143-436: [REDACTED] Member State of the Arab League [REDACTED] Asia portal [REDACTED] History portal Politics in the Syrian Arab Republic takes place in the framework of a presidential republic with nominal multi-party representation in People's Council under the Ba'athist-dominated National Progressive Front . In practice, Syria is a one-party state where independent parties are outlawed; with
286-535: A landowner , was a corrupt and capitalistic politician, who was to blame for the Syrian army's defeat. Aflaq called for al-Quwatli's resignation, and wrote several al-Ba'ath articles criticising his presidency and his prime minister, Jamil Mardam Bey . Aflaq was later arrested on the orders of al-Quwatli's prime minister Bey. Al-Quwali's government was brought down in a coup d'état led by military officer Husni al-Za'im . Al-Za'im banned all parties, claiming that Syria
429-784: A "just solution" for the Palestinian refugees . The Peace Initiative was again endorsed at 2007 in the Riyadh Summit. In July 2007, the Arab League sent a mission, consisting of the Jordanian and Egyptian foreign ministers, to Israel to promote the initiative. Following Venezuela 's move to expel Israeli diplomats amid the 2008–2009 Israel–Gaza conflict , Kuwaiti member of parliament Waleed Al-Tabtabaie proposed moving Arab League headquarters to Caracas , Venezuela . On 13 June 2010, Amr Mohammed Moussa, Secretary-General of
572-503: A "shallow, false faith." According to Ba'athist ideology, all religions were equal. Despite his anti-atheist stance, Aflaq was a strong supporter of secular government, and stated that a Ba'athist state would replace religion with a state "based on a foundation – Arab nationalism, and a moral – freedom." Fouad Ajami criticised Aflaq for a lack of real substance, stating, "Nearly three hundred pages of text yield no insight, on his part, into what went wrong and what needed to be done; there
715-519: A base of operation against Shishali's rule – Aflaq and the rest cooperated with non-Ba'athist opposition forces too. Shishakli was toppled in February 1954. Following the overthrow of al-Shishakli, Syria held its first democratic elections in five years. The Ba'ath Party, led by Aflaq, al-Bitar and al-Hawrani, had 22 members elected to parliament. This increase in influence can largely be attributed to al-Hawrani – several old ASP strongholds voted for
858-477: A deep distrust of others and became, according to some of his associates, paranoid . When the two Ba'ath movements merged and established the Arab Ba'ath Party in 1947, the only subject discussed was how much socialism to include; Wahib al-Ghanim and Jalal al-Sayyid from the al-Arsuzi led Ba'ath movement wanted Aflaq and al-Bitar to adopt more radical socialist policies. The Arab Ba'ath Party's first congress
1001-606: A first name. According to the German orientalists Martin Robbe and Gerhard Höpp, the conversion happened before 1988. Regardless of the disagreements about his religion, he was given an Islamic funeral. According to the Berkley Center, anonymous members of Aflaq's family claimed that Aflaq's conversion was a lie made up by Saddam Hussein which he used as a tool to distance Ba'athism from Christianity . The tomb constructed on
1144-462: A forum in which economic policies are debated and the country's political orientation is determined. The Syrian constitution of 2012 requires that the president be Muslim but does not make Islam the state religion. The judicial system in Syria is an amalgam of Ottoman , French , and Islamic laws, with three levels of courts: courts of first instance, courts of appeals , and the constitutional court,
1287-693: A general way the affairs and interests of the Arab countries". The organization has received a relatively low level of cooperation throughout its history. Through institutions, notably the Arab League Educational, Cultural and Scientific Organization (ALECSO) and the Economic and Social Council of its Council of Arab Economic Unity (CAEU), the League facilitates political, economic, cultural, scientific, and social programmes designed to promote
1430-477: A hybrid of absolute monarchy and republic. Syrian security apparatus and the dreaded secret police are instrumentalized by the regime to instill terror among ordinary citizens to prevent critique of the President or organize demonstrations. Political dissidents Riad al-Turk and Suheir Atassi have described Ba'athist Syria as a "Kingdom of Silence" which maintains monopoly over political discourse by seeking
1573-688: A middle class Orthodox Christian family, his father, Joseph, worked as a grain merchant . Aflaq was first educated in the Westernized schools of the French Mandate of Syria . In 1929, he left Syria to study philosophy abroad at the Sorbonne in Paris. During his stay, Aflaq was influenced by the works of Henri Bergson and met his longtime collaborator Salah al-Din al-Bitar , a fellow Syrian nationalist. Aflaq founded an Arab Student Union at
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#17327728861561716-435: A mixture of radical Hobbesian and Marxist ideas, Michel Aflaq viewed religion as the " opiate of the masses ", which subverted efforts for the advancement of a socialist revolution . In 1956, Aflaq asserted that religion was a tool used by the elites of the traditional social order to maintain a corrupt system which facilitated the oppression and exploitation of the weaker classes of the society. He also claimed that religion
1859-691: A month". The Ba'ath movement was not running as smoothly as the rest of the world believed; the Iraqi Regional Branch was already starting to lose membership. The Iraqi military and the party's militant arm, the National Guard , detested each other. Al-Sadi, the Regional Secretary of the Iraqi Regional Branch, was eventually exiled to Madrid , Spain on 11 November by several military officers and moderate Ba'athists. An anxious Aflaq hastily traveled from Syria and dissolved
2002-697: A new government. Al-Razzaz, Aflaq's successor as secretary general, came from the pro-Aflaq faction. With the defection of al-Hafez, he ordered that the National Command was the de jure ruling body of the Ba'ath Party. He appointed al-Bitar Prime Minister, Umran defence minister, Mansur al-Atrash as Chairman of the National Council of the Revolutionary Command and al-Hafiz retained his post as President of Syria . Salah Jadid ,
2145-419: A pan-Arab leader. Nasser started launching bitter propaganda attacks against the party; Aflaq was dismissed as an ineffectual theorist who was mocked as a puppet " Roman emperor " and accused of being a "Cypriot Christian". In several Ba'ath Party meetings, Aflaq responded with pure anger, and became an anti-Nasserist. Because of the position he took, Aflaq had a falling out with al-Bitar who still believed there
2288-565: A peacekeeping force to deploy in South Lebanon, Darfur, Iraq, and other hot spots. At a 2015 summit in Egypt, member states agreed in principle to form a joint military force. The Arab League is rich in resources, such as enormous oil and natural gas resources in certain member states. Economic achievements initiated by the League amongst member states have been less impressive than those achieved by smaller Arab organisations such as
