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78-733: Wakil ar-Ra`aya (rendered as Protector of the People ) was a title of the Persian imperial Monarch under the Zand dynasty, as those rulers refused (except the last as noted) the style Shahanshah . The founding ruler of the Zand dynasty adopted the style; it appears that his successors used the same style, although documentation is obscure. The self-styled Emperor Norton I of the United States included among his titles "Protector of Mexico." Since

156-518: A feeling of territorial and political uniformity in a society with shared cultural elements such as the Persian language, monarchy, and Shia Islam . The concept presumably started to form under the Mongol Ilkhanate in the late 13th-century, a period in which regional actions, trade, written culture, and partly Shia Islam, contributed to the establishment of the early modern Persianate world. The name "Guarded Domains of Iran" alluded to

234-488: A new generation of Iranians and Armenians. Baghdad and the adjacent shrine towns were home to an estimated 100,000 Iranian refugees, and Basra was claimed to be two-thirds occupied by refugees. While European and Iranian emigrants eagerly scanned the horizon for signs that "Persia would soon be reunited under one chief, which would undoubtedly lead to the reestablishment of trade, so long interrupted," rumors of Karim Khan's victories and of his fair rule started to spread in

312-535: A remnant of the Safavid nobility and was later almost entirely absorbed into the Qajar nobility. As with previous dynasties, the official language and court literature was in Persian, and the majority of the chancellors, ministers, and bureaucrats were well-educated and talented Persian speakers. The central government was under the complete control of Karim Khan. Historical documents do contain occasional references to

390-735: A revival under Karim Khan's rule after suffering under the Afghans, Afsharids and the Zand-Qajar conflicts. Many of the Armenians of New Julfa and Peria who had fled Iran, returned to the country by settling in Shiraz, which welcomed their return. The Armenian population in Shiraz, whose quarter was located in the western corner by the Kazerun Gate, was primarily engaged in viticulture and wine trade. They also had their own mayor, and

468-417: Is also responsible for building of a palace in the town of Tehran, the future capital of the Qajar dynasty. Karim Khan's death in 1779 left his territory vulnerable to threats from his enemies. His son and successor Abu al-Fath was an incompetent ruler who was heavily influenced by his half uncle (and Karim Khan's commander), Zaki Khan . Other rulers such as Ali Morad and Jafar Khan also failed to follow

546-572: Is in the west, which is called Azerbaijan. There are four provinces in the north and along the Caspian Sea , which are Georgia, Shirvan , Gilan and Tabaristan . Two provinces are in the east, which have the Uzbek lands located to their north, and these are named Khorasan and Ghaznin [i.e. Ghazna ]. There is one province in the heart of Iranian territory, known as Iraq-i Ajam . Passing through it, there are eight other provinces, some of which border

624-498: Is somewhat too sweeping to be fair to the fine and applied arts." Like Nader Shah, Karim Khan was uninterested in poetry panegyric and had no more than a passing tolerance for history. He supported the court artisans and artists, albeit in an indifferent manner. The numerous artists active during Karim Khan's time who were born in or educated in Isfahan, many of whom carry the surname "Esfahani," can be considered as representations of

702-516: The ulama 's approval for his unusual position as the head of an nominally neo-Safavid (but in reality kingless) monarchy. However, he refused to comply with this. By minting coins under the name of the hidden imam , erecting mosques and shrines, and probably participating in Friday prayers—though this is not mentioned—Karim Khan supported the Shia beliefs in a traditional manner. Abu'l-Hasan Qazvini, who

780-632: The Domains of Iran ( ممالک ایران , Mamâlek-e Irân ) and the Guarded Domains ( ممالک محروسه , Mamâlek-e Mahruse ), was the common and official name of Iran from the Safavid era until the early 20th century. The idea of the "Guarded Domains" was formed by a feeling of territorial and political uniformity in a society with shared cultural elements such as the Persian language, monarchy, and Shia Islam . The concept had previously been used in

