultural base of the kingdom with new manpower from the conquered areas, ensuring the needed wealth for a growing royalty and officialdom. Pagan dispatched governors to supervise more closely ports in Lower Myanmar and the peninsula. In the early 13th century, Pagan, alongside the Khmer Empire, was one of two main empires in mainland Southeast Asia. His reign also saw the rise of Burmese culture which finally emerged from

7670-531: The army was driven back, it left no doubt as to who held the real power in central Myanmar. In the following years, the brothers, especially the youngest, Thihathu , increasingly acted like sovereigns. To check the increasing power of the three brothers, Kyawswa submitted to the Mongols in January 1297, and was recognised by the Mongol emperor Temür Khan as viceroy of Pagan on 20 March 1297. The brothers resented

7800-485: The available material consists primarily of local chronicles and legends. According to the Northern Chronicle  [ th ] , the region's political center during this period was located on the remains of the old city Kanchanaburi but local legends suggest it was in the old town Nakhon Pathom (formerly known as Nakhon Chaisri), which has been speculated to be the center of  Dvaravati . After

7930-458: The banks of the Irrawaddy, and would find a new life, fused with an existing and ancient culture, to produce one of the most impressive little kingdoms of the medieval world. From this fusion would result the Burmese people, and the foundations of modern Burmese culture." Evidence shows that the actual pace of Burman migration into the Pyu realm was gradual. Indeed, no firm indications have been found at Sri Ksetra or at any other Pyu site to suggest

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8060-705: The basic jurisprudence for subsequent ages. Sithu II formally founded the Palace Guards in 1174, the first extant record of a standing army, and pursued an expansionist policy. Over his 27-year reign, Pagan's influence reached further south to the Strait of Malacca , at least to the Salween river in the east and below the current China border in the farther north. (Burmese chronicles also claim trans-Salween Shan states, including Kengtung and Chiang Mai.) Continuing his grandfather Sithu I's policies, Sithu II expanded

8190-511: The basis of population in times of war. This basic system of military organisation was largely unchanged down to the precolonial period although later dynasties, especially the Toungoo dynasty, did introduce standardisation and other modifications. The early Pagan army consisted mainly of conscripts raised just prior to or during the times of war. Although historians believe that earlier kings like Anawrahta must have had permanent troops on duty in

8320-468: The body to preserve. The people, both men and women, dress in the same way as the Lavo (tire hair in a bun, wrap it with a cotton turban, and wear a long shirt) and use shell coins as currency. At the end of the 13th century, an emerging Xian seems to have started a southward advance to the cost of the Malay peninsular . The well-known Chinese imperial admonition issued in the year 1295 well reflects such

8450-457: The capital. The region consisted of the capital and the key irrigated hubs ( khayaings , ခရိုင် , [kʰəjàiɴ] ) of Kyaukse and Minbu . Because of the irrigated hubs, the region supported the largest population in the kingdom, which translated into the largest concentration of royal servicemen who could be called into military service. The king directly ruled the capital and its immediate environs while he appointed most trusted members of

8580-449: The city of Pagan, once home to 200,000 people, had been reduced to a small town, never to regain its preeminence. (It survived into the 15th century as a settlement.) The brothers placed one of Kyawswa's sons as the governor of Pagan. Anawrahta's line continued to rule Pagan as governors under Myinsaing, Pinya and Ava Kingdoms until 1368/69. The male side of Pagan ended there although the female side passed into Pinya and Ava royalty. But

8710-471: The clergy in the name of Buddhist purification, and seizing previously donated lands. Although some of the reclamation efforts were successful, powerful Buddhist clergy by and large successfully resisted such attempts. Ultimately, the rate of reclamation fell behind the rate at which such lands were dedicated to the sangha . (The problem was exacerbated to a smaller degree by powerful ministers, who exploited succession disputes and accumulated their own lands at

8840-449: The core by appointing its governors in place of hereditary rulers. In the 12th and 13th centuries, for example, Pagan made a point of appointing its governors in the Tenasserim coast to closely supervise the ports and revenues. By the second half of the 13th century, several key ports in Lower Myanmar (Prome, Bassein, Dala) were all ruled by senior princes of the royal family. However, the escape of Lower Myanmar from Upper Myanmar's orbit in