2431-485: A powerful secret police that cracks down on dissidents. Since the 1963 seizure of power by its Military Committee , the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party has governed Syria as a totalitarian police state . After a period of intra-party strife, Hafez al-Assad gained control of the party following the 1970 coup d'état and his family has dominated the country's politics ever since. Until the early stages of
2574-408: A religious sense – Aflaq was a Christian who worshipped Islam. Aflaq did not believe it was necessary to worship Muhammad, but believed that all Arabs should strive to emulate Muhammad. In the words of Aflaq himself, Arabs "belong to the nation that gave birth to a Muhammad; or rather, because this Arab individual is a member of the community which Muhammad put all his efforts into creating […] Muhammad
2717-653: A staunchly anti-Aflaq civilian faction calling themselves the "Regionalists" – this group had not dissolved their party organisations as ordered by Aflaq in the 1950s. The Regional Congress of the Syrian Regional Branch, in March 1965, devolved power from the center, the National Command, to the Regional Command. From then on, the Regional Secretary of the Regional Command was considered Syria's ex officio head of state. The Regional Secretary had
2860-478: A student circle, which usually met on Fridays. That year, the Arab Ihya Movement , a political party, was established by Aflaq and al-Bitar. They used most of their spare time in 1941 to agitate for the party. It was in 1942 that Aflaq showed his skills as "a compelling speaker" who was able to utilize the "theatrical pause" to great effect. The party changed its name to Arab Ba'ath Movement to signify
3003-542: A work of great artistic merit, designed by Iraqi architect Chadagee , was located on the western grounds of the Ba'ath Party Pan-Arab Headquarters, at the intersection of Al-Kindi street and the Qādisiyyah Expressway overpass. Although there were rumors and accusations that his tomb was destroyed during the 2003 Iraq War , the burial chamber and building above it were left untouched. Its blue-tiled dome can be seen above
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#17327728861563146-725: A year before the Lebanese Civil War broke out. He refrained from taking part in Iraqi politics. He published several works during this period, the most notable being The Struggle Against Distorting the Movement of Arab Revolution in 1975. Aflaq regained some of his influence when he befriended Saddam Hussein , President of Iraq from 1979 until 2003. During the Iran–Iraq War the Iranian leadership accused Hussein of being under
3289-656: Is Egypt , with a population of over 100 million. The least populated is the Comoros , with approximately 850,000 inhabitants. The majority of the Arab League's citizens adhere to Islam , with Christianity being the second largest religion. At least 15 million Christians combined live in Egypt , Iraq , Jordan , Lebanon , Palestine , Sudan and Syria . In addition, there are smaller but significant numbers of Druze , Yazidis , Shabaks and Mandaeans . Numbers for nonreligious Arabs are generally not available, but research by
3432-725: Is and what ought to be. In his thought, both are molded into the same category: that which is attainable . In contrast to his longtime friend and colleague Salah al-Din al-Bitar , who was more practical when it came to politics, Aflaq was a "visionary, the dreamer rather unfitted for political life". Aflaq was described by his associates as an " ascetic , shy and intense figure living a simple and unpretentious life." He has been accused of seeking help from other people instead of fulfilling his goal by himself or with others he led; Aflaq collaborated with Gamal Abdel Nasser , Abd al-Karim Qasim and Abdul Rahman Arif in 1958, to Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr and Ali Salih al-Sadi in 1963 and finally in
3575-556: Is a regional organization in the Arab world . The Arab League was formed in Cairo on 22 March 1945, initially with seven members: Egypt , Iraq , Transjordan , Lebanon , Saudi Arabia , Syria , and North Yemen . Currently, the League has 22 members . The League's main goal is to "draw closer the relations between member states and co-ordinate collaboration between them, to safeguard their independence and sovereignty, and to consider in
3718-414: Is confined to the inner world of the party." In contrast to other philosophers, such as Karl Marx or John Locke , Aflaq's ideological view of the world makes no clear stand on the materialistic or socioeconomic behavior of humanity. While other philosophers make distinctions between what is real and what is not real, that is between prescriptive and descriptive analysis, Aflaq did not as a rule define what
3861-660: Is divided into five parts when it comes to transport, with the Arabian Peninsula and the Near East being entirely connected by air, sea, roads and railways. Another part of the League is the Nile Valley , made up of Egypt and Sudan . These two member states have started to improve the River Nile's navigation system to improve accessibility and thus foster trading. A new railway system is also set to connect
4004-451: Is neither socialist nor Arab nationalist in orientation to be legalised and admitted to the NPF. This has given rise to suggestions that broader ideological perspectives would be afforded some degree of toleration in the future, but this did not occur: ethnically-based (Kurdish and Assyrian) parties continue to be repressed, most opposition parties are illegal, and a strict ban on religious parties
4147-540: Is only the visible infatuation with words", and "Aflaq summons the party to renounce power and go back to its 'pure essence'. There is some truth in this critique." Aflaq spent much time and energy writing optimistically about the future, and the past, of the Arab Nation, and how the Arab World could be unified. As Kanan Makiya, the author of Republic of Fear: The Politics of Modern Iraq , notes: for "Aflaq, reality
4290-618: Is still enforced. Syria's Emergency Law was in force from 1963, when the Ba'ath Party came to power, until 21 April 2011 when it was rescinded by Bashar al-Assad (decree 161). The law, justified on the grounds of the continuing war with Israel and the threats posed by terrorists, suspended most constitutional protections. Leadership in Damascus : Leadership of the Syrian opposition in Idlib : The previous Syrian constitution of 1973 vested
4433-490: Is the pervasive military apparatus that is managed by the Ba'athist Central Command ; consisting of Syrian Arab Armed Forces , Mukhabarat and various Ba'athist paramilitaries, all of which are headed by senior party leaders who directly answer to the Assad patriarch. The Ba'ath platform is proclaimed succinctly in the party's slogan : "Unity, freedom, and socialism." The party is both socialist, advocating state ownership of
Politics of Syria - Misplaced Pages Continue
4576-541: The Arab Ba'ath Party , to accuse Aflaq and al-Bitar of stealing his party's name from him. Though both men were promoting a party platform based on an Arab nationalist stance, Aflaq and al-Arsuzi became bitter rivals. On 24 October 1942, both Aflaq and al-Bitar resigned from their teaching positions, now determined to devote themselves fully to the political struggle. In 1941 the Syrian Committee to Help Iraq