858-644: The Pahlavi dynasty of Reza Khan, who became known as Reza Shah. Prior to the modern era, Iran's borders had not been defined and changed throughout the course of history. The definition of the Guarded Domains' borders was almost identical to that of Eranshahr in the Sasanian-era text Letter of Tansar , as well as the description by the 14th-century geographer Hamdallah Mustawfi in his Nuzhat al-Qulub . Mohammad Mofid Mostofi Bafghi wrote about

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936-521: The Safavid order survived as a beleaguered enclave in the Azerbaijan region and eastern Anatolia from the mid-14th century. After coming to power in Iran, the movement instilled a new Shia identity in its subjects and established an imperial state that would form part of the country's political sovereignty. Despite violence caused by Safavid shah Ismail I ( r.  1501–1524 ) and his successors,

1014-717: The Treaty of Paris in 1857, in which they agreed to relinquish all territorial claims to Herat or any other area within Afghanistan. Iran's loss of territory under the Qajars in the 19th century led to a new understanding of the Guarded Domains and the extent of the Iranian lands. There were limitations on the authority that the Guarded Domains had over Greater Iran, such as the Caucasian provinces and Herat. Iran's final borders

1092-411: The bazaar . Although they seemed to be struggling financially in 1765, they were not the target of any persecution until after Karim Khan's death in 1779. Various anonymous or semi-anonymous currencies were struck by Karim Khan and his successors, but the abbasi of 4.6 gram and the rupee of 11.5 gram seemed to be the most common. Isfahan, Kashan, Yazd, Shiraz, Tabriz, Qazvin, Rasht, Mazandaran, and

1170-534: The passion play , which reenacted the martyrdom of Husayn ibn Ali , gained popularity from Karim Khan's reign onward, possibly as a result of the more tolerant religious climate. Both Karim Khan in 1764 and Ali-Morad Khan in 1781 issued farmans (royal edicts) that ensured freedom of residence, worship, and trade to Christian missionary groups in Iran, including the Carmelites , Benedictines, Jesuits , Capuchins, Augustinians , and others. The only requirement

1248-579: The "Guarded Domains of Iran" more frequently toward the end of Shah Abbas I 's rule as a substitute for the "Sublime Safavid State" ( Dowlat-e ‘Alliyeh-e Safavieh ). By this period, Safavid Iran had developed a sense of confidence and security as a result of driving out the Portuguese , fending off the Uzbeks , and reclaiming Safavid land from the Ottomans . The majority of European reports of Iran in

1326-471: The 17th-century attest to a new era of prosperity made possible by an expanded domestic and international communication network, a rising urban population, a complex understanding of relaxation, and a developing Shia intellectual identity. Qajar assertions of having restored an imperial system of governance relied on controlling the Guarded Domains. Under the Qajars, there were no major changes to land practices, unlike in other historical contexts when governing

1404-461: The Durranids and Afsharids. A number of these khanates, including Ganja , Shirvan , Shaki , Derbent , and Karabakh , produced their own coins, first in the name of Nader Shah and then in the name of Karim Khan. A large portion of their coinage was completely nameless by the end of the 18th-century. While a few uncommon issues of Derbent contain a vague reference to one of their khans, none of

1482-538: The Guarded Domains had over Greater Iran ; they lost territories such as the Caucasian provinces and Herat . The name "Iran" has denoted both the homeland of the Iranian people and the kingdom of Iranian rulers. The Iranian people had a connection to the land that they tied to the concept of Iran's territory. In pre-modern times, the dynastic realm and the region were both referred to by the Persian term keshvar ("country"). The Arabic word mamlakat , which comes from

1560-419: The Guarded Domains illustrated a feeling of territorial and political uniformity in a society where the Persian language, culture, monarchy, and Shia Islam became integral elements of the developing national identity. The concept presumably had started to form under the Mongol Ilkhanate in the late 13th-century, a period in which regional actions, trade, written culture, and partly Shia Islam, contributed to

