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135-594: Sven Anders Hedin , KNO1kl RVO , (19 February 1865 – 26 November 1952) was a Swedish geographer , topographer , explorer, photographer, travel writer and illustrator of his own works. During four expeditions to Central Asia, he made the Transhimalaya known in the West and located sources of the Brahmaputra , Indus and Sutlej Rivers. He also mapped lake Lop Nur , and the remains of cities, grave sites and

270-546: A Viceroy appointed by the Crown. In 1863 Sultan Ahmad Khan of Herat, who was placed into power by Persia and issued coinage on behalf of the Shah, attacked the disputed town of Farrah . Farrah had been under Dost Mohammad Khan's control since 1856, and he responded by sending his army to defeat Herat and reunited it with Afghanistan. The Crimean War had ended in 1856 with Russia's defeat by an alliance of Britain, France, and

405-486: A stupa , and 19 dwellings built of poplar wood. He also found a wooden wheel from a horse-drawn cart (called an arabas ) as well as several hundred documents written on wood, paper and silk in the Kharosthi script. These provided information about the history of the city of Loulan , which had once been located on the shores of Lop Nur but had been abandoned around the year 330 CE because the lake had dried out, depriving

540-536: A "backward, uncivilized and undeveloped region." Here we are, just as we were, snarling at each other, hating each other, but neither wishing for war. – Lord Palmerston (1835) American historian David Fromkin argues that by the mid-19th century the British had developed at least nine reasons to expect a major war with Russia unless Russian expansion in Asia could be stopped: In the early 1880s Russia failed to float

675-412: A French military mission to Persia, with the intention of persuading Russia to invade India. In response, Britain sent its own diplomatic missions in 1808, with military advisers, to Persia and Afghanistan under the capable Mountstuart Elphinstone , averting the possible French and Russian threat to India. However, Britain was left with concerns about being able to defend its colony on the subcontinent. At

810-690: A Russian spy, then travelled with a caravan of pilgrims to Meshed , marched with the Afghan army from there to Herat, then traveled to Kandahar, to Quetta, then across the Indian desert to the British frontier in January 1831. He published his travels in 1834. However, after 1830, Britain's commercial and diplomatic interest to the north-west would eventually become formidable. In 1831, Captain Alexander Burnes and Colonel Henry Pottinger 's surveys of

945-906: A Swedish legation to Iran which was to present the Shah of Iran with the insignia of the Order of the Seraphim . As part of the Swedish legation, he was at an audience of the shah Naser al-Din Shah Qajar in Tehran. He spoke with him and later accompanied him to the Elburz Mountain Range. On 11 July 1890, he and three others climbed Mount Damavand where he collected primary material for his dissertation. Starting in September he traveled on

1080-686: A book about these travels entitled Through Persia, Mesopotamia and the Caucasus . From 1886 to 1888, Hedin studied under the geologist Waldemar Brøgger in Stockholm and Uppsala the subjects of geology, mineralogy , zoology and Latin . In December 1888, he became a Candidate in Philosophy . From October 1889 to March 1890 he studied in Berlin under Ferdinand Freiherr von Richthofen . On 12 May 1890, he accompanied as interpreter and vice-consul

1215-403: A camel caravan and ascertained that at least one of the escorts who, according to Hedin, had died of thirst had survived, and that it is impossible for a camel caravan traveling in springtime on this route to carry enough drinking water for both camels and travelers. According to other sources, Hedin had neglected to completely fill the drinking water containers for his caravan at the beginning of

1350-400: A confidential agent to Dost Mohammed of Kabul merely to watch the progress of events, or to enter into relations with this Chief, either of a political or merely in the first instance of a commercial character, we confide in your discretion as well as the adoption of any other measures that may appear to you desirable to counteract Russian influence in that quarter, should you be satisfied...that

1485-581: A few years later, with Britain mediating the treaty. The Russo-Persian Wars began to coalesce into a point of tension between the British and Russian empires, particularly following the Treaty of Gulistan in 1813 , which gave the Russian Empire the theoretical right to intervene in Persia at any time, a humiliation of Persia. Fath-Ali Shah sought to counterbalance Russia by increasing the ties between

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1620-481: A grand total of only eight months and collecting primary material for one-and-a-half days on the snow-clad peak of Mount Damavand . Ferdinand Freiherr von Richthofen not only encouraged Hedin to absolve cursory studies, but also to become thoroughly acquainted with all branches of geographic science and the methodologies of the salient research work, so that he could later work as an explorer. Hedin abstained from doing this with an explanation he supplied in old age: I

1755-680: A group of warring principalities into one state ruled by an ally whose foreign relations would be conducted on his behalf by the Governor-General and the Foreign Office. The Great Game meant closer ties between Britain and the states along her northwest frontier. Britain believed that it was the world's first free society and the most industrially advanced country, and therefore that it had a duty to use its iron, steam power, and cotton goods to take over Central Asia and develop it. British goods were to be followed by British values and

1890-472: A high priority to protect all approaches to India, while Russia continued its military conquest of Central Asia . Aware of the importance of India to the British, Russian efforts in the region often had the aim of extorting concessions from them in Europe, but after 1801, they had no serious intention of directly attacking India. Russian war plans for India that were proposed but never materialised included

2025-717: A less-than-successful lecture tour in 1923 through North America and Japan, he traveled on to Beijing to carry out an expedition to Chinese Turkestan (modern Xinjiang), but the region's unstable political situation thwarted this intention. He instead traveled through Mongolia by car and through Siberia aboard the Trans-Siberian Railway . With financial support from the governments of Sweden and Germany, he led, between 1927 and 1935, an international and interdisciplinary Sino-Swedish Expedition to carry out scientific investigations in Mongolia and Chinese Turkestan, with

2160-457: A member of two scientific academies, he had a voice in the selection of Nobel Prize winners for both science and literature. Hedin never married and had no children, rendering his family line now extinct. Hedin's expedition notes laid the foundations for a precise mapping of Central Asia. He was one of the first European scientific explorers to employ indigenous scientists and research assistants on his expeditions. Although primarily an explorer, he

2295-764: A message that the Emperor would no longer have anything to do with the Emir of Bukhara. After its two representatives were executed in Bukhara, Britain actively discouraged officers from traveling in Turkestan. During 1838, there were rumors in London of a coming Russian move towards Khiva. Additionally, Persia intended to annex Herat to make up for territory it had lost in the Russo-Persian War (1826–1828) , however