4719-418: The Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party , which was dissolved in 1966 following the 1966 Syrian coup d'état which led to the establishment of one Iraqi-dominated ba'ath movement and one Syrian-led ba'ath movement . The party embraces secularism and has attracted supporters of all faiths in many Arab countries, especially Iraq, Jordan, and Lebanon. Six smaller political parties are permitted to exist and, along with
4862-431: The Arab world needs to be unified into one Arab Nation in order to achieve an advanced state of development. He was critical of both capitalism and communism, and critical of Karl Marx 's view of dialectical materialism as the only truth. Ba'athist thought placed much emphasis on liberty and Arab socialism – a socialism with Arab characteristics, which was not part of the international socialist movement as defined by
5005-584: The Arabs of Palestine the framers of the Pact were determined to include them within the League from its inauguration. This was done by means of an annex that declared: Even though Palestine was not able to control her own destiny, it was on the basis of the recognition of her independence that the Covenant of the League of Nations determined a system of government for her. Her existence and her independence among
5148-515: The Ba'ath Party (formally the Arab Ba'ath Socialist Party) with leadership functions in the state and society and provided broad powers to the president. The president , approved by referendum for a 7-year term, was also Secretary General of the Ba'ath Party and leader of the National Progressive Front . During the 2011–2012 Syrian uprising , a new constitution was put to a referendum . Amongst other changes, it abolished
5291-758: The Beirut Summit on 28 March 2002, the league adopted the Arab Peace Initiative , a Saudi-inspired peace plan for the Arab–Israeli conflict . The initiative offered full normalisation of the relations with Israel . In exchange, Israel was required to withdraw from all occupied territories , including the Golan Heights , to recognise Palestinian independence in the West Bank and Gaza Strip , with East Jerusalem as its capital, as well as
5434-654: The Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC). Among them is the Arab Gas Pipeline , that will transport Egyptian and Iraqi gas to Jordan, Syria, Lebanon, and Turkey. As of 2013, a significant difference in economic conditions exist between the developed oil states of Algeria , Qatar , Kuwait and the UAE , and developing countries like the Comoros , Djibouti , Mauritania , Somalia , Sudan and Yemen . The Arab League also includes great fertile lands in
5577-796: The Nile Valley , the Jubba Valley and Shebelle Valley in the Horn of Africa , the Atlas Mountains in the Maghreb , and the Fertile Crescent that stretches over Mesopotamia and the Levant . The area comprises deep forests in southern Arabia and parts of the world's longest river, the Nile . The Charter of the Arab League , also known as the Pact of the League of Arab States, is
5720-575: The Pew Forum suggests around 1% of people in the MENA region are "unaffiliated". The official language of the Arab League is Literary Arabic , based on Classical Arabic . However, several Arab League member states have other co-official or national languages, such as Somali , Afar , Comorian , French , English , Berber and Kurdish . In most countries, there is a dominant non- codified spoken Arabic dialect . The Pan-Arab Games are considered
5863-468: The Popular Front under the French Mandate of Syria . Later in 1940 Aflaq and al-Bitar established the Arab Ihya Movement (later renaming itself the Arab Ba'ath Movement , taking the name from Zaki al-Arsuzi 's group by the same name ). The movement proved successful, and in 1947 the Arab Ba'ath Movement merged with al-Arsuzi's Arab Ba'ath organisation to establish the Arab Ba'ath Party . Aflaq
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6006-563: The President of Iraq and a Nasserist, plotted a coup against the Ba'ath Party on 18 November, which succeeded. The dream of cornering Nasser's pan-Arab project was over; instead, it was Nasser and the Nasserists who were cornering the Ba'ath movement. On hearing the news, Aflaq and several Ba'athists fled Iraq for Syria. After a falling out with the Military Committee, of which he was a member, Muhammad Umran told Aflaq about
6149-516: The Regional Command of the Iraqi Regional Branch, exclaiming that the National Command would rule Iraq in its place until a new Regional Command was elected. This was not greeted warmly by the majority of Iraqi military officers and Ba'athists – the idea that a Christian was to rule over a Muslim country was considered "insensitive". The situation in Iraq did not improve, Abdul Salam Arif ,
6292-611: The Shia Houthis and forces loyal to former President Ali Abdullah Saleh , who was deposed in the 2011 uprising . On 15 April 2018, in response to the Turkish invasion of northern Syria aimed at ousting U.S.-backed Syrian Kurds from the enclave of Afrin , the Arab League passed a resolution calling on Turkish forces to withdraw from Afrin. In September 2019, the Arab League condemned Benjamin Netanyahu 's plans to annex
6435-600: The Syrian National Coalition Syria's seat in the Arab League. On 9 March 2014, secretary general Nabil Elaraby stated that Syria's seat would remain vacant until the opposition completes the formation of its institutions. In 2021, the Arab League initiated a process of normalisation between Syria and other Arab nations. On 7 May 2023, at the meeting of the Council of the Arab League in Cairo, it
6578-469: The Syrian uprising , the president had broad and unchecked decree authority under a long-standing state of emergency . The end of this emergency was a key demand of the uprising. Superficial reforms in 2011 made presidential decrees subject to approval by the People's Council , the country's legislature, which is itself dominated to parties loyal to the president. The Ba'ath Party is Syria's ruling party and
6721-689: The Syrian–Lebanese Communist Party (SLCP) supported the FCP's decision. From then on Aflaq saw the communist movement as a tool of the Soviet Union . He was impressed by the organisation and ideology of Antun Saadeh 's Syrian Social Nationalist Party . Upon their return to Syria, Aflaq and al-Bitar became teachers at Tajhiz all'-Ula, "the most prestigious secondary school in Syria". Aflaq taught history, while al-Bitar taught math and physics. By 1940, Aflaq and al-Bitar had managed to set up
6864-654: The sovereignty of the individual member states. The internal regulations of the Council of the League and the committees were agreed in October 1951. Those of the Secretariat-General were agreed in May 1953. Since then, governance of the Arab League has been based on the duality of supra-national institutions and the sovereignty of the member states. Preservation of individual statehood derived its strengths from