1638-704: The Islamic World adds that he is described as "a model ruler who never took the title of Shah ". The Zand entity of Karim Khan was at peace and the roads within the realm were reportedly free of bandits. Karim Khan rebuilt Shiraz , his capital, and decorated it with new buildings including the Arg of Karim Khan, the Vakil Bazaar and the Kulah-e Farangi. He also restored the tombs of the medieval Persian poets Hafez and Saadi Shirazi . Until this day,

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1716-541: The Lord of the Universe , i.e. Caliph; both remained part of the full style of his successors on the throne. Zand dynasty The Zand dynasty ( Persian : دودمان زندیان , romanized :  Dudemāne Zandiyān ) was an Iranian dynasty, founded by Karim Khan Zand ( r.   1751–1779) that initially ruled southern and central Iran in the 18th century. It later quickly came to expand to include much of

1794-692: The Noble Sanctuaries', notably Mecca and Medina (the destinations of the hajj pilgrimage; both in the Grand Sherif 's peninsular Arabian territory; the third being Jerusalem , part of an province) was awarded to Sultan Salim Khan I by the Sherif of Mecca in 1517, a year after his conquest of Egypt and assuming of the title of Commander of the Faithful , and Successor of the Prophet of

1872-433: The Qajar domains was considered ominous ( manhus ). This threatened the territorial integrity of the Qajars and their honor ( namus ). The loss of the Caucasian provinces during the two wars with Russia ( 1804–1813 and 1826–1828 ) damaged the Qajar's reputation as the guardian of the Guarded Domains of Iran. Fath-Ali Shah Qajar ( r.  1797–1834 ) established a semi-autonomous system of princely governments under

1950-564: The Qajar minister and statesman Abol-Qasem Qa'em-Maqam emphasized the importance of jihad. He argued that it was a collective religious duty to counter the "disorder brought by the Russian nation within the Guarded Domain". In order to create prose that resembled a political slogan and acted as a encouragement to defend Iran, Abol-Qasem Qa'em-Maqam experimented with words that rhymed with mahrus . The threat posed by Russia ( Rus ) to

2028-402: The Safavid dynasty. Karim Khan made use of the same justification for similar land dispute resolutions. When compared to the complex structure of hierarchy and ceremony that distinguished the Safavid court, Karim Khan's household in Shiraz was smaller, simpler, and more focused on real administrative and military requirements than on the lavish display of the Safavid shah. The Zand nobility was

2106-680: The Shia shrine city of Najaf and subsequently to India, where he reunited with his family. Three of his uncles had served Nader Shah, but two of them fell out of favor and fled to India. His Mojmel al-tavarikh , a comprehensive history of the early Zand period, was written there in Murshidabad in 1782. Native Jews, Armenians, and other Christians, who were frequent targets of extortion and persecution, also migrated in very large numbers. Between 1742 and 1758, refugees settled in Mughal India , Bengal , Ottoman Iraq and Yemen , giving rise to

2184-478: The Zand ruler Lotf Ali Khan Zand ( r.  1789–1794 ). In 1796, Agha Mohammad Khan conquered the majority of Khorasan and Georgia , thus gaining control over all the former Safavid lands. With his goal complete, Agha Mohammad Khan officially declared himself shah. According to the Iranian historian Assef Ashraf, "This protracted process of conquest raises various questions, including just how secure Agha Muhammad Khan's – and by extension Qajar – control over

2262-493: The authority of the central state. This feature, also used in the Seljuq and Safavid periods, gave new meaning to the concept of the Guarded Domains. Senior princes primarily served as provincial governors at Tabriz, Shiraz, Kermanshah , Isfahan , and Mashhad , or as high-ranking officials in the growing Qajar court and army. Smaller administrations were assigned to younger princes. After being defeated by Britain , Iran signed