8970-435: The core zone governors did not have much autonomy because of the close proximity to the capital. Surrounding the core region were the naingngans or tributary states, governed by local hereditary rulers as well as Pagan appointed governors, drawn from princely or ministerial families. Because of their farther distances from the capital, the regions' rulers/governors had greater autonomy. They were required to send tributes to

9100-508: The crown but they generally had a freehand in the rest of the administration. They were chief justices, commanders-in-chief, and tax collectors. They made local officer appointments. In fact, no evidence of royal censuses or direct contact between the Pagan court and headmen beneath the governors has been found. Over the course of 250 years, the throne slowly tried to integrate the most strategically and economically important regions—i.e. Lower Myanmar, Tenasserim, northernmost Irrawaddy valley—into

9230-459: The crown's authority diffused away with the increasing distance from the capital. Each state was administered at three general levels: taing ( တိုင်း , province), myo ( မြို့ , town), and ywa ( ရွာ , village), with the high king's court at the centre. The kingdom consisted of at least 14 taings . The core region was the present-day Dry Zone of Upper Myanmar, measuring approximately 150 to 250 kilometres (93 to 155 mi) in radius from

9360-413: The devastation of Lavo , as well as the Pagan invasion of Lavo around the mid-10th century. All of these are probably the causes of the fall of Mueang Uthong . This region has been claimed to be the legendary Suvarnabhumi by several local scholars. Numerous ruins and artifacts from the Dvaravati period have been discovered around the area. However, contemporary documents from this period are sparse;

9490-452: The dynasty at Pagan (Bagan). But the 19th-century Glass Palace Chronicle ( Hmannan Yazawin ) connects the dynasty's origins to the clan of the Buddha and the first Buddhist king Maha Sammata ( မဟာ သမ္မတ ). The Glass Palace Chronicle traces the origins of the Pagan kingdom to India during the 9th century BC, more than three centuries before the Buddha was born. Abhiraja ( အဘိရာဇာ )of

9620-480: The earliest inhabitants of Myanmar of whom records are extant; and that Pagan kings had adopted the Pyu histories and legends as their own. Indeed, the Mranma and Pyu people became mixed after years of immigration and settlement. The earliest archaeological evidence of civilisation far dates to 11,000 BC. Archaeological evidence shows that as early as the 2nd century BC the Pyu had built water-management systems along secondary streams in central and northern parts of

9750-500: The effective extent of his authority. Moreover, most scholars attribute Pagan's control of peripheral regions (Arakan, Shan Hills) to later kings—Arakan to Alaungsithu , and cis-Salween Shan Hills to Narapatisithu . (Even those latter-day kings may not have had more than nominal control over the farther peripheral regions. For example, some scholars such as Victor Lieberman argue that Pagan did not have any "effective authority" over Arakan. ) At any rate, all scholars accept that during

9880-542: The end of the ancient maritime-oriented port era and the decline of Dvaravati , Suphannabhum then emerged around the mid-12th century following the prosperity of Lavo Kingdom and the Ankorian during the reign of Jayavarman VII and the influx of people from the north. This has been supported by several ancient ruins in the area that dates before the Ayutthaya period; two of them are the Ankorian Bayon style and

10010-562: The equation that Xian was long-believed Sukhothai was contested in 1989 by Tatsuro Yamamoto, who proposes that the term "Xian 暹 " found in Dade Nanhai-zhi during the era of the Yuan Dynasty (1297–1307) was probably another polity politically superior to Sukhothai . Several modern studies also declined the theory that Sukhothai was the first independent Siam polity. Xiān was first mentioned in Chinese record Yuán Shǐ 元史 in 1278 when Yuan dynasty sent He Zi-zhi 何子志 ,

10140-541: The establishment of Ayutthaya , which was said to be formed by the merging of Lavo and Siam's Suphan Buri . The new polity was recorded by the Chinese as Xiānluó hú 暹羅斛 and was later shortened to Xiānluó 暹羅 . This confederation performed 41 tributary missions to the Chinese court during the Hongwu era, 33 in the name of Xiānluó hú and as Xiānluó for the remaining. During the 1334–1336 Trần dynasty invasion of Ai Lao  [ zh ] , Xiān and other countries paid tribute to Đại Việt , as mentioned in