2430-585: A mutual defence agreement with the British in 1809 against a possible Franco-Russian invasion of India via Afghanistan. In the same year he was deposed and imprisoned by his half-brother, Mahmud Shah Durrani . There were a number of Amirs of Afghanistan until Dost Mohammad Khan gained power in 1826. Shah Shuja was not popular with the Afghans and tensions grew, leading to the killing of the British envoy, Captain Alexander Burnes, in 1841. By January 1842,

2565-578: A never setting star. The Order's colour is black. This was chosen so that when wearing the black sash, the white, blue and golden cross would stand out and shine as the light of enlightenment from the black surface. The choice of black for the Order's ribbon may also have been inspired by the black ribbon of the French Order of St. Michael , which at the time the Order of the Polar Star was instituted

2700-667: A nine 9 million loan on the European markets for its strategic geopolitical enterprises, driving severe budget cuts by the Minister of Finance. For the construction of the Russo-Indian railway however, an operation supervised by renowned engineer General Mikhail Annenkov , funding had been freely furnished. The Tsar also entered into agreements about delivery of munition for its fortresses at an estimated value of one million sterling, with German steel magnate Alfred Krupp , being

2835-463: A staging post for a Russian invasion of India, was the British line of thinking. Napoleon had proposed a joint Franco-Russian invasion of India to tsar Paul I of Russia . Expecting a future action by the British against Russia and her allies in Europe, Paul decided in 1801 to make the first move towards where he believed the British Empire was weakest ( Indian March of Paul ). He wrote to

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2970-934: A stopover in Kashgar, Hedin visited the 1,500-year-old abandoned cities of Dandan Oilik and Kara Dung , which are located northeast of Khotan in the Taklamakan Desert. At the beginning of March, he discovered Lake Bosten , one of the largest inland bodies of water in Central Asia. He reported that this lake is supplied by a single mighty feeder stream, the Kaidu River . He mapped Lake Kara-Koshun and returned on 27 May to Khotan. On 29 June, he started out from there with his caravan across northern Tibet and China to Beijing, where he arrived on 2 March 1897. He returned to Stockholm via Mongolia and Russia. Another expedition in Central Asia followed in 1899–1902 through

3105-475: A vermin-infested dungeon because he had not bowed nor brought gifts. In 1841, Captain Arthur Conolly arrived to try to secure Stoddart's release. He was also imprisoned and on 17 June 1842 both men were beheaded. On hearing of the execution of the two British officers, Emperor Nicholas I of Russia would no longer receive Bukhara's gifts or emissaries, and its ambassador was turned back at Orenburg with

3240-541: A war theater, resembled an invading army. However, the financing remained Hedin's private responsibility. Because of failing health, the civil war in Chinese Turkestan , and a long period of captivity, Hedin, by then 70 years of age, had a difficult time after the currency depreciation of the Great Depression raising the money required for the expedition, the logistics for assuring the supplying of

3375-641: Is reported to have said: I have been struck by the magnitude of your resources, your ships, your arsenals, but what I cannot understand is why the rulers of so vast and flourishing an empire should have gone across the Indus to deprive me of my poor and barren country. In 1839, acting Captain James Abbott of the Bengal Artillery undertook a mission to the Khanate of Khiva in an attempt to negotiate

3510-671: The Aegean Region . From the end of 1933 to 1934, Hedin led—on behalf of the Kuomintang government under Chiang Kai-shek in Nanjing—a Chinese expedition to investigate irrigation measures and draw up plans and maps for the construction of two roads suitable for automobiles along the Silk Road from Beijing to Xinjiang. Following his plans, major irrigation facilities were constructed, settlements erected, and roads built on

3645-525: The Amu Darya river for Russian ships. None of these aims was realised. Russia's borders remained insecure and in addition there was growing British influence in the region. In 1869, when British diplomat Clarendon proposed the Amu Darya river as the basis for a neutral zone between British and Russian spheres of influence, Alexander Gorchakov proposed Afghanistan as the neutral zone. Russia feared

3780-629: The Anglo-Russian Convention created an alliance between Britain and Russia, and formally delineated control in Afghanistan, Persia, and Tibet. The phrase "the Great Game" was used well before the 19th century and was associated with games of risk, such as cards and dice. The French equivalent Le grand jeu dates back to at least 1585 and is associated with meanings of risk, chance and deception. The term Great Game

3915-670: The Ataman of the Don Cossacks Troops, Cavalry General Vasily Petrovich Orlov , directing him to march to Orenburg , conquer the Central Asian Khanates, and from there invade India. Paul was assassinated in the same year, and the invasion was terminated. Historian Peter Hopkirk wrote that Tsar Paul had not been able to obtain a detailed map of India until the Cossacks' departure from Orenburg. He quotes

4050-518: The Duhamel and Khrulev plans of the Crimean War (1853–1856). Russia and Britain's 19th-century rivalry in Asia began with the planned Indian March of Paul and Russian invasions of Iran in 1804–1813 and 1826–1828 , shuffling Persia into a competition between colonial powers. According to one major view, the Great Game started on 12 January 1830, when Lord Ellenborough , the president of

4185-503: The Emirate of Afghanistan , with British sea-power protecting trade sea-lanes. Access to Afghanistan was to be through developing trade routes along the Indus and Sutlej rivers using steam-powered boats, and therefore access through the Sind and Punjab regions would be required. Persia would have to give up its claim on Herat in Afghanistan. Afghanistan would need to be transformed from

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4320-636: The Empire of Japan . Because of political and social unrest in China , he had to abandon an expedition to Xinjiang . Instead, he traveled with Frans August Larson (called the "Duke of Mongolia") in November and December in a Dodge automobile from Peking through Mongolia via Ulan-Bator to Ulan-Ude , Russia and from there on the Trans-Siberian Railway to Moscow. Between 1927 and 1935, Hedin led an international Sino-Swedish Expedition which investigated

4455-725: The Great Wall of China in the deserts of the Tarim Basin . In his book Från pol till pol ( From Pole to Pole ), Hedin describes a journey through Asia and Europe between the late 1880s and the early 1900s. While traveling, Hedin visited Turkey , the Caucasus , Tehran , Iraq , lands of the Kyrgyz people and the Russian Far East , India , China and Japan . The posthumous publication of his Central Asia Atlas marked

4590-722: The North-West Frontier Province . In 1856, Persia commenced an assault on Herat and the British Home Government declared war on Persia. The Anglo-Persian War was conducted under Major General Sir James Outram until 1857, when Persia and Britain both withdrew and Persia signed a treaty renouncing its claim on Herat. Following the Indian Rebellion of 1857 , the East India Company's remaining powers were transferred to