2340-711: The boundaries of the Guarded Domains of Iran in his 1670s geographical compilation, Mokhtasar-e Mofid . He provided a comprehensive list of all the many areas that, in his opinion, comprised Iran's "Guarded Domains." Living in India at the time, one of the reasons he composed his work was to challenge to India's claim to be a great empire. The region he envisioned as Greater Iran encompassed all of Mesopotamia , which had in reality been under Ottoman rule since 1638. He emphasized areas that were important amongst Shia Muslims, particularly Mesopotamia with its major Shia shrines. The Persian Gulf coast, which had been under Safavid rule since

2418-427: The central region of Isfahan, Qom , and Kashan , remained in Iran. These people included Moshtaq, Azar Bigdeli , Hatef Esfahani , and Rafiq. Shiraz largely took up Isfahan's role as the patronage hub. Seven calligraphers, including Mohammad Hashem Zargar, and least as many poets, including Azar Bigdeli, and the doctor Mirza Mohammad Nasir left Isfahan to settle in Shiraz. One of the factors behind Isfahan's loss as

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2496-729: The city walls of Shiraz in 1767. He decorated Shiraz with new buildings including the Arg of Karim Khan , the Vakil Bazaar and the Kulah-e Farangi and grouped these around a public square ( maidan in Persian). Zand-era architecture is notable in Iranian history for "its revetments in carved marble and overglaze-painted tiles with flowers, animals and people". The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture notes that some themes employed by Zand architecture were knowingly revived from

2574-481: The concept of Iran as a protected political unit ruled by the state and with a distinct geographical region. The Persian term shahr , commonly used to describe a walled city, etymologically refers to a "territory governed by the shah ". In essence, shahr embodied the centralized state as it developed within the urban environment, analogous to the Greek idea of the polis . Despite military and theological assaults,

2652-456: The court mint were the main coin mints under Karim Khan. There was no monetary unity in Iran even though Karim Khan was acknowledged as the overlord of the majority of the country after 1763, as many regions remained independent or semi-autonomous. This was especially true for the semi-autonomous local khans that controlled the Caspian and Caucasian regions, as well as Khorasan, which was ruled by

2730-576: The crown got degrees and set payments from Karim Khan, such as the guardian of the Shah Abdol-Azim Shrine at Ray in 1765 and the supervisor of religious activities at Qazvin . However, the lesser akhunds , theologians, Alavid seyyeds , and dervishes who anticipated living off of government pensions were let down. They were reportedly seen as parasites by Karim Khan, who claimed that by controlling pricing, they could live happily with what they had just like others. Presentations of

2808-580: The decentralized administration as well as cultural and ethnic diversity of the country. According to the Iranologist Abbas Amanat , "In this notion of Iran, one may argue, there was a realistic recognition not only of its complexity but also of the inherent necessity for the central state." The concept had previously been used in the form of Eranshahr, the official name of Iran under the Sasanian Empire (224–651), which promoted

2886-479: The dynasty managed to unify the diverse local dynasties, ethnicities, and cultures that had divided Iran since the time of the Turco-Mongol ruler Timur ( r.  1370–1405 ) a century earlier. The Safavids thus revitalized the Guarded Domains of Iran, which starting from them would serve as the common and official name of Iran until the early 20th century. Safavid annals began to utilize references to

2964-476: The end of the 17th century, a special school of painting took shape during the Zand era in the 17th and 18th centuries. Painting thrived under Karim Khan, and notable paintings from this era include Muhammad Karim Khan Zand and the Ottoman Ambassador which was created c.  1775 . The most important painter of the Zand era was Mohammad Sadiq . The art of this era is remarkable and, despite

3042-522: The established Safavid court offices and protocols under the Zands, but nothing suggests that the chief minister ( etemad ol-dowleh , sadr-e azam ) and resident court amirs (the qurchi-bashi , qollar-aghasi , eshik-aqasi-bashi , and tofangchi-aghasi ) formed the "close council of state" as they did in the late Safavid era. Under Karim Khan, no government official attained significant importance. Instead, he gave his kinsmen and trusted tribal leaders