10270-586: The expense of the crown.) By 1280, between one and two-thirds of Upper Myanmar's cultivatable land had been donated to religion. Thus the throne lost resources needed to retain the loyalty of courtiers and military servicemen, inviting a vicious circle of internal disorders and external challenges by Mons , Mongols and Shans . The first signs of disorder appeared soon after Narathihapate 's accession in 1256. The inexperienced king faced revolts in Arakanese state of Macchagiri (present-day Kyaukpyu District ) in

10400-448: The fortifier of Pagan according to Hmannan . By the mid-10th century, Burmans at Pagan had expanded irrigation-based cultivation while borrowing extensively from the Pyus' predominantly Buddhist culture. Pagan's early iconography, architecture and scripts suggest little difference between early Burman and Pyu cultural forms. Moreover, no sharp ethnic distinction between Burmans and linguistically linked Pyus seems to have existed. The city

10530-440: The government. The members of the court can be divided into three general categories: royalty, ministers, and subordinate officials. At the top were the high king, princes, princesses, queens and concubines. The ministers were usually drawn from more distant branches of the royal family. Their subordinates were not royal but usually hailed from top official families. Titles, ranks, insignia, fiefs and other such rewards helped maintain

10660-549: The king of Pagan received a periodic nominal tribute but had "no substantive authority", for example, on such matters as the selection of deputies, successors, or levels of taxation. Pagan largely stayed out of the affairs of these outlying states, only interfering when there were outright revolts, such as Arakan and Martaban in the late 1250s or northern Kachin Hills in 1277. The court was the centre of administration, representing at once executive, legislative and judiciary branches of

10790-421: The kingdom of Pagan to expand beyond the dry zone of Upper Myanmar, and to dominate its periphery, including the maritime Lower Myanmar. As reconstructed by Michael Aung-Thwin , G.H. Luce and Than Tun , the main driver for this agriculture-based economic expansion was the practice of donating tax-free lands to the Buddhist clergy. For some two hundred years between 1050 and 1250, wealthy and powerful segments of

10920-537: The kingdom of Pagan. The Glass Palace Chronicle goes on to relate that around 107 AD, Thamoddarit ( သမုဒ္ဒရာဇ် ), nephew of the last king of Sri Ksetra, founded the city of Pagan (formally, Arimaddana-pura ( အရိမဒ္ဒနာပူရ ), lit. "the City that Tramples on Enemies"). The site reportedly was visited by the Buddha himself during his lifetime, and it was where he allegedly pronounced that a great kingdom would arise at this very location 651 years after his death. Thamoddarit

11050-517: The kingdom was already renamed to Xian , as the quote below. 暹古名赤土，羅斛古名婆羅剎也。暹國土瘠不宜耕種，羅斛土田平衍而多稼。 The ancient name of Xiān is Chì Tǔ , and the ancient name of Luó Hú is Póluó Shā . The land in Xiān is barren and unsuitable for farming, but the fields of Luó Hú are flat and full of crops. According to the Daoyi Zhilüe , Luó hú ( Lavo ) annexed Xiān in 1349; this was consistent with

11180-416: The kingdom. He also introduced standardised weights and measures throughout the country to assist administration as well as trade. The standardisation provided an impetus for the monetisation of Pagan's economy, the full impact of which however would not be felt until later in the 12th century. The kingdom prospered from increased agricultural output as well as from inland and maritime trading networks. Much of

11310-625: The last one in 1323. As described in Daoyi Zhilüe (1351), the export items of Xian included sappanwood , tin, chaulmoorgra , ivory, and kingfisher feathers. Xian appearing in Chinese dynastic history is found in the biography of Chen-yi-zhong in the Sung-shi . It reads, “In the 19th year of the Zhi-yuan 至元 era (1282–83) the Great Army attacked Champa and [Chen] Yi-zhong fled to Xian , where he died eventually.” Chen-yi-zhong

11440-406: The late 13th century proves that the region was far from fully integrated. History shows that the region would not be fully integrated into the core until the late 18th century. The royal authority attenuated further in farther naingngans : Arakan, Chin Hills, Kachin Hills, and Shan Hills. These were tributary lands over which the crown only had a "largely ritual" or nominal sovereignty. In general,