7007-553: The 1970s to Saddam Hussein . There are several Ba'athists, mostly from the Syrian-led Ba'ath Party , who believe Aflaq stole Ba'athist ideology from its original founder, Zaki al-Arsuzi . These individuals have denounced, and labelled, Aflaq as a "thief". In his writings, Aflaq had been stridently in favor of free speech and other human rights and aid for the lower classes. During the Military Committee's gradual takeover of power in Syria, Aflaq rallied against what he saw as
7150-590: The Arab League initiated the creation of an organisation representing the Palestinian people. The first Palestinian National Council convened in East Jerusalem on 29 May 1964. The Palestinian Liberation Organization was founded during this meeting on 2 June 1964. Palestine was shortly admitted in to the Arab League, represented by the PLO. Today, State of Palestine is a full member of the Arab League. At
7293-406: The Arab League is one of the Institutions of the Arab League . It was established under the terms of the Joint Defence and Economic Co-operation Treaty of 1950 to coordinate the joint defence of the Arab League member states . The Arab League as an organisation has no military Force, similar to the UN, but at the 2007 summit, the Leaders decided to reactivate their joint defence and establish
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#17327728861567436-448: The Arab League refused to condemn the UAE 's decision to normalize ties with Israel . Nevertheless, "The goal all our Arab countries seek, without exception, is to end the occupation and establish an independent Palestinian state on the 1967 borders with East Jerusalem as its capital," Aboul Gheit said. In January 2024, the Arab League expressed support for South Africa's ICJ genocide case against Israel. The Joint Defence Council of
7579-413: The Arab League, visited the Gaza Strip , the first visit by an official of the Arab League since Hamas' armed takeover in 2007. The Arab League is a member of the China-Arab States Cooperation Forum (CASCF), which was formed in 2004. CASCF is the Arab League's earliest participation in a cooperation forum with another country or region. CASCF is the primarily multi-lateral coordination mechanism between
7722-419: The Arab nations was, according to Aflaq, through a revolutionary movement. Aflaq was influenced by Marxism in that he saw the need for a vanguard party to rule the Arab Nation for an indefinite period of time (the period would be a transition from the old to the new). The need for liberty was one of the defining features of Ba'athism, however, liberty not in the sense used by liberal democracies . Aflaq
7865-424: The Arab states and China and within CASCF the Arab League represents its member states as a relatively unified force. The Arab League's coordination allows Arab states to negotiate actively for collective projects involving multiple states, such as railway projects, nuclear power projects, and Dead Sea initiatives. In 2015, the Arab League voiced support for Saudi Arabian-led military intervention in Yemen against
8008-417: The Arabian Peninsula by the Bab el Mandeb and this is quickly changing as Tarik bin Laden, the brother of Osama bin Laden , has initiated the construction of the ambitious Bridge of the Horns project, which ultimately aims to connect the Horn of Africa with the Arabian Peninsula via a massive bridge. The project is intended to facilitate and accelerate the already centuries-old trade and commerce between
8151-439: The Ba'ath Party because of al-Hawrani's presence. By this time Aflaq was losing much of his power to al-Hawrani and his supporters, who were in a majority in the party. proof of this was the decision of the Ba'ath Party to collaborate openly with the Syrian Communist Party (SCP), a move Aflaq opposed. Aflaq was elected the party's Secretary General of the newly established National Command, a title equivalent to 'party leader', by
8294-548: The Ba'ath Party, make up the National Progressive Front (NPF), a grouping of parties that represents the sole framework of legal political party participation for citizens. While created ostensibly to give the appearance of a multi-party system, the NPF is dominated by the Ba'ath Party and does not change the essentially one-party character of the political system. Non-Ba'ath Party members of the NPF exist as political parties largely in name only and conform strictly to Ba'ath Party and government policies. There were reports in 2000 that
8437-541: The Ba'ath leadership for doing too little to help the Palestine Liberation Organisation during the conflict. During the conflict, Aflaq lobbied extensively for Yasser Arafat and the PLO. Aflaq wanted Iraqi intervention; al-Bakr, however, refused to get Iraq involved in such a conflict. Because of this, Aflaq returned to Lebanon in self-imposed exile. The government of Hafez al-Assad , the President of Syria , condemned Aflaq to death in absentia in 1971. After four years of self-imposed exile Aflaq returned to Iraq in 1974,
8580-404: The Ba'ath party. The Syrian Army and security services maintained a considerable presence in the neighbouring Lebanese Republic from 1975 until 24 April 2005. The 50th edition of Freedom in the World , the annual report published by Freedom House since 1973, designates Syria as "Worst of the Worst" among the "Not Free" countries, listing Assad government as one of the two regimes to get
8723-419: The French Mandate authorities to grant the movement a party license. The Arab Ba'ath Movement did not become an official party until 1947, when it merged with al-Arsuzi's Arab Ba'ath Movement to found the Arab Ba'ath Party . The Arab Ba'ath Movement, led by Aflaq and al-Bitar, drew supporters from al-Arsuzi's Ba'ath Movement; during the 1940s, al-Arsuzi started to seclude himself from the public eye, he developed
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#17327728861568866-417: The Iraqi-led party led by Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr and Saddam Hussein , still proclaimed Aflaq to be the founder of Ba'athist thought. In February 1966 at the Ninth National Congress, held after the coup which ousted the pro-Aflaq faction, the Iraqi delegation split with the Syrian Ba'athists. The Iraqis held the true Ninth National Congress in February 1968 in Beirut, and elected Aflaq as Secretary General of
9009-528: The Marxist factions led by al-Shufi and Ali Salih al-Sa'di , in Syria and Iraq respectively, were the majority group. Another problem facing Aflaq was that several of his colleagues were not elected to party office, for instance, al-Bitar was not reelected to a seat in the National Command. Instead of the traditional civilian leadership, a new leadership consisting of military officers was gradually growing; Jadid and Amin al-Hafiz from Syria and Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr and Salih Mahdi Ammash from Iraq were elected to
9152-430: The Military Committee to save the Syrian Ba'ath movement from annihilation. The party's Third National Congress in 1959 supported Aflaq's decision to dissolve the party, but a 1960 National Congress, in which Jadid was a delegate representing the then-unknown Military Committee, reversed the decision and called for the Ba'ath Party's reestablishment. The Congress also decided to improve relations with Nasser by democratising