3120-517: The establishment of the early modern Persianate world. The dynasty was founded by Karim Khan Zand , chief of the Zand tribe , which is a tribe of Laks , a branch of Lurs who may have been originally Kurdish . Nader Shah moved the Zand tribe from their home in the Zagros mountains to the eastern steppes of Khorasan . After Nader's death, the Zand tribe, under the guidance of Karim Khan , went back to their original land. After Adil Shah

3198-462: The form of Eranshahr, the official name of Iran under the Sasanian Empire (224–651), which promoted the concept of Iran as a protected political unit ruled by the state and with a distinct geographical region. Iran's loss of territory under the Qajars in the 19th century led to a new understanding of the Guarded Domains and the extent of the Iranian lands. There were limitations on the authority that

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3276-504: The government promoted their settlement by granting them villages around the capital. Mkrtic Vardapet, the Armenian prelate , divided his time between New Julfa and Shiraz every year for six months. Shiraz became the largest Jewish hub in Iran as a result of the return of many Jews , whose population may have decreased by about 20,000 between 1747 and 1779. They paid a special tax in exchange for being given their own section of land west of

3354-563: The inhabitants of Shiraz honor Karim Khan. When following the Islamic Revolution of 1979 the names of the past rulers of Iran became a taboo, the citizens of Shiraz refused to rename the Karim Khan Zand Street and Lotf-Ali Khan Zand Street, the two main streets of Shiraz. Guarded Domains of Iran The Guarded Domains of Iran ( Persian : ممالک محروسهٔ ایران , Mamâlek-e Mahruse-ye Irân ), or simply

3432-528: The khans ever put their names on their coins, due to lacking the legitimacy of an sovereign monarch and any claims to independence. These northern Iranian coins were made entirely of silver and copper. As noted by The Oxford Dictionary of Islam , "Karim Khan Zand holds an enduring reputation as the most humane Iranian ruler of the Islamic era". Karim Khan is the subject of many stories about his "kindness, generosity and justice". The Oxford Encyclopedia of

3510-416: The land may have led to changes in land tenure or administration or in attempts to alter the natural environment. Instead, they found a purpose in their political authority through their rule of the land. In order to maintain their status as the defenders and distributors of land rights, the Qajar shahs reused the customs and structures of past dynasties. The Qajar ruler Agha Mohammad Khan Qajar dedicated

3588-489: The lengthy political and cultural traditions of the Safavid court; they account for at least seventeen of the twenty-seven identified by Abu'l-Hasan Mostawfi Ghaffari . In the 1750s, some people—including the poet Hazin Lahiji —had immigrated to India. Others, like Vafa of Qom, departed for India under Nader Shah's rule but later came back to Iran under Karim Khan. During the interim period, a large number of people, primarily in

3666-764: The literary center of Iran is reported by Abd al-Razzaq Beg Donboli . The city's poets, including Azar Bigdeli, were actively supported by the governor Mirza Abd ol-Vahhab Musavi. However, after the latters death in 1759/60, the governorship of Isfahan was given to the tyrannical figure Hajji Agha Mohammad Ranani. In 1763/64, disgruntled poets and other prominent individuals sent a delegation to Karim Khan in which they attempted to have Hajji Agha replaced. After their efforts were unsuccessful, some of them relocated to Shiraz. The distinguishing quality of Karim Khan's leadership came from his refusal to exercise royal authority independent of nominal Safavid sovereignty. However, his decision to continue serving as vakil al-dowleh ("deputy of

3744-671: The majority his political career to establish Qajar sovereignty over the lands that were once ruled by the Safavids. His time and effort were focused on this goal for about twenty years, from the time he managed to escape Zand captivity in Shiraz in 1779 to the time he was crowned himself shah in 1796. After departing Shiraz, Agha Mohammad Khan spent years strengthening authority in northern Iran . After completing this by 1785, he focused on seizing central and southern Iran. By 1794, he had conquered Kerman and Fars and killed his biggest rival,