11570-511: The late 13th century. Previous studies suggested that the Xiān in Chinese dynasty records only referred to Sukhothai , but this presupposition has recently been rebutted. Xiān was formed from city-states on the west Chao Phraya plain after the decline of Dvaravati in the 11th century. In 1178, the region was mentioned in the term San-lo 三濼 , as recorded in the Chinese Lingwai Daida . Xiān or Siam, which

11700-512: The later kings to expand. Pagan reached the height of political and administrative development during the reigns of Narapatisithu (Sithu II; r. 1174–1211) and Htilominlo (r. 1211–1235). The Sulamani Temple , Gawdawpalin Temple , Mahabodhi Temple , and Htilominlo Temple were built during their reigns. The kingdom's borders expanded to its greatest extent. Military organisation and success reached their zenith. Monumental architecture achieved

11830-545: The locals, they engage in silk production . The mulberry trees they grow and the silkworms they raise all come from Siam. (They have no ramie , either, only hemp .) They themselves weave the silk into clothes made of a black, patterned satiny silk. Siamese women do know how to stitch and darn, so when local people have torn or damaged clothing they ask them to do the mending. The term Siam , whose origin remains disputed, first occurs as syam in Old Khmer inscriptions of

11960-727: The losses in the 1247–70 wars in Sri Lanka , the 1268–69 invasion of the Javanese Singhasari , and the 1270 plague. It was revived by the Siam people from Phip Phli  [ th ] and evolved to the Nakhon Si Thammarat Kingdom . Although archaeological studies specify that the region was once a vibrant trading spot controlling long-distance maritime trade between the Indian Ocean and

12090-454: The loyalty-patronage structure of the court. The king as the absolute monarch was the chief executive, legislator and justice of the land. However, as the kingdom grew, the king gradually handed over responsibilities to the court, which became more extensive and complex, adding more administrative layers and officials. In the early 13th century, c. 1211, part of the court evolved into the king's privy council or Hluttaw . The role and power of

12220-761: The main Theravada stronghold. In 1071, it helped to restart the Theravada Buddhism in Ceylon whose Buddhist clergy had been wiped out by the Cholas . Another key development according to traditional scholarship was the creation of the Burmese alphabet from the Mon script in 1058, one year after the conquest of Thaton. Anawrahta was followed by a line of able kings who cemented Pagan's place in history. Pagan entered

12350-502: The mid-1050s, Anawrahta's reforms had turned Pagan into a regional power, and he looked to expand. Over the next ten years, he founded the Pagan Empire, the Irrawaddy valley at the core, surrounded by tributary states. Anawrahta began his campaigns in the nearer Shan Hills , and extended conquests to Lower Myanmar down to the Tenasserim coast to Phuket and North Arakan . Estimates of the extent of his empire vary greatly. The Burmese and Siamese chronicles report an empire which covered

12480-474: The mid-13th century as the continuous growth of tax-free religious wealth by the 1280s had severely affected the crown's ability to retain the loyalty of courtiers and military servicemen. This ushered in a vicious circle of internal disorders and external challenges by the Arakanese , Mons , Mongols and Shans . Repeated Mongol invasions (1277–1301) toppled the four-century-old kingdom in 1287. The collapse

12610-606: The mid-13th century when the state leaders named ‘Khun Laung Pao Ngouy’ (later Ayutthaya 's Borommarachathirat I ) and ‘Jao Nakhon In’ (later Ayutthaya 's Intharacha ) extended their political economy influence to Ayutthaya . In the early Ayutthaya period, Suphannabhum was ruled by the Ayutthaya's crown princes. It was demoted to the frontier city and was completely annexed to Ayutthaya in 1438. Since then, Suphannabhum has been completely restricted in terms of both economics and politics, particularly in terms of trade with China and establishing relations with other cities, because it

12740-461: The millennium-old Pyu realm came crashing down under repeated attacks by the Nanzhao kingdom of Yunnan between the 750s and 830s AD. Like that of the Pyu, the original home of Burmans prior to Yunnan is believed to be in present-day Qinghai and Gansu provinces . After the Nanzhao attacks had greatly weakened the Pyu city-states, large numbers of Burman warriors and their families first entered

12870-493: The monastery-temple complexes, typically located some distances away from the capital, helped anchor new population centres for the throne. Such institutions in turn stimulated associated artisan, commercial, and agricultural activities critical to the general economy. Secondly, the need to accumulate land for endowments, as well as for awards for soldiers and servicemen, drove the active development of new lands. The earliest irrigation projects focused on Kyaukse where Burmans built