9295-400: The Military Committee's strongman, responded by arresting several Umran supporters. Umran responded by dismissing a handful of pro-Jadid officials. The most important of these dismissals was the removal of Ahmad Suwaydani from the post of head of the country's military intelligence to head of the Officer Administration. On 23 February a coup d'état led by Jadid and Hafez al-Assad overthrew
9438-445: The Movement of Arab Revolution (1975). Born into a middle-class family in Damascus , Syria, Aflaq studied at the Sorbonne , where he met his future political companion Salah al-Din al-Bitar . He returned to Syria in 1932, and began his political career in communist politics . Aflaq became a communist activist, but broke his ties with the communist movement when the Syrian–Lebanese Communist Party supported colonial policies through
9581-426: The National Command. Aflaq's election to the secretary generalship also proved to be his final break with al-Bitar; before the congress convened al-Bitar announced that he had left the Ba'ath Party and given up on the Ba'athist movement as a whole. Aflaq moved to Baghdad following his reelection to the secretary generalship in February 1968. He stayed there until 1970, when Black September happened, he criticized
9724-513: The National Command. While the Military Committee was in fact taking control over the Ba'ath Party from the civilian leadership, they were sensitive to such criticism, and stated, in an ideological pamphlet, that civilian-military symbiosis was of major importance, if socialist reconstruction was to be achieved. To the outside world, Aflaq seemed to be in charge. As the Tunisian newspaper L'Action tunisienne [ fr ] put it; "The philosopher who made two coups [Iraqi and Syrian coups] in
9867-455: The Revolutionary Command (NCRC), consisting entirely of Ba'athists and Nasserists, and controlled by military personnel rather than civilians from the very beginning. The relationship between the Ba'athists and the Nasserists was at best, uncomfortable. The Ba'ath Party's rise to power in Iraq and Syria put Nasser, as he put it, "between the hammer and the anvil". The establishment of a union between Iraq and Syria would weaken his credentials as
10010-402: The Saudi Ali Ghannam , advised caution, believing that if he pressed the Military Committee too hard the military would take over the Syrian Regional Branch, and then the Ba'ath Party—as had happened in Iraq following the ousting of the Iraqi Regional Branch. Because of their concerns, Aflaq kept quiet. But to his astonishment, keeping quiet caused him to lose his post as Secretary General – Aflaq
10153-420: The Sorbonne and discovered the writings of Karl Marx . He returned to Syria in 1932, and became active in communist politics, but left the movement when the government of Léon Blum , supported by the French Communist Party (FCP), continued France's old politics towards its colonies. Aflaq, and others, had believed that the FCP followed pro-independence policies towards the French colonies . It did not help that
10296-577: The Syrian Ba'athist Regional Congress, the Military Committee "proved" that it was rebelling equally against Aflaq and the traditional leadership, as against their moderate social and economic policies. The Military Committee was bent on removing Aflaq from a position of power, believing that he had become old and frail. At the Sixth National Congress held in October 1963, Aflaq was barely able to hold on to his post as Secretary General –
10439-604: The Syrian Government and the Ba'ath Party leadership. Aflaq was exiled from Syria, and ordered never to return to his homeland. Members of the party's other factions fled; Aflaq was captured and detained, along with other pro-Aflaq supporters, in a government guest house. When the new rulers launched a purge in August that year, Aflaq managed to make his escape, with the help of Nasim Al Safarjalani and Malek Bashour , both closely trusted friends and colleagues, and hence
10582-635: The UAR from within. A faction within the party, led by al-Hawrani, called for Syria's secession. When the UAR broke up in 1961, some members applauded the dissolution, among them was al-Bitar. The Ba'ath Party captured 20 seats, down from 22, in the 1961 election . In 1962, after four years, Aflaq convened the Fifth Congress in Homs . Al-Hawrani was not invited; cells that had stayed active and defied Aflaq's orders, and Ba'athists who became Nasserists during
10725-623: The West. Aflaq believed in the separation of state and religion, and was a strong believer in secularisation , but was against atheism . Although a Christian, he believed Islam to be proof of "Arab genius". In the aftermath of the 1966 Ba'ath Party split, the Syrian-led Ba'ath Party accused Aflaq of stealing al-Arsuzi's ideas, calling him a "thief" and later sentenced him to "death via absentia " in 1971. The Iraqi-led Ba'ath Party rejects this, and does not believe that al-Arsuzi contributed to Ba'athist thought. Born on 9 January 1910 in Damascus to
10868-438: The adoption of the new constitution, which came into force on 27 February 2012. The president has the right to appoint ministers ( Council of Ministers ), to declare war and states of emergency, to issue laws (which, except in the case of emergency, require ratification by the People's Council ), to declare amnesty, to amend the constitution, and to appoint civil servants and military personnel. The late President Hafiz al-Asad
11011-763: The biggest Arab sporting event, which brings together athletes from all the Arab countries to participate in a variety of different sports. The Union of Arab Football Associations organises the Arab Cup (for national teams) and the Arab Club Champions Cup (for clubs). Arab sport federations also exist for several games, include basketball , volleyball , handball , table tennis , tennis , squash and swimming . Michel Aflaq Michel Aflaq ( Arabic : ميشيل عفلق , romanized : Mīšīl ʿAflaq , Arabic pronunciation: [miˈʃel ˈʕaflaq] ; 9 January 1910 – 23 June 1989)
11154-474: The committee's secret plans to oust the civilian leadership, led by Aflaq, and take over the Ba'ath Party. Shortly after, Umran was sent into exile as Ambassador to Spain for supporting the Aflaq faction. Aflaq responded to the threat posed to his leadership by invoking his office as secretary general, and calling for the National Command to dissolve the Regional Command . He was forced to withdraw his request, when
11297-525: The concrete T-walls surrounding the Camp's perimeter. What liberty could be wider and greater than binding oneself to the renaissance of one's nation and its revolution? The liberty we seek is not opposed to legislative measures to curb the exploitations of feudalists, capitalists and opportunists. It is a new and strict liberty which stands against pressure and confusion. Dictatorship is a precarious, unsuitable and self-contradictory system which does not allow