3822-562: The mid-1750s, which convinced many refugees to come back. By 1760, every day refugees were returning to Iran. Thousands of them from all social classes arrived along the now-secure caravan routes. The population of Isfahan had decreased to perhaps 20,000 by 1750 from what may have been between 250,000 to 500,000 during the Safavid era. It increased to an estimated 40,000–50,000 by 1772. Even though Shiraz appeared to be "demolished and destroyed... altogether depopulated and empty of Christians" in 1756, refugees from Isfahan, especially Armenians from

3900-485: The most humane Iranian ruler of the Islamic era". When following the Islamic Revolution of 1979 the names of the past rulers of Iran became a taboo, the citizens of Shiraz refused to rename the Karim Khan Zand and Lotf Ali Khan Zand streets, the two main streets of Shiraz. Since the Safavid era, Mamâlek-e Mahruse-ye Irân ( Guarded Domains of Iran ) was the common and official name of Iran. The idea of

3978-603: The nearby ancient Achaemenid and Sasanian sites, such as Persepolis and Naqsh-e Rostam . According to the Italian scholar Alessandro Bausani : "The eighteenth century, which in Europe (and partly also in India, for example) was a ferment of renewal, is the darkest and most sterile period in Persian literature and culture." Scholars of Persian literature have also made a similar conclusion. John Perry commented on these statements: "While regrettably true of literature, this view

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4056-462: The policies of Karim Khan and soon enough, the country was under attack from all sides. The biggest enemies of the Zands, the Qajar chiefs, led by the former hostage, Agha Mohammad Khan , were advancing fast against the declining kingdom. Finally, in 1789, Lotf Ali Khan , a grand-nephew of Karim Khan, declared himself the new king. His reign (until 1794) was spent mostly in war with the Qajar khan. He

4134-537: The population, like the earlier Safavids. In foreign policy, Karim Khan attempted to revive the Safavid era trade by allowing the British to establish a trading post in the port of Bushehr . This opened the hands of the British East India Company in Iran and increased their influence in the country. The taxation system was reorganized in a way that taxes were levied fairly. The judicial system

4212-567: The province of Basra into his control. But he never stopped his campaigns against his arch-enemy, Mohammad Hassan Khan Qajar , the chief of the Qoyunlu Qajars. The latter was finally defeated by Karim Khan and his sons, Agha Mohammad Khan and Hossein Qoli Khan Qajar , were brought to Shiraz as hostages. Karim Khan's monuments in Shiraz include the famous Arg of Karim Khan , Vakil Bazaar , and several mosques and gardens. He

4290-607: The puppet king and in 1760, founded his own dynasty. He refused to accept the title of the king and instead named himself Vakilol Ro'aya ( Advocate of the People ). By 1760, Karim Khan had defeated all his rivals and controlled all of Iran except Khorasan, in the northeast, which was ruled by Shah Rukh . His foreign campaigns against Azad Khan in Azerbaijan and against the Ottomans in Mesopotamia brought Azerbaijan and

4368-486: The regions and territories he conquered. The term Guarded Domains developed a new political meaning during the Russo-Persian Wars in the early 18th century, when it was adopted as a practical means of demanding the defense of Iranian territory against foreign invasion. In Tabriz , a book compiled from a fatwa on jihad , authored by two distinguished Shia jurists from Iraq , includes an introduction where

4446-493: The reign of Shah Abbas I, was the last location on his list. Because of its affiliation with the Indian subcontinent and Arab areas, this region was the least successfully administered and the most isolated off from the Iranian heartland. Mirza Fazlollah Khavari Shirazi , the vaqaye-negar (court chronicler) of Fath-Ali Shah, described the borders of the Guarded Domains in his Tarikh-e Zu'l-Qarneyn . "Let it be known that

4524-427: The responsibility for military campaigns and governance. Local administrators, who were all directly accountable to him, were given charge of the provinces. When a Zand prince was given a title, it was more like a honorific rather than an official position in the government. The vazir-e divan was Karim Khan's direct subordinate in the bureaucracy. The first to occupy that office under him was Mirza Aqil Esfahani, who