13000-476: The new "king" controlled just a small area around the capital, and had no real army. The real power in Upper Myanmar now rested with three brothers, who were former Pagan commanders, of nearby Myinsaing . When the Hanthawaddy Kingdom of Lower Myanmar became a vassal of Sukhothai in 1293/94, it was the brothers, not Kyawswa, that sent a force to reclaim the former Pagan territory in 1295–96. Though

13130-683: The new arrangement as a Mongol vassalage as it directly reduced their power. On 17 December 1297, the three brothers overthrew Kyawswa, and founded the Myinsaing Kingdom . The Mongols did not know about the dethronement until June–July 1298. In response, the Mongols launched another invasion, reaching Myinsaing on 25 January 1301, but could not break through. The besiegers took the bribes of the three brothers, and withdrew on 6 April 1301. The Mongol government at Yunnan executed their commanders but sent no more invasions. They withdrew entirely from Upper Myanmar starting on 4 April 1303. By then,

13260-498: The number of conscripted cultivators offered the best single indication of military success, Upper Myanmar with a greater population was the natural centre of political gravity. Various sources and estimates put Pagan's military strength anywhere between 30,000 and 60,000 men. One inscription by Sithu II, who expanded the empire to its greatest extent, describes him as the lord of 17,645 soldiers while another notes 30,000 soldiers and cavalry under his command. A Chinese account mentions

13390-639: The other two are the Indian Pala - Sena architects, which are also found in Lavo , Pagan , and Haripuñjaya . According to the Northern Chronicle  [ th ] , Suphanburi city was founded by King Katae ( กาแต ), who was of the Pagan Saw Lu lineage and ruled Kanchanaburi (some versions say Nakhon Chaisri ) from 1165 to 1205. Suphannabhum gradually controlled the economy of all Tha Chin Rivers and raised its power until being annexed to

13520-570: The palace, the first specific mention of a standing military structure in the Burmese chronicles is 1174 when Sithu II founded the palace guards—"two companies inner and outer, and they kept watch in ranks one behind the other". The palace guards became the nucleus round which the mass levy assembled in war time. Most of the field levy served in the infantry but the men for the elephantry , cavalry , and naval corps were drawn from specific hereditary villages that specialised in respective military skills. In an era of limited military specialisation, when

13650-428: The present-day Myanmar and northern Thailand. The Siamese chronicles assert that Anawrahta conquered the entire Menam valley, and received tribute from the Khmer king. One Siamese chronicle states that Anawrahta's armies invaded the Khmer kingdom and sacked the city of Angkor , and another one goes so far as to say that Anawrahta even visited Java to receive his tribute. Archaeological evidence however confirms only

13780-420: The real and mythical ancestors of Sri Ksetra, the symbol of the Pyu golden past, and by calling the kingdom Pyu, even though it had been ruled by a Burman ruling class. He supported and favoured Theravada Buddhism while tolerating other religious groups. To be sure, he pursued these policies all the while maintaining the Burman military rule. By the end of his 28-year reign, Pagan had emerged a major power alongside

13910-463: The remains of over 2000 survive." Agriculture was the primary engine of the kingdom from its beginnings in the 9th century. Burman immigrants are believed to have either introduced new water management techniques or greatly enhanced existing Pyu system of weirs, dams, sluices, and diversionary barricades. At any rate, the Kyaukse agricultural basin's development in the 10th and 11th centuries enabled

14040-482: The riverine portions of Minbu and Pakkoku . To the north lay the Nanzhao Kingdom, and to the east still largely uninhabited Shan Hills , to the south and the west Pyus, and farther south still, Mons . The size of the principality is about 6% of that of modern Burma/Myanmar. In December 1044, a Pagan prince named Anawrahta came to power. Over the next three decades, he turned this small principality into

14170-465: The royal families of Suphanburi and Sukhothai probably existed for a long time, at least since the reign of the Sukhothai's king Ramkhamhaeng . Local legends say Khun Laung Pho Ngouy is a descendant of Khun In ( ขุนอิน ), while the Ayutthaya Kingdom 's 1st king, Uthong , is a descendant of Khun Kham Phong ( ขุนคำผง ) founder of Singhanavati 's capital Yonok Nahaphan . Both Khun In and Khun Kham Phong are two of seven sons of Khun Borom ,