11440-705: The consciousness of the people to grow. The Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party slogan "Unity, liberty, socialism" is the key tenet of Aflaq's and Ba'athist thought. Unity meant the unification of the Arab people into one nation, the Arab Nation . The creation of an Arab Nation would have direct implications on Arab development. The establishment of this new state would lead to an Arab Ba'ath (literally meaning " Renaissance "). The Arab nations of his time could only progressively "decline" if not unified; these nations had various ailments – " feudalism , sectarianism , regionalism , intellectual reactionism ". The only way to "cure"
11583-702: The control of a Christian, and Aflaq himself was labelled "a Christian infidel". Effectively, throughout his tenure as secretary general in Iraq, Aflaq was given all due honour as the founder of the Ba'ath movement, but on policy-making, he was ignored. Aflaq died on 23 June 1989 in Paris , after undergoing heart surgery there. Saddam Hussein claimed that Aflaq converted to Islam before his death. According to anonymous Western diplomats, Aflaq's own family disagreed with that claim, however Aflaq's son, Iyad, confirmed that his father thought about conversion in 1980. Upon his disputed conversion, he supposedly adopted " Ahmad " as
11726-516: The directives issued by the PSD. The last parliamentary election was on 15 July 2024 and the results were announced on 18 July. Arab League The Arab League ( Arabic : الجامعة العربية , al-Jāmiʿa al-ʻArabiyya , Arabic: [al.d͡ʒaː.mi.ʕa al.ʕa.ra.bij.ja] ), formally the League of Arab States ( Arabic : جامعة الدول العربية , Jāmiʿat ad-Duwal al-ʿArabiyya ),
11869-561: The dominant Arab nationalist movement, found itself in disarray after three years of Nasserist rule. Only a handful of Ba'athists were given public office in the UAR's government, al-Hawrani became vice president and al-Bitar became Minister of Culture and Guidance. Several members, mostly young, blamed Aflaq for this situation; it was he who dissolved the party in 1958 without consulting the National Congress. Hafez al-Assad and Salah Jadid amongst others, eventually established
12012-544: The eastern portion of the occupied West Bank known as the Jordan Valley . The Arab League met in Cairo on 12 October 2019 to discuss Turkish offensive into north-eastern Syria . Upon meeting, its member states voted to condemn the Turkish offensive, dubbing it both an 'invasion' and an 'aggression' against an Arab state, adding that the organization saw it as a violation of international law. On 9 September 2020,
12155-499: The equation of what is essentially, and essentially is not, Arab. Arab nationalism , just as Islam had been during the lifetime of Muhammad , was a spiritual revolutionary movement, leading the Arabs towards a new renaissance : Arab nationalism was the second revolution to appear in the Arab world. All Arab religious communities should, according to Aflaq, respect and worship the spirituality of Islam, even if they did not worship Islam in
12298-486: The establishment of the United Arab Republic (UAR). Nasser forced Aflaq to dissolve the party, which he did, but without consulting with party members. Shortly after the UAR's dissolution, Aflaq was reelected as Secretary General of the National Command of the Ba'ath Party. Following the 8th of March Revolution , Aflaq's position within the party was weakened to such an extent that he was forced to resign as
12441-461: The founding treaty of the Arab League. Adopted in 1945, it stipulates that "the League of Arab States shall be composed of the independent Arab States that have signed this Pact." In 1945, there were seven members, but the Arab League now has 22 members, including 8 African countries: and 7 observer states (note: the observer states below have been invited to participate during select Arab League sessions but do not hold voting privileges): Egypt
12584-547: The government was considering legislation to expand the NPF to include new parties and several parties previously banned; these changes have not taken place. However, one such party- the Syrian Social Nationalist Party - was legalised in 2005. Traditionally, the parties of the NPF accepted the Arab nationalist and nominally socialist ideology of the government. However, the SSNP was the first party that
12727-462: The highest tribunal. In addition, religious courts handle questions of personal and family law . The Ba'ath Party emphasizes socialism and secular Pan-Arabism . Despite the Ba'ath Party's doctrine on building national rather than ethnic identity, the issues of ethnic, religious, and regional allegiances still remain important in Syria. Political system of the Assad regime has been characterized as
12870-541: The interests of the Arab world. It has served as a forum for the member states to coordinate policy, arrange studies of and committees as to matters of common concern, settle inter-state disputes and limit conflicts such as the 1958 Lebanon crisis . The League has served as a platform for the drafting and conclusion of many landmark documents promoting economic integration. One example is the Joint Arab Economic Action Charter , which outlines
13013-532: The known world. The idea of Islam being a culture rather than a faith took special attention from Arab Christians such as Aflaq. These views, however, were highly unorthodox and controversial when aired in lectures at Damascus University. They garnered significant criticism from devout Muslims, who viewed the suggestion that the Arab genius was the flowering of Islam rather than the revelation of God as offensive. Additionally, Christians accused him of selling out and nicknamed him 'Muhammed 'Aflaq'. Being influenced by
13156-483: The largest ethnic group in the Arab League, there are several other ethnic groups that also reside in the region, including Berbers , Kurds , Somalis , Assyrians , Armenians , Nubians , Mandaeans , and Circassians . Each of these groups have their own distinct cultures, languages, and traditions. As of 1 July 2013, about 359 million people live in the states of the Arab League. Its population grows faster than in most other global regions. The most populous member state
13299-426: The late 1940s, Aflaq and al-Bitar gave free lessons on Ba'athist thought, and in 1948 they established the newspaper al-Ba'ath (English: rebirth / resurrection ). Aflaq tested the Ba'ath Party's strength during the 1948 Arab–Israeli War after early Syrian defeats – he led several demonstrations against the government led by President Shukri al-Quwatli . He personally led demonstrations and claimed that al-Quwatli,
13442-440: The leader of the Arab Ba'ath, was not given any position, or membership in the party. Aflaq as Amid was responsible for ideological affairs and became the party's mentor, while al-Bitar controlled the party's day-to-day management. The merger would prove problematic, several members of the al-Arsuzi-led Ba'ath Party were more left-leaning, and would become, later in Aflaq's tenure as leader, highly critical of his leadership. In
13585-525: The league's history, other smaller Arab Organizations have achieved more than the league has, such as the GCC , but lately several major economic projects that are promising are to be completed, the Arab Gas Pipeline is to end by 2010, Connecting Egyptian and Iraqi Gas to Jordan, Syria and Lebanon, and then to Turkey thus Europe, a free trade Agreement ( GAFTA ) is to be completed by 1 January 2008, making 95% of all Arab products tax free of customs. The Arab League
13728-499: The league. Each country was given one vote in the council. The first major action was joint intervention to keep Palestine from being divided into two states in keeping with the decision of the United Nations General Assembly. When Transjordan agreed to this proposal, Egypt intervened to prevent this from happening. It was followed by the creation of a mutual defence treaty two years later. A common market
13871-451: The lowest possible score (1/100). Hafez al-Assad took power in 1970. After his death in 2000 his son, Bashar al-Assad, succeeded him as president. A surge of interest in political reform took place after Bashar al-Assad assumed power in 2000. Human-rights activists and other civil-society advocates, as well as some parliamentarians, became more outspoken during a period referred to as the " Damascus Spring " (July 2000-February 2001), which
14014-419: The majority of Ba'ath Party members proved to oppose such a move. A contest for power, between Aflaq and the Military Committee, ensued in the open; but it was a struggle Aflaq was losing. It was plain from the very beginning that the initiative lay with the anti-Aflaq forces. To counter the military threat, Aflaq invoked party rules and regulations against them. To counter this, the Military Committee befriended
14157-451: The means of industrial production and the redistribution of agricultural land (in practice, Syria's nominally socialist economy is effectively a mixed economy, composed of large state enterprises and private small businesses), and revolutionary, dedicated to carrying a pan-Arab revolution to every part of the Arab world. Founded by Michel Aflaq , a Syrian Christian , Salah al-Din al-Bitar , a Syrian Sunni , and Zaki al-Arsuzi , an alawite ,
14300-535: The nations can, therefore, no more be questioned de jure than the independence of any of the other Arab States. [...] Therefore, the States signatory to the Pact of the Arab League consider that in view of Palestine's special circumstances, the Council of the League should designate an Arab delegate from Palestine to participate in its work until this country enjoys actual independence At the Cairo Summit of 1964,
14443-429: The natural preference of ruling elites to maintain their power and independence in decision making. Moreover, the fear of the richer that the poorer may share their wealth in the name of Arab nationalism , the feuds among Arab rulers , and the influence of external powers that might oppose Arab unity can be seen as obstacles towards a deeper integration of the league. Mindful of their previous announcements in support of
14586-426: The old article 8 which entrenched the power of the Ba'ath party. The new article 8 reads: "The political system of the state shall be based on the principle of political pluralism, and exercising power democratically through the ballot box". In a new article 88, it introduced presidential elections and limited the term of office for the president to seven years with a maximum of one re-election. The referendum resulted in
14729-491: The only government post he would ever hold; he held it from August to December 1949. Al-Attasi's presidency did not last for very long either, and in 1951 Adib Shishakli took power in a military coup. Aflaq at first extended his support to the new government, believing that he and the Ba'ath Party could collaborate with Shishakli because they shared the same Arab nationalist sentiments. His analysis of Shishakli proved to be wrong, and one of Shishakli's first decisions as ruler
14872-463: The orders of Hussein was later used as a military barrack by American soldiers after the 2003 American invasion of Iraq for troops stationed within the Green Zone . Aflaq's family reported that the tomb was badly damaged during the invasion. Upon his death in 1989 he was given a state funeral. A large tomb and mausoleum were erected to form a shrine for him. The tomb, widely regarded as
15015-624: The outbreak of the First Libyan Civil War . The Arab League voted to restore Libya's membership on 27 August 2011 by accrediting a representative of the National Transitional Council , which was the partially recognised interim government of the country. Syria was suspended on 16 November 2011 in the aftermath of the outbreak of the Syrian Civil War . On 6 March 2013, the Arab League gave
15158-404: The party's Second National Congress. When, under the United Arab Republic (UAR), Aflaq was forced by Nasser to dissolve the party, he disbanded the party by himself, instead of convening a congress on the matter. The UAR proved to be disastrous for the Ba'ath Party – the party was sidelined to a great extent by Nasser's government. The Ba'ath movement, which was on the verge in 1958 of becoming
15301-524: The party's leader in 1965. Aflaq was ousted during the 1966 Syrian coup d'état , which led to a schism within the Ba'ath Party. He escaped to Lebanon , but later went to Iraq. In 1968 Aflaq was elected Secretary General of the Iraqi-led Ba'ath Party ; during his tenure he held no de facto power. He held the post until his death on 23 June 1989. Aflaq's theories about society, economics, and politics, which are collectively known as Ba'athism, hold that
15444-458: The people and because it prevents the people from a revolution against its oppressors and its enslavers." What Aflaq saw in Islam was a revolutionary movement. In contrast to other nationalities, the Arab awakening and expansion was attributed to a religious message. Because of this, Aflaq believed that the Arabs' spirituality was directly linked to Islam, therefore, one could never take Islam out of
15587-485: The period of the UAR, were not invited to the congress. Aflaq was reelected as the National Command's secretary general, and ordered the reestablishment of the Syrian-regional Ba'ath organisation. During the congress, Aflaq and the Military Committee, through Muhammad Umran , made contact for the first time; the committee asked for permission to initiate a coup d'état; Aflaq supported the conspiracy. Following
15730-633: The power to appoint the Prime Minister, the cabinet, the chief of staff and top military commanders. Aflaq was unsettled by the way things were moving, and in May he convened the Eighth National Congress to get a showdown between his followers and those of the Military Committee. However, this never came to fruition. Several civilian members of the National Command, such as the Lebanese Jibran Majdalani and
15873-471: The previous Syrian constitution of 1973 stated that "the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party leads society and the state." At least 183 seats of the 250-member parliament are currently reserved for the National Progressive Front , a Ba'ath Party dominated coalition that consists of nine other satellite parties loyal to Ba'athist rule. The rest of the seats are occupied by independents, who are nominated by
16016-414: The principles for economic activities in the region. Each member state has one vote in the Council of the Arab League , and decisions are binding only for those states that have voted for them. The aims of the league in 1945 were to strengthen and coordinate the political, cultural, economic and social programs of its members and to mediate disputes among them or between them and third parties. Furthermore,
16159-553: The project is voluntary, and the army intervenes only at the request of one of the member states. Heightened military arsenal in many member states and, in a small minority, civil wars as well as terrorist movements were the impetuses for JAF's establishment. In the early 1970s, the Economic Council put forward a proposal to create the Joint Arab Chambers of Commerce across international states. That led to
16302-537: The radical changes which were sweeping the Middle East; Rashid Ali al-Gaylani , the Prime Minister of Iraq , had challenged Britain's domination over Iraq. The replacement of the word "Revival" with "Ba'ath" ( Arabic : بعث , literally means resurrection / rebirth ) signified that Arab revival had been replaced ideologically by the need for an Arab rebirth. The change of name led Zaki al-Arsuzi , leader of
16445-469: The same shape in the Arab world as it did in the West. Aflaq called on all Arabs, both Muslim and non-Muslim alike, to admire the role Islam had played in creating the Arab character. But his view on Islam was purely spiritual, and Aflaq emphasised that Islam "should not be imposed" on state and society. Time and again Aflaq emphasised that the Ba'ath party was against atheism , but also equally against fundamentalism . For him, any fundamentalism represented
16588-626: The setting up of mandates to promote, encourage and facilitate bilateral trade between the Arab world and significant trading partners. Following adoption of the Alexandria Protocol in 1944, the Arab League was founded on 22 March 1945. The official headquarters of the League was the Boustan Palace in Cairo. It aimed to be a regional organisation of Arab states with a focus to developing the economy, resolving disputes and coordinating political aims. Other countries later joined
16731-635: The signing of an agreement on Joint Defence and Economic Cooperation on 13 April 1950 committed the signatories to coordination of military defence measures. In March 2015, the Arab League General Secretary announced the establishment of a Joint Arab Force with the aim of counteracting extremism and other threats to the Arab States. The decision was reached while Operation Decisive Storm was intensifying in Yemen. Participation in
16874-550: The southern Egyptian city of Abu Simbel with the northern Sudanese city of Wadi Halfa and then to Khartoum and Port Sudan . The third division of the League is the Maghreb , where a 3,000 km stretch of railway runs from the southern cities of Morocco to Tripoli in Western Libya . The fourth division of the League is the Horn of Africa , whose member states include Djibouti and Somalia . These two Arab League states are separated by only ten nautical miles from
17017-533: The southern part of Sudan . It is referred to as the food basket of the Arab World , the region's instability including the independence of South Sudan has not affected its tourism industry, that is considered the fastest growing industry in the region, with Egypt , UAE , Lebanon , Tunisia , and Jordan leading the way. Another industry that is growing steadily in the Arab League is telecommunications. Economical achievements within members have been low in
17160-460: The success of the February 1963 Iraqi coup d'état , led by the Ba'ath Party's Iraqi Regional Branch , the Military Committee hastily convened to hatch a coup against Nazim al-Kudsi 's presidency. The 8th of March Revolution , a military coup launched in 1963, proved successful, and a Ba'athist government in Syria was established. The plotters' first order was to establish the National Council of
17303-494: The total de-politicization of the society itself. All registered political parties in Syria are participants within the Assadist system, that proclaims its loyalty to the ruling Ba'ath party and are stipulated by the government to advance the interests of the Ba'athist state . Registered parties are constantly surveilled and regulated by the Ba'athist Political Security Directorate (PSD), and are permitted to operate only under
17446-791: The two regions. The last division of the League is the isolated archipelago of the Comoros located off the coast of East Africa , which is not physically connected to any other Arab state, but still trades with other Arab League members. In collecting literacy data, many countries estimate the number of literate people based on self-reported data. Some use educational attainment data as a proxy, but measures of school attendance or grade completion may differ. Because definitions and data collection methods vary across countries, literacy estimates should be used with caution. United Nations Development Programme , Human Development Report 2010. The Persian Gulf region has had an oil boom , enabling more schools and universities to be set up. While Arabs constitute
17589-515: The word Arab socialism for his variant of socialism. Socialism, in its original form in the Arab world had, according to Aflaq, first come into being under the rule of Muhammad . The point of Arab socialism was not to answer questions such as: how much state control was necessary, or economic equality; but instead Arab socialism was a system that freed the Arab people from oppression and enslavement, which in turn created independent individuals. Aflaq opposed Marx's view that dialectical materialism
17732-475: Was "specifically designed to fail at producing the kind of greater collaboration and integration that might have weakened political leaders at home." The Arab League member states cover over 13,000,000 km (5,000,000 sq mi) and straddles two continents: Africa and Asia . The area largely consists of arid deserts, such as the Sahara . Nevertheless, it also contains several highly fertile lands like
17875-419: Was a Syrian philosopher, sociologist and Arab nationalist . His ideas played a significant role in the development of Ba'athism and its political movement; he is considered by several Ba'athists to be the principal founder of Ba'athist thought. He published various books during his lifetime, such as " The Road to Renaissance " (1940), The Battle for One Destiny (1958) and The Struggle Against Distorting
18018-407: Was a chance to reestablish good ties with Nasser. The break with Nasser weakened the original leaders of the Ba'ath Party, which in turn gave the Military Committee room to expand. After taking power, the Military Committee looked for theoretical guidance, but instead of going to Aflaq to solve problems (which was usual before), they contacted the party's Marxist faction led by Hammud al-Shufi . At
18161-400: Was a strong believer in pluralism of thought , but against pluralism in the form of votes. In theory, the Ba'ath Party would rule, and guide the people, in a transitional period of time without consulting the people because the party knew what was right. The last tenet, 'socialism', did not mean socialism as it is defined in the West, but rather a unique form of Arab socialism. Aflaq coined
18304-434: Was able to flee to Beirut , Lebanon, and later to Brazil