4602-457: The rest of contemporary Iran (except for the provinces of Balochistan and Khorasan ) as well as parts of Iraq . The lands of present-day Armenia , Azerbaijan , and Georgia were controlled by khanates which were de jure part of the Zand realm, but the region was de facto autonomous. The island of Bahrain was also held for the Zands by the autonomous Al-Mazkur sheikhdom of Bushire . The reign of its most important ruler, Karim Khan,

4680-715: The root malaka and means "to own or to rule," was the most widely used translation of keshvar . Persian historiography frequently used mamlakat to refer to clearly defined kingdoms or royal domains, as well as the provinces that made them up. This included the Guarded Domains of Iran ( Mamâlek-e Mahruse-ye Irân ). Since the Safavid period (1501–1736), other variants were also in use, such as mamalek-e mahruse-ye khosrovani ("the Royal Guarded Domains") and mamalek-e mahruse-ye homayun ("the Imperial Guarded Domains"). Its shortened variant

4758-523: The second capital . He gained control of central and southern parts of Iran . In order to add legitimacy to his claim, Karim Khan placed the infant Shah Ismail III , the grandson of the last Safavid king , on the throne in 1757. Ismail was a figurehead king and real power was vested in Karim Khan. Karim Khan chose to be the military commander and Alimardan Khan was the civil administrator. Soon enough Karim Khan managed to eliminate his partner as well as

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4836-481: The short length of the dynasty, a distinct Zand art had the time to emerge. Many Qajar artistic traits were copied from the Zand examples and Zand art became the foundation of Qajar arts and crafts . Following Karim Khan's death, the Zand dynasty became embroiled in disputes over succession and other intrigues, which put a halt to further significant patronage of the arts. Karim Khan's first architectural considerations were focussed on defense and he therefore rebuilt

4914-413: The state") marked a subtle change from his previous role as the regent of a prince distantly related to the Safavid dynasty and of no importance. Moreover, he appears to have tacitly changed his authority from Safavid kingship to that of representing the people by using the title of Vakil ol-Ra'aya ("deputy of the people"). The subtle change reflected Karim Khan's standing among his subjects, particularly

4992-609: The suburb of New Julfa , were already making their way there every day. According to John R. Perry; "There are no contemporary estimates of the population of Shiraz under the Vakil, but it seems reasonable to assume that between 1759 and 1779 it grew at a much faster rate than Isfahan, reaching roughly the same population as the latter, though within a much more compact urban area." Shiraz lost around half of its population following its sack by Agha Mohammad Khan, numbering 20,000. Other cities in central Iran, like Qom , reportedly experienced

5070-461: The thirteenth century it has been customary at Rome to confide to some particular Cardinal a special solicitude in the Roman Curia for the interests of a given religious order or institute, confraternity, church, college, city, nation, etc. Such a person is known as a Cardinal Protector . The title Hâdim ül Haramain ish Sharifain or Khādim al-Ḥaramayn al-Sharifayn , Arabic for 'Servant of

5148-461: The urban people. He also drew on Iranian monarchy traditions that were directly related to the Fars province in order to distance himself from the distressing events of recent times. Karim Khan attempted to recreate the territorial Iran of the Safavid era, just like Nader Shah and Agha Mohammad Khan. A common reference for consecutive rulers was Nader Shah's mention of Iran's established borders during

5226-657: The vast kingdom of Iran... stretches from the Caucasus mountains, which are at the furthest limit of Georgia and Daghestan , near Russian lands, to the ends of Kerman, where it meets the Indian Ocean . As the crow flies, the length of this area is three hundred and thirty farsakh , and the width of this realm, from the Oxus River to Baghdad 's Tigris River is two hundred and thirteen farsakh .... It [i.e. Iran] has sixteen administrative provinces and regions: one

5304-409: The vast regions of Iran was, as well as when, precisely, the Qajar period of rule 'began'." It is possible that he thought the conquering the former Safavid territory was essential to his legitimacy because he did not declare himself shah until after he had done so. In the contemporary history book Rostam al-Tavarikh , each year of Agha Mohammad Khan's reign is summarized in a few words, which lists