14300-429: The royal family to rule Kyaukse and Minbu. Newly settled dry zone taik ( တိုက် , [taiʔ] ) areas on the west bank of the Irrawaddy were entrusted to the men of lesser rank, as well as those from powerful local families known as taik leaders ( taik-thugyis , တိုက်သူကြီး , [taiʔ ðədʑí] ). The governors and taik-leaders lived off apanage grants and local taxes. But unlike their frontier counterparts,

14430-504: The same time (from AD 1120 onwards) in Pagan to the west syam occurs over twenty times in Old Mon and Burmese inscriptions. One syam reference is to Saṁbyaṅ an Old Mon title for a high government official, but the term mainly occurs in lists of temple slaves, both male and female. Some Syaṁ are identified by occupation, such as dancers, weavers, or carpenters. The people in the early Xian proper—based on inscriptions dated to

14560-438: The shadows of Mon and Pyu cultures. With the Burman leadership of the kingdom now unquestioned, the term Mranma (Burmans) was openly used in Burmese language inscriptions. Burmese became the primary written language of the kingdom, replacing Pyu and Mon. His reign also saw the realignment of Burmese Buddhism with Ceylon's Mahavihara school. The Pyus receded into the background, and by the early 13th century, had largely assumed

14690-462: The signs of the zodiac, one of the many enduring patterns that would continue until the British occupation. Sri Ksetra emerged as the premier Pyu city-state in the 7th century AD. Although the size of the city-states and the scale of political organisation grew during the 7th to early 9th centuries, no sizeable kingdom had yet emerged by the 9th century. According to a reconstruction by G.H. Luce ,

14820-554: The south into the upper Malay Peninsula , to the east at least to the Salween river , in the farther north to below the current China border, and to the west, in northern Arakan and the Chin Hills . In the 12th and 13th centuries, Pagan, alongside the Khmer Empire , was one of two main empires in mainland Southeast Asia. The Burmese language and culture gradually became dominant in the upper Irrawaddy valley, eclipsing

14950-518: The trading hub; the city was then abandoned around the 11th century and the people then moved to resettle in the present day Suphanburi . This timeline corresponds with that the Tambralinga 's king Sujita seized Lavo and was said to conquer the Mons of the Menam Valley and the upper Malay peninsula in the 10th century, the 9-year civil wars in the Angkor in the early 11th century, which led to

15080-515: The wealth was devoted to temple building. Temple building projects, which began in earnest during Kyansittha's reign, became increasingly grandiose, and began to transition into a distinctively Burman architectural style from earlier Pyu and Mon norms. By the end of Sithu I's reign, Pagan enjoyed a more synthesised culture, an efficient government and a prosperous economy. However a corresponding growth in population also put pressure on "the fixed relationship between productive land and population", forcing

15210-463: The west, and Martaban (Mottama) in the south. The Martaban rebellion was easily put down but Macchagiri required a second expedition before it too was put down. The calm did not last long. Martaban again revolted in 1285. This time, Pagan could not do anything to retake Martaban because it was facing an existential threat from the north. The Mongols of the Yuan dynasty demanded tribute, in 1271 and again in 1273. When Narathihapate refused both times,

15340-504: Was a defeated minister of the Southern Sung Dynasty who tried unsuccessfully to find a haven in Champa , which was eventually invaded by the Yuan army. Chen ’s subsequent flight to Xian might suggest that Xian was a commercially flourishing port in the post- Srivijayan Southeast Asian trade order, where the Southern Sung Dynasty minister could find a settlement of compatriots. Another term San-lo 三濼 in

15470-565: Was also recorded as Suphan Buri and Nakhon Si Thammarat in the late 13th century, joined a federation with Lavo in 1351; this led to the formation of the Ayutthaya Kingdom with the federal seat at Ayutthaya . Phip Phli  [ th ] was demoted to a frontier city following the federative formation and was then governed by Suphan Buri, which was completely annexed into the Ayutthaya Kingdom in 1438, whereas Nakhon Si Thammarat maintained its vassal status throughout

15600-484: Was also the chief justice of the land. Sithu I (r. 1112–1167) was the first Pagan king to issue an official collection of judgments, later known as the Alaungsithu hpyat-hton , to be followed as precedents by all courts of justice. A follow-up collection of judgments was compiled during the reign of Sithu II (r. 1174–1211) by a Mon monk named Dhammavilasa. As another sign of delegation of power, Sithu II also appointed