4725-640: The Persian Gulf or the Indian Ocean . As Russian and British spheres of influence expanded and competed, Russia proposed Afghanistan as the neutral zone. Traditionally, the Great Game came to a close between 1895 and 1907. In September 1895, London and Saint Petersburg signed the Pamir Boundary Commission protocols, when the border between Afghanistan and the Russian Empire was defined using diplomatic methods. In August 1907,

4860-614: The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences ; the Sven Hedin Foundation established soon thereafter holds all the rights of ownership. Hedin died at Stockholm in 1952. The memorial service was attended by representatives of the Swedish royal household, the Swedish government, the Swedish Academy, and the diplomatic service. He is buried in the cemetery of Adolf Fredrik church in Stockholm. Sven Hedin

4995-555: The Second World War . At the start of the 19th century, the Indian subcontinent was ruled in part by independent princely states and in part by the company rule of the British East India Company . During the 19th century, a political and diplomatic confrontation developed between Britain and Russia over Afghanistan which would become known as The Great Game. Russia's foreign policy was driven by

5130-578: The Sikh empire , and the Amirs of Sindh . However, these attempts were unsuccessful. In 1835, Lord Auckland was appointed Governor-General, and replaced Bentinck who had pursued a non-intervention policy. The India Board instructed Auckland: to watch more closely than has hitherto been attempted the progress of events in Afghanistan, and to counteract the progress of Russian influence...The mode of dealing with this very important question, whether by dispatching

5265-885: The Silk Road via cities Mashhad , Ashgabat , Bukhara , Samarkand , Tashkent and Kashgar to the western outskirts of the Taklamakan Desert. On the trip home, he visited the grave of the Russian Asian scholar, Nikolai Przhevalsky in Karakol on the shore of Lake Issyk Kul . On 29 March 1891, he was back in Stockholm. He published the books King Oscar's Legation to the Shah of Persia in 1890 and Through Chorasan and Turkestan about this journey. On 27 April 1892, Hedin traveled to Berlin to continue his studies under Ferdinand Freiherr von Richthofen . Beginning of July he went to University of Halle-Wittenberg , Halle , attending lectures by Alfred Kirchhoff . Yet in

5400-461: The Soviet Union , brought him in dangerous proximity to representatives of National Socialism, who exploited him as an author. This destroyed his reputation and put him into social and scientific isolation. However, in correspondence and personal conversations with leading Nazis, his successful intercessions achieved the pardoning of ten people condemned to death and the release or survival of Jews who had been deported to Nazi concentration camps . At

5535-417: The Syr Darya . Russian merchants must be allowed to trade on the same terms as native merchants in Bukhara and Khiva. The khanates must guarantee the safety of the persons and property of Russian merchants, levy no excessive duties, permit unhampered transit of goods and caravans across Central Asia into neighboring states and allow Russian commercial agents to reside in Bukhara and Khiva, and free navigation on

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5670-570: The meteorological , topographic and prehistoric situation in Mongolia , the Gobi Desert and Xinjiang . Hedin described it as a peripatetic university in which the participating scientists worked almost independently, while he—like a local manager—negotiated with local authorities, made decisions, organized whatever was necessary, raised funds and recorded the route followed. He gave archaeologists , astronomers , botanists , geographers , geologists, meteorologists and zoologists from Sweden, Germany and China an opportunity to participate in

5805-405: The president of the Board of Control for India tasked Lord William Bentinck , the Governor-General of India , to establish a new trade route to Bukhara. Following the Treaty of Turkmenchay (1828) and the Treaty of Adrianople (1829) , Britain expected that Persia and the Ottoman Empire ( Turkey ) would be forced to become protectorates of Russia. This would change Britain's perception of

5940-425: The "Tournament of Shadows" was reportedly used by Russian diplomat Karl Nesselrode . In July 1840, in correspondence to Major Henry Rawlinson who had been recently appointed as the new political agent in Kandahar , Conolly wrote, "You've a great game, a noble game, before you." Conolly believed that Rawlinson's new post gave him the opportunity to advance humanitarianism in Afghanistan, and summed up his hopes: If

6075-400: The "white spaces" in contemporary maps, providing valuable information. Hedin was honored in ceremonies in: Hedin was, and remained, a figure of the 19th century who clung to its visions and methods also in the 20th century. This prevented him from discerning the fundamental social and political upheavals of the 20th century and aligning his thinking and actions accordingly. Concerned about

6210-442: The Afghans were in full revolt. With a weakening of military discipline, the British decided to withdraw from Kabul . The Kabul garrison of 4,500 troops and 12,000 camp followers left Kabul for Jalalabad that was 80 miles and 5 days march away. They were attacked by 30,000 Afghans. Six British officers escaped on horseback but only one, the wounded Dr William Brydon riding on a wounded horse, made it to Jalalabad. Over one hundred of

6345-403: The Bavarian State Collection of Paleontology and Geology of Munich University . These sedimentary rocks —such as breccia , conglomerate , limestone , and slate , as well as volcanic rock and granite —highlight the geological diversity of the regions visited by Hedin during this expedition. In 1923, Hedin traveled to Beijing via the United States —where he visited the Grand Canyon —and

6480-541: The Bengal Artillery, who had earlier entered Herat in disguise, stiffened the defences and despite the presence of Russian advisers the siege lasted eight months. Britain threatened to take military action and Persia withdrew in September. In October 1838, Auckland issued the Simla Manifesto , a piece of propaganda designed to blacken the reputation of Dost Mohammad Khan (Emir of Afghanistan) and which claimed that Dost Mohammad: openly threatened...to call in every foreign aid that he could command...we could never hope that

6615-407: The Board of Control for India, tasked Lord Bentinck , the governor-general , with establishing a trade route to the Emirate of Bukhara . Britain aimed to create a protectorate in Afghanistan , and support the Ottoman Empire , Persia, Khiva , and Bukhara as buffer states against Russian expansion. This would protect India and key British sea trade routes by blocking Russia from gaining a port on

6750-407: The British Crown in the person of Queen Victoria (who in 1876 was proclaimed Empress of India ). As a state, the British Raj functioned as the guardian of a system of connected markets maintained by military power, business legislation and monetary management. The Government of India Act 1858 saw the India Office of the British government assume the administration of British India through

6885-437: The British Government would only play the grand game – help Russia cordially to all that she has a right to expect – shake hands with Persia – get her all possible amends from Oosbegs – force the Bukhara Amir to be just to us, the Afghans, and other Oosbeg states, and his own kingdom – but why go on; you know my, at any rate in one sense, enlarged views. The expediency, nay the necessity of them will be seen, and we shall play

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7020-418: The British and 2,000 sepoys and camp followers were taken hostage and the rest killed. So perished the "Army of the Indus". In April, a punitive expedition was dispatched and recaptured Kabul and freed the captives in September. The new Governor-General, Lord Ellenborough , decided to withdraw all British garrisons from Afghanistan and Dost Mohammad Khan was freed in India to return to the throne. Dost Mohammad

7155-415: The British but to bring civilised behavior and protect the traditional trade routes through the region. The first campaign started from Orenburg and proceeded in the direction of Kabul in Afghanistan. Russia occupied Chimkent in 1864, Tashkent in 1865, Khokhand and Bukhara in 1866, and Samarkand in 1868. Russia's influence now extended to outlying regions of Afghan Turkestan. The second campaign started from

7290-422: The Caspian Sea, riding through the Alborz Range to Tehran , Esfahan , Shiraz and the harbor city of Bushehr . From there he took a ship up the Tigris River to Baghdad (then in Ottoman Empire ), returning to Tehran via Kermanshah , and then travelling through the Caucasus and over the Black Sea to Constantinople . Hedin then returned to Sweden, arriving on 18 September 1886. In 1887, Hedin published

7425-422: The Central Asia, and this would include Bokhara and Khiva. Between 1824 and 1854, Russia occupied the entire Kazakh Khanate (modern-day Kazakhstan). This raised Russo-Khivan tensions in addition to Khiva's legal discrimination of Russian merchants who were just beginning to penetrate Central Asia, and the ongoing issue of Russian slaves. Russia launched an attack in 1839–1840 but it failed to reach Khiva because of

7560-496: The East India Company and was to map and research the regions of "Beloochistan" (Balochistan) and Persia because of concerns about India being invaded by French forces from that direction. After the disastrous French invasion of Russia in 1812 and the collapse of the French army, the threat of a French invasion through Persia was removed. The shah of Iran, Fath-Ali Shah Qajar would become part of diplomatic intrigues about India. He first received limited British support in 1801 that

7695-529: The Far East, where it reached the Pacific port that would become known as Vladivostok by 1859. This eastward expansion was of no concern to the British Foreign Office because this area did not lie across any British trade routes or destinations, and therefore was of no interest to Britain. Beginning in the 1820s, Russian troops would begin to advance southward from Siberia in search of secure boundaries and reliable neighbors. This advance would not cease until Russia's frontiers and her sphere of influence were firm in

7830-400: The Great Game represented a great power competition that did not initiate only with Russia's defeat in the Crimean War in 1856, but was already well underway and was only intensified thereafter. Expansion into Central Asia was closely connected with ambitions in India. Historian Alexandre Andreyev argued that the rapid advance of the Russian Empire in Central Asia, while mainly serving to extend

7965-430: The Great Game. Hugh Seton-Watson observed that "the grotesque plan had no military significance, but at least showed its author's state of mind". Hopkirk remarked that "no serious thought or study has been given to this wild adventure". Napoleon tried to persuade Paul's son, Tsar Alexander I of Russia , to invade India; however Alexander resisted. In 1807, Napoleon dispatched General Claude Matthieu, Count Gardane on

8100-553: The Indus River and surveyed the river as he went. In 1838, he led an expedition that found one of the River Oxus' sources in central Asia. He published his travels in 1872. In 1837, the Russian envoy Captain Jan Vitkevitch visited Kabul, and the British believed that it was to facilitate some form of diplomatic or military presence in Afghanistan. While in Kabul, he dined with the British envoy, Captain Alexander Burnes, who reported negatively on Russia's intentions. Russia feared British inroads on their commerce in Central Asia, as well as

8235-585: The Indus river would prepare the way for a future assault on the Sind to clear a path towards Central Asia. Burnes embarked on a dangerous 12-month journey beginning in 1831 into Afghanistan and through the Hindu Kush to Bukhara, returning in 1832. Burnes, a Christian travelling through a Muslim country was one of the first to study Afghanistan for British Intelligence and upon his return, he published his book, Travels To Bukhara , which became an overnight success in 1834. Between 1832 and 1834, Britain attempted to negotiate trade agreements with Ranjit Singh , ruler of

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8370-400: The Northwestern Province of China 1927–1933". A painting in the Beijing Palace Museum entitled Nomads in the Desert served as model for the series. Of the 25,000 sets, 4,000 were sold across the counter and 21,500 came into the possession of the expedition. Hedin used them to finance the expedition, selling them for a price of five dollars per set. The stamps were unwelcome at the time due to

8505-492: The Ottoman Empire. The new and wary Alexander II of Russia waited some years so as not to antagonize the British, then Russia expanded into Central Asia in two campaigns. In 1864, a circular was sent to the consular officers abroad by Gorchakov, the Russian Chancellor, patiently explaining the reasons for expansion centering on the doctrines of necessity, power and spread of civilisation. Gorchakov went to great lengths to explain that Russia's intentions were meant not to antagonize

8640-585: The Pamir Mountains. Several attempts to climb the 7,546 metres (24,757 ft) high Muztagata —called the Father of the Glaciers—in the Pamir Mountains were unsuccessful. He remained in Kashgar until April 1895 and then left on 10 April with three local escorts from the village of Merket to cross the Taklamakan Desert via Tusluk to the Khotan River . Since their water supply was insufficient, seven camels died of thirst, as did two of his escorts (according to Hedin's dramatized and probably inaccurate account). Bruno Baumann traveled on this route in April 2000 with

8775-454: The Qajars and Britain; the British offered military and financial assistance to the shah, supporting Iran as a buffer between Russia and India. The Russian invasion of Iran in 1826-1828 led to a Russian victory, weakening Qajar Iran which retained only minimal influence and power. This fully placed Persia into another colonial contest between Russia and Britain. The Great Game is said to have begun on 12 January 1830 when Lord Ellenborough ,

8910-407: The Riksdag by a large majority on 19 June 2022. On 20 December 2022, the Swedish Government published a new regulation that repealed the 1974 regulation, and once again opened the Royal Orders to Swedish citizens and reactivated the Order of the Sword and the Order of Vasa, which came in effect on 1 February 2023. It was first awarded again in 2024 when Svante Pääbo among others were appointed to

9045-418: The Seraphim March, the Chancellor of the Royal Orders makes an introduction speech and the King himself delivers a speech each recipient of all orders are, one by one, one order at a time from highest to lowest in rank, announced and called upon by the Deputy Chancellor of the Royal Orders to receive their insignia from the King and shake his hand. After all recipients of a certain order have received their award,

9180-442: The Silk Road from Beijing to Kashgar , which made it possible to completely bypass the rough terrain of Tarim Basin. One aspect of the geography of central Asia which intensively occupied Hedin for decades was what he called the "wandering lake" Lop Nur . In May 1934, he began a river expedition to this lake. For two months he navigated the Kaidu River and the Kum-Darja to Lop Nur, which had been filled with water since 1921. After

9315-496: The Sino-Swedish Expedition Council, and drafted the contract), after which they were returned to China under the terms of the contract. Starting in 1937, the scientific material assembled during the expedition was published in over 50 volumes by Hedin and other expedition participants, thereby making it available for worldwide research on eastern Asia. When he ran out of money to pay printing costs, he pawned his extensive and valuable library, which filled several rooms, making possible

9450-425: The Tarim Basin, Tibet and Kashmir to Calcutta. Hedin navigated the Yarkand , Tarim and Kaidu rivers and found the dry riverbed of the Kum-darja as well as the dried out lake bed of Lop Nur . Near Lop Nur, he discovered the ruins of the 340 by 310 metres (1,120 by 1,020 ft) former walled royal city and later Chinese garrison town of Loulan, containing the brick building of the Imperial Chinese Army commander,

9585-514: The Tarim and Yanji basins in Xinjiang and the deposits of iron, manganese, oil, coal and gold discovered during the Sino-Swedish Expedition were opened up for mining. Among the discoveries of this expedition should also be counted the many Asian plants and animals unheard of until that date, as well as fossil remains of dinosaurs and other extinct animals. Many were named after Hedin, the species-level scientific classification being hedini . But one discovery remained unknown to Chinese researchers until

9720-601: The Tsar as instructing Orlov: "My maps only go as far as Khiva and the River Oxus . Beyond these points it is your affair to gain information about the possessions of the English, and the condition of the native population subject to their rule". The British public learned about the incident years later, but it firmly imprinted on the popular consciousness, contributing to feelings of mutual suspicion and distrust associated with

9855-560: The allegiance of Herat to Afghanistan was crucial to the British strategy. The Siege of Herat began in November 1837, when the new Shah of Persia, Mohammed Mirza, arrived before Herat. His intention was to take Herat then move on to Kandahar. With him was the Russian Envoy Count Simonich, seconded Russian officers and a regiment of Russian deserters under the Polish general Berowski. Eldred Pottinger , an officer of

9990-553: The arms manufacturer for the German Empire . In 1557, Bokhara and Khiva sent ambassadors to Ivan IV seeking permission to trade in Russia. Russia had an interest in establishing a trade route from Moscow to India. From then until the mid-19th century, Russian ambassadors to the region spent much of their time trying to free Russians who had been taken as slaves by the khanates. Russia would later expand across Siberia to

10125-487: The balcony he had a wide view over Riddarfjärden Bay and Lake Mälaren to the island of Långholmen . In the entryway to the stairwell is to be found a decorative stucco relief map of Hedin's research area in Central Asia and a relief of the Lama temple, a copy of which he had brought to Chicago for the 1933 World's Fair . On 29 October 1952, Hedin's will granted the rights to his books and his extensive personal effects to

10260-560: The borders of British India . By the early 20th century, a line of independent states, tribes, and monarchies from the shore of the Caspian Sea to the Eastern Himalayas were made into protectorates and territories of the two empires. Though the Great Game was marked by distrust, diplomatic intrigue, and regional wars, it never erupted into a full-scale war directly between Russian and British colonial forces. However,

10395-700: The conclusion of his life's work. At 15 years of age, Hedin witnessed the triumphal return of the Arctic explorer Adolf Erik Nordenskiöld after his first navigation of the Northern Sea Route . From that moment on, young Sven aspired to become an explorer. His studies under the German geographer and China expert, Ferdinand Freiherr von Richthofen , awakened a love of Germany in Hedin and strengthened his resolve to undertake expeditions to Central Asia to explore

10530-518: The elements over his long career. His scientific documentation and popular travelogues, illustrated with his own photographs, watercolor paintings and drawings, his adventure stories for young readers and his lecture tours abroad made him world-famous. As a renowned expert on Turkestan and Tibet, he was able to obtain unrestricted access to European and Asian monarchs and politicians as well as to their geographical societies and scholarly associations. They all sought to purchase his exclusive knowledge about

10665-512: The end of the war, United States Army troops deliberately confiscated documents relating to Hedin's planned Central Asia Atlas . The U.S. Army Map Service later solicited Hedin's assistance and financed the printing and publication of his life's work, the Central Asia Atlas . Whoever compares this atlas with Adolf Stielers Hand Atlas of 1891 can appreciate what Hedin accomplished between 1893 and 1935. Although Hedin's research

10800-988: The era of discovery came to a close around 1920, Hedin contented himself with organizing the Sino-Swedish Expedition for qualified scientific explorers. Between 1893 and 1897, Hedin investigated the Pamir Mountains , travelling through the Tarim Basin in Xinjiang region, across the Taklamakan Desert , Lake Kara-Koshun and Lake Bosten , proceeding to study northern Tibet . He covered 26,000 kilometres (16,000 mi) on this journey and mapped 10,498 kilometres (6,523 mi) of them on 552 sheets. Approximately 3,600 kilometres (2,200 mi) led through previously uncharted areas. He started out on this expedition on 16 October 1893, from Stockholm, traveling via Saint Petersburg and Tashkent to

10935-699: The expedition and carry out research in their areas of specialty. Hedin met Chiang Kai-shek in Nanjing , who thereupon became a patron of the expedition. The Sino-Swedish Expedition was honored with a Chinese postage stamp series which had a print run of 25,000. The four stamps show camels at a camp with the expedition flag and bear the Chinese text, "Postal Service of the Prosperous Middle Kingdom" and in Latin underneath, "Scientific Expedition to

11070-582: The expedition and set out for the desert with only half as much water as could actually be carried. When he noticed the mistake, it was too late to return. Obsessed by his urge to carry out his research, Hedin deserted the caravan and proceeded alone on horseback with his servant. When that escort also collapsed from thirst, Hedin left him behind as well, but managed to reach a water source at the last desperate moment. He did, however, return to his servant with water and rescued him. Nevertheless, his ruthless behavior earned him massive criticism. In January 1896, after

11205-410: The expedition in an active war zone, and obtaining access for the expedition's participants to a research area intensely contested by local warlords . Nevertheless, the expedition was a scientific success. The archaeological artifacts which had been sent to Sweden were scientifically assessed for three years (or four years according to Chung-Chang Shen (C.C. Shen), who was the administrative officer for

11340-727: The fanfare of that order is performed before the investiture of members of the next order begins. This ceremony was first held on 31 May 2024. Great Game The Great Game was a rivalry between the 19th-century British and Russian empires over influence in Central Asia , primarily in Afghanistan , Persia , and Tibet . The two colonial empires used military interventions and diplomatic negotiations to acquire and redefine territories in Central and South Asia . Russia conquered Turkestan , and Britain expanded and set

11475-460: The high price Hedin was selling them at, but years later became valuable treasures among collectors. The first part of the expedition, from 1927 to 1932, led from Beijing via Baotou to Mongolia , over the Gobi Desert , through Xinjiang to Ürümqi , and into the northern and eastern parts of the Tarim Basin . The expedition had a wealth of scientific results which are being published up to

11610-464: The ideology of the time. In 1782, George Forster , a civil servant of the East India Company, undertook a journey that began in Calcutta , Bengal and passed through Kashmir , Afghanistan , Herat , Khorassan , Mazanderan , crossed the Caspian Sea by ship, and then travelled to Baku , Astrakhan , Moscow, St Petersburg and then by ship to London. Forster's detailed description of the journey

11745-613: The influence that a Muslim power with British support might have on the other khanates in the region. The Russian Empire sought to expand its access to strategic coastlines such as the Black Sea, Persian Gulf, and the Pacific. Russian war plans against British India were developed during the Crimean War , presented to the Tsar in 1854 and 1855. These were the Duhamel plan and Khrulev plan . According to historian Evgeny Sergeev,

11880-522: The influence that a Muslim power with British support might have on the other khanates. In 1837, Russian troops occupied the island of Ashuradeh in the Gorgan Bay of the southern Caspian Sea. However, from 1837 to 1857 the Russian Empire lent their support to the Shah. In 1838, Colonel Charles Stoddart of the East India Company arrived in the Emirate of Bukhara to arrange an alliance with Nasrullah Khan . Nasrullah Khan had Stoddart imprisoned in

12015-539: The inhabitants of drinking water. During his travels in 1900 and 1901 he attempted in vain to reach the city of Lhasa , which was forbidden to Europeans. He continued to Leh , in Ladakh district, India. From Leh, Hedin's route took him to Lahore , Delhi, Agra , Lucknow , Benares to Calcutta , meeting there with George Nathaniel Curzon , England's then Viceroy to India. This expedition resulted in 1,149 pages of maps, on which Hedin depicted newly discovered lands. He

12150-532: The lake dried out in 1971 as a consequence of irrigation activities, the above-mentioned transportation link enabled the People's Republic of China to construct a nuclear weapon test site at Lop Nur. Order of the Polar Star Its motto is, as seen on the blue enameled centre of the badge, Nescit Occasum , a Latin phrase meaning "It knows no decline". This is to represent that Sweden is as constant as

12285-456: The last mysterious portions of Asia and filling in the gaps by mapping an area completely unknown in Europe. As an explorer, Hedin became important for the Asian and European powers, who courted him, invited him to give numerous lectures, and hoped to obtain from him in return topographic, economic and strategic information about inner Asia, which they considered part of their sphere of influence. As

12420-461: The last uncharted areas of Asia. After obtaining a doctorate, learning several languages and dialects, and undertaking two trips through Persia , he ignored the advice of Ferdinand von Richthofen to continue his geographic studies to acquaint himself with geographical research methodology; the result was that Hedin had to leave the evaluation of his expedition results later to other scientists. Between 1894 and 1908, in three daring expeditions through

12555-425: The mountains and deserts of Central Asia , he mapped and researched parts of Chinese Turkestan (now Xinjiang ) and Tibet which had been unexplored by Europeans until then. Upon his return to Stockholm in 1909 he was received as triumphantly as Adolf Erik Nordenskiöld. In 1902, he became the last Swede (to date) to be raised to the untitled nobility and was considered one of Sweden's most important personalities. As

12690-439: The noble part that the first Christian nation of the world ought to fill. It was introduced into the mainstream by the British novelist Rudyard Kipling in his novel Kim (1901). It was first used academically by Professor H.W.C. Davis in a presentation titled The Great Game in Asia (1800–1844) on 10 November 1926. The use of the term "The Great Game" to describe Anglo-Russian rivalry in Central Asia became common only after

12825-726: The oil fields of Robert Nobel . Afterward he attended a course in topography for general staff officers for one month in summer 1885 and took a few weeks of instruction in portrait drawing; this comprised his entire training in those areas. On 15 August 1885, he traveled to Baku with Erhard Sandgren and instructed him there for seven months, and he himself began to learn the Latin , French, German, Persian , Russian, English and Tatar languages. He later learned several Persian dialects as well as Turkish , Kyrgyz , Mongolian , Tibetan and some Chinese. On 6 April 1886, Hedin left Baku for Iran (then called Persia), traveling by paddle steamer over

12960-473: The order. The Order has five degrees: Before 2023, clergymen and women were not called Knight, but instead made a Ledamot av andliga ståndet ("Member of the Cloth") for priests or a Ledamot ("Member") for Women. However, since 2023, the order make no difference between men and women. The Order also has a medal: the "Polar Star Medal". Before 1975 each royal order had their own investiture ceremony. When

13095-492: The participation of 37 scientists from six countries. Despite Chinese counter-demonstrations and after months of negotiations in the Republic of China , was he able to make the expedition also a Chinese one by obtaining Chinese research commissions and the participation of Chinese scientists. He also concluded a contract which guaranteed freedom of travel for this expedition which, because of its arms, 300 camels, and activities in

13230-452: The perspective that Britain would develop and control commercial and military inroads into Central Asia, and Britain's foreign policy was based on expectations of Russia adding the "jewel in the crown", India, to the vast empire that Russia was building in Asia. This resulted in an atmosphere of distrust and the constant threat of war between the two empires. If Russia were to gain control of the Emirate of Afghanistan , it might then be used as

13365-578: The power vacuum in Central Asia with gold medals, diamond-encrusted grand crosses, honorary doctorates and splendid receptions, as well as with logistic and financial support for his expeditions. Hedin, in addition to Nikolai Przhevalsky , Sir Francis Younghusband , and Sir Aurel Stein , was an active player in the British-Russian struggle for influence in Central Asia, known as the Great Game . Their travels were supported because they filled in

13500-636: The present time. For example, the discovery of specific deposits of iron, manganese , oil, coal and gold reserves was of great economic relevance for China. In recognition of his achievements, the Berlin Geographical Society presented him with the Ferdinand von Richthofen Medal in 1933; the same honor was also awarded to Erich von Drygalski for his Gauss Expedition to the Antarctic ; and to Alfred Philippson for his research on

13635-440: The publication of additional volumes. In 1935, Hedin made his exclusive knowledge about Central Asia available, not only to the Swedish government, but also to foreign governments such as China and Germany, in lectures and personal discussions with political representatives of Chiang Kai-shek and Adolf Hitler . Although he was not a National Socialist , Hedin's hope that Nazi Germany would protect Scandinavia from invasion by

13770-485: The release of Russian slaves that would deny the Russians a pretext for invading Khiva. If war had already broken out, Abbot was instructed to attempt to negotiate a settlement. The attempted Russian assault on Khiva may have been in response to Britain's "forward policy" on Afghanistan, however it failed to reach Khiva due to the severe winter conditions. Of the 5,000 men who had left Orenburg, only 4,000 returned. Abbott

13905-406: The reorganization of the orders in 1975 until 2023, the Order was only awarded to foreigners and members of the royal family, often being awarded to foreign office holders (such as prime and senior ministers) during Swedish state visits. It is also awarded to junior members of royal families who would not qualify for the more prestigious Royal Order of the Seraphim . In 2019, a parliamentary committee

14040-422: The respect for private property. With pay for work and security in place, nomads would settle and become tribal herdsman surrounding oasis cities. These were to develop into modern states with agreed borders, as in the European model. Therefore, lines needed to be agreed and drawn on maps. Morgan says that two proud and expanding empires approached each other, without any agreed frontier, from opposite directions over

14175-640: The return journey. His travels were published in 1841. Charles Masson , formerly of the East India Company, resided in Baluchistan , Afghanistan and the Punjab between 1826 and 1838 and published his travels. In September 1829, Lieutenant Arthur Conolly of the East India Company travelled from St. Petersburg, Russia to the Caspian desert, to Kir (northern Iran), was detained in Astrabad (northern Iran) as

14310-734: The royal orders were reinstated, however, this practice was not restored. Instead a new state ceremony was created in which all recipients of all orders are awarded. The new ceremony is held in the White Sea Hall of the Stockholm Palace, decorated with the banners and insignia of the royal orders. After the King and Queen are announced by the Herald of the Royal Orders, tapping his staff on the floor twice, and make their entrance to

14445-475: The sacred Lake Manasarovar and Mount Kailash , the midpoint of the earth according to Buddhist and Hindu mythology. The most important goal of the expedition was the search for the sources of the Indus and Brahmaputra Rivers, both of which Hedin found. From India, he returned via Japan and Russia to Stockholm. He returned from this expedition with a collection of geological samples which are kept and studied in

14580-411: The same month, he received the degree of Doctor of Philosophy with a 28-page dissertation entitled Personal Observations of Damavand . This dissertation is a summary of one part of his book, King Oscar's Legation to the Shah of Persia in 1890 . Eric Wennerholm remarked on the subject: I can only come to the conclusion that Sven [Hedin] received his doctorate when he was 27 years old after studying for

14715-586: The security of Scandinavia, he favored the Swedish Navy 's construction of the battleship Sverige . In World War I he specifically allied himself in his publications with the German Empire and its conduct of the war. Because of this political involvement, his scientific reputation was damaged among the Allied powers , along with his memberships in their geographical societies and learned associations, as well as any support for his planned expeditions. After

14850-513: The southern frontier, was aimed to keep British eyes off of the January uprising in Poland. Andreyev states that, as late as 1909, strategists of the Russian Empire sought to use Afghanistan to "threaten India... to exert influence on Britain", quoting Andrei Snesarev . According to diplomatic historian Barbara Jelavich , it was logistically not possible for the Russian Empire to invade India and

14985-478: The time has arrived at which it would be right for you to interfere decidedly in the affairs of Afghanistan. Such an interference would doubtless be requisite, either to prevent the extension of Persian dominion in that quarter or to raise a timely barrier against the impending encroachments of Russian influence. In that year, Lieutenant John Wood of the Indian Navy commanded the first steamboat to paddle up

15120-600: The time, Russia also went to war with Qajar Iran and invaded the Persian Caucasus from 1804-1813 , adding to Britain's fears, while Russia was distracted mainly by the Napoleonic Wars. In 1810, British Lieutenant Henry Pottinger and Captain Charles Christie undertook an expedition from Nushki ( Balochistan ) to Isfahan (Central Persia) disguised as Muslims. The expedition was funded by

15255-417: The tough terrain and weather. However, the khan of Khiva feared a further Russian assault and released a number of Russian slaves. During the 1840s and 1850s, Russia's aims in Central Asia were for Bukhara and Khiva to refrain from hostile actions against Russia, cease possession of Russian slaves and the granting of asylum to Kazakhs fleeing from Russian justice. Khiva must cease her attacks on caravans along

15390-480: The tranquility of our neighborhood could be secured...the Governor-General confidently hopes that the Shah will speedily be replaced on his throne...the independence and integrity of Afghanistan restored, the British army will be withdrawn. British influence was to be extended into Afghanistan and it was to become a buffer state. The intention to invade was clear, and when a copy of the Manifesto reached London there

15525-457: The turn of the millennium: in the Lop Nur desert, Hedin discovered in 1933 and 1934 ruins of signal towers which prove that the Great Wall of China once extended as far west as Xinjiang . From 1931 until his death in 1952, Hedin lived in Stockholm in a modern high-rise in a preferred location, the address being Norr Mälarstrand 66. He lived with his siblings in the upper three stories and from

15660-494: The two nations battled in the Crimean War from 1853 to 1856, which affected the Great Game. The Russian and British Empires also cooperated numerous times during the Great Game, including many treaties and the Afghan Boundary Commission . Britain feared Russia's southward expansion would threaten India, while Russia feared the expansion of British interests into Central Asia. As a result, Britain made it

15795-608: The world, and its response was The Great Game. Britain had no intention of getting involved in the Middle East, but it did envision a series of buffer states between the British and Russian Empires that included Turkey, Persia, plus the Khanate of Khiva and the Khanate of Bukhara that would grow from future trade. Behind these buffer states would be their protected states stretching from the Persian Gulf to India and up into

15930-665: Was also able to use a rivalry between the East India Company and the British Foreign Office , to garner more British aid. In the 1809 preliminary Treaty of Tehran, Persia agreed to stop any European or foreign army passing to India, while the British agreed to send a mission to train sixteen thousand Persian soldiers and, if Qajar Persia was invaded by a European state, pay a £100,000 subsidy to Persia, while attempting to mediate if at peace with Persia's enemy. Nevertheless, Russia would end up defeating Iran

16065-529: Was also awarded to meritorious civil servants. From 1975–2023, the ribbon of the Order was blue with yellow stripes near the edges (i.e., the national colors, but the reverse of the Order of the Sword's yellow ribbon with blue stripes near the edges). The black ribbon was reintroduced in 2023 when guidelines to once again award Swedish honours to Swedish citizens were introduced. Women and clergymen are not called Knight or Commander, but simply Member ( Ledamot ). From

16200-494: Was also the first to unearth the ruins of ancient Buddhist cities in Chinese Central Asia. However, as his main interest in archaeology was finding ancient cities, he had little interest in gathering data thorough scientific excavations. Of small stature, with a bookish, bespectacled appearance, Hedin nevertheless proved himself a determined explorer, surviving several close brushes with death from hostile forces and

16335-450: Was attacked by Khazakhs and he was wounded in the hand and taken hostage, however he and his party were released because they feared retribution. He reached Saint Petersburg but the attempt at mediation failed. His bravery was recognized through promotion to full Captain. In the same year, Lieutenant Richmond Shakespear of the Bengal Artillery was successful in negotiating the release of 416 Russian captives, whom he escorted into Russia. He

16470-486: Was born in Stockholm, the son of Ludwig Hedin, Chief Architect of Stockholm. When he was 15 years old Hedin witnessed the triumphal return of the Swedish Arctic explorer Adolf Erik Nordenskiöld after his first navigation of the Northern Sea Route . He describes this experience in his book My Life as an Explorer as follows: On 24 April 1880, the steamer Vega sailed into Stockholms ström . The entire city

16605-427: Was canceled after Russia's invasion of Persia in 1804. Fath-Ali then lent a promise to Napoleon in 1807 to theoretically invade British India in exchange for French military assistance (Gardane's mission) which fell through despite the Treaty of Finckenstein . When France allied with Russia at Tilsit in 1807, as Russia was still invading Iran, Fath-Ali Shah turned toward British diplomacy and alliance in 1809. The shah

16740-546: Was coined in 1840 by a British intelligence officer Captain Arthur Conolly (1807–1842). Rudyard Kipling 's 1901 novel Kim popularized the term, increasing its association with great power rivalry. It became even more popular after the 1979 advent of the Soviet–Afghan War . In the historical sense, the term dates from the mid-19th century. Captain Conolly had been appointed as a political officer. A similar term,

16875-399: Was decisive for my future. Thunderous jubilation resounded from quays, streets, windows and rooftops. "That is how I want to return home some day," I thought to myself. In May 1885, Hedin graduated from Beskowska secondary school in Stockholm. He then accepted an offer to accompany the student Erhard Sandgren as his private tutor to Baku , where Sandgren's father was working as an engineer in

17010-487: Was hampered by a lack of understanding of Khivan language and culture, and the attempt to release Russian slaves was unsuccessful. He did agree with the Khivan ruler, Allah Quli Khan , to establishing a British agent to Khiva and to mediate between Khiva and Russia. Abbott set off from Khiva in 1840 towards Russia to commence negotiations, which he did on his own initiative and it was not authorised by his superiors. His caravan

17145-474: Was illuminated. The buildings around the harbor glowed in the light of innumerable lamps and torches. Gas flames depicted the constellation of Vega on the castle. Amidst this sea of light the famous ship glided into the harbor. I was standing on the Södermalm heights with my parents and siblings, from which we had a superb view. I was gripped by great nervous tension. I will remember this day until I die, as it

17280-516: Was instructed to establish guidelines on how to re-introduce the Swedish orders, including the Order of the Polar Star, into the Swedish honours system, and how Swedish citizens again can be appointed to Swedish orders. The committee presented its findings in September 2021 and the Government declared that a bill on the subject would be presented to the Riksdag on 19 April 2022. The bill passed

17415-659: Was knighted for this undertaking. In 1843, Britain annexed the Sind . The First Anglo-Sikh War was fought between the Sikh Empire and the East India Company in 1845–1846, resulting in the partial subjugation of the Sikh kingdom. The Second Anglo-Sikh War was fought in 1848–1849, resulting in subjugation of the remainder of the Sikh Empire, and the annexation of the Punjab Province and what subsequently became

17550-468: Was no objection. In 1838, the British marched into Afghanistan and deposed Dost Mohammad Khan . After a period of resistance , Dost Mohammad surrendered despite his victories. The British sent him into exile in India and replaced him with the previous ruler, Shah Shuja , who shared their more progressive vision for the people of the region. Shah Shuja ul-Mulk had ascended the throne in 1803 and had signed

17685-511: Was not seriously considered, however the Tsars understood that making invasion plans threatening the "jewel" of Britain's empire was a way to extract more favorable outcomes in Europe. Similarly to the British Empire, the Russian Empire saw themselves as a "civilizing power" expanding a purely humanitarian mission among the Turcomans into what they perceived a "semi-barbarous" region, reflecting

17820-457: Was not up to this challenge. I had gotten out onto the wild routes of Asia too early, I had perceived too much of the splendor and magnificence of the Orient, the silence of the deserts and the loneliness of long journeys. I could not get used to the idea of spending a long period of time back in school. Hedin had therewith decided to become an explorer. He was attracted to the idea of traveling to

17955-486: Was published in 1798. William Moorcroft was an explorer, doctor, veterinary surgeon, and Superintendent of the East India Company's horse stud. He had an interest in expanding trade in Central Asia, where he thought the Russian traders were already active. In 1820, Moorcroft, George Trebeck and George Guthrie left India for Bukhara to buy Turkoman horses and reached Bukhara in 1825. However, all three died of fever on

18090-698: Was taboo in Germany and Sweden because of his conduct relating to Nazi Germany, and stagnated for decades in Germany, the scientific documentation of his expeditions was translated into Chinese by the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences and incorporated into Chinese research. Following recommendations made by Hedin to the Chinese Nationalist government in 1935, the routes he selected were used to construct streets and train tracks, as well as dams and canals to irrigate new farms being established in

18225-709: Was the first to describe yardang formations in the Lop Desert. Between 1905 and 1908, Hedin investigated the Central Iranian desert basins, the western highlands of Tibet and the Transhimalaya , which for a time was afterward called the Hedin Range. He visited the 9th Panchen Lama in the cloistered city of Tashilhunpo in Shigatse . Hedin was the first European to reach the Kailash region, including

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