5382-461: Was mamalek-e Iran ("Domains of Iran"), most commonly used in the writings from Qajar Iran (1789–1925). Due to its location and ecosystem , as well as the popularity of high culture and the Persian language, Iran was able to maintain its cultural identity during the period between the Islamic invasion and the establishment of the Safavid state. The idea of the "Guarded Domains" was formed by

5460-586: Was determined by its conflicts with Russia, Britain and the Ottoman Empire . The recapture of Khuzestan from the Emirate of Muhammara in November 1924 by the Iranian general Reza Khan marked the end of the concept of the "Guarded Domains of Iran", being replaced by the more centralized concept of the "Sublime State of Iran." The following year, the weakened Qajar dynasty was abolished and replaced by

5538-466: Was executed in 1763 and succeeded by Mirza Mohammad Ja'far Esfahani. The office of mostowfi ol-mamalek was almost equally important and was held by Mirza Mohammad Borujerdi and Mirza Mohammad Hossein Farahani in succession. Karim Khan treated the people holding these senior administrative and senior fiscal positions as nothing more than secretarial assistants, treating them more like friends than colleagues. Karim Khan might have been anticipated to seek

5616-438: Was fair and generally humane. Capital punishment was rarely implemented. The Zand era was a time of relative peace and economic growth for the country. Many territories that were once captured by the Ottomans in the late Safavid era were retaken, and Iran was once again a coherent and prosperous country. From 1765 onwards Karim Khan promoted art and architecture at his capital Shiraz. After Iranian painting reached its height at

5694-547: Was finally captured and brutally killed in the fortress of Bam , putting an effective end to the Zand Dynasty. Politically, it is also important that the Zands, especially Karim Khan, chose to call themselves Vakilol Ro'aya ( Advocate of the People ) instead of kings. Other than the obvious propaganda value of the title, it can be a reflection of the popular demands of the time, expecting rulers with popular leanings instead of absolute monarchs who were totally detached from

5772-463: Was made king Karim Khan and his soldiers defected from the army and along with Ali Morad Khan Bakhtiari and Abolfath Khan Haft Lang, two other local chiefs, became a major contender but was challenged by several adversaries. Abolfath Khan was the Vizier, Karim Khan became the army chief commander and Ali Morad Khan became the regent. Karim Khan declared Shiraz his capital, and in 1778 Tehran became

5850-469: Was marked by prosperity and peace. With its capital at Shiraz , arts and architecture flourished under Karim Khan's reign, with some themes in architecture being revived from the nearby sites of the Achaemenid (550–330 BC) and Sasanian (224–651 AD) era's of pre-Islamic Iran. The tombs of the medieval Persian poets Hafez and Saadi Shirazi were also renovated by Karim Khan. Distinctive Zand art which

5928-425: Was one the more religious historians, claims that Karim Khan never prayed throughout his entire life. The government-appointed shaykh ol-eslam was the most important religious figure in Shiraz. His responsibilities seemed to be more constrained than those of his Safavid predecessors, and the title molla-bashi (chief theologian) created by Soltan Hoseyn was not retained. Religious officers typically selected by

6006-479: Was produced at the behest of the Zand rulers became the foundation of later Qajar arts and crafts . Following the death of Karim Khan, Zand Iran went into decline due to internal disputes amongst members of the Zand dynasty. Its final ruler, Lotf Ali Khan Zand ( r.   1789–1794), was eventually executed by Agha Mohammad Khan Qajar ( r.   1789–1797) in 1794. As noted by The Oxford Dictionary of Islam , "Karim Khan Zand holds an enduring reputation as

6084-428: Was that they behaved in a manner that did not anger the Shia and its supporters. Roughly between the 1730s and the 1780s, hundreds of literate and renowned Iranians escaped to India due to the devastating circumstances. Many of them, including Abol-Hasan Golestaneh , expressed regret. The latter was a hostage in Karim Khan's entourage during the struggle for supremacy in western Iran, but in 1756 he managed to escape to

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