15730-412: Was assassinated by one of his sons in 1287. The Mongols invaded again in 1287. Recent research indicates that Mongol armies may not have reached Pagan itself, and that even if they did, the damage they inflicted was probably minimal. But the damage was already done. All the vassal states of Pagan revolted right after the king's death, and went their own way. In the south, Wareru , the man who had seized

15860-483: Was determined to have relations only with the capital, acting as a military base and producing tribute for the capital. These transformed Suphannabhum into an agricultural area to supply Ayutthaya for export. Left chart shows the royal intermarriage between the Suphannabhum dynasty of Suphan Buri and the Uthong dynasty of Lavo Kingdom , which led to the formation of the Ayutthaya Kingdom . The close connection between

15990-466: Was followed by 250 years of political fragmentation that lasted well into the 16th century. The origins of the Pagan kingdom have been reconstructed using archaeological evidence as well as the Burmese chronicle tradition. Considerable differences exist between the views of modern scholarship and various chronicle narratives. According to the local myth and chronicles written down in the 18th century trace its origins to 167 AD, when Pyusawhti founded

16120-436: Was followed by a caretaker, and then Pyusawhti in 167 AD. The chronicle narratives then merge, and agree that a dynasty of kings followed Pyusawhti. King Pyinbya ( ပျဉ်ပြား ) fortified the city in 849 AD. Modern scholarship holds that the Pagan dynasty was founded by the Mranma of the Nanzhao kingdom in the mid-to-late 9th century AD; that the earlier parts of the chronicle are the histories and legends of Pyu people ,

16250-445: Was made. Among others, the name Suvarnapura is mentioned, which has been identified with Suphanburi . According to the local legends, Suphannabhum is the succeeding state of an ancient port city of Mueang Uthong , which evolved into complex state societies around 300 C.E. Since the river leading to the sea was dried up in places, shallow, and consequently not navigable, and also due to some pandemics , Uthong lost its influence as

16380-460: Was mentioned in 1292. The Chinese court dispatched emissaries to persuade Xian to submit the following year, but Xian refused. It is recorded that an imperial order was issued again to summon and persuade the king of Xian in 1294. Due to such a persistent persuasion, the king of Xian named Gan-mu-ding (Kamrateng, กมรเต็ง ) from Pi-ch'a-pu-li city ( Phip Phli  [ th ] ; present Phetchaburi ) personally appeared at

16510-419: Was one of several competing city-states until the late 10th century when it grew in authority and grandeur. By Anawrahta's accession in 1044, Pagan had grown into a small principality—about 320 kilometres (200 mi) north to south and about 130 kilometres (81 mi) from east to west, comprising roughly the present districts of Mandalay , Meiktila , Myingyan , Kyaukse , Yamethin , Magwe , Sagaing , and

16640-462: Was previously generally acknowledged in school textbooks, proposed in 1914 that the history of Thais in Siam proper began with establishing the Sukhothai Kingdom in 1238. This first Siamese kingdom was succeeded by Ayutthaya , Thonburi , and Rattanakosin . His works were eventually translated and edited in 1924 by Cœdès , who made this theory proliferated through his influential writings, such as The Indianized States of Southeast Asia . However,

16770-428: Was relatively constant, the estimates of 40,000 to 60,000 of the entire military are not improbable, and are in line with figures given for the Burmese military between the 16th and 19th centuries in a variety of sources. The economy of Pagan was based primarily on agriculture , and to a much smaller degree, on trade . The growth of the Pagan Empire and subsequent development of irrigated lands in new lands sustained

16900-504: Was the son of Lavo 's princess, Sunantha Devi (สุนันทาเทวี), who married to a prince of Si Satchanalai , Boromaraja (พระบรมราชา), not the descendent of King of Phraek Si Racha (Tritrueng). Xi%C4%81n Xiān ( Chinese : 暹 ) or Siam ( Thai : สยาม ) was a confederation of maritime-oriented port polities along the present Bay of Bangkok , including Ayodhya , Suphannabhum , and Phip Phli  [ th ] , as well as Nakhon Si Thammarat (Ligor), which became Siam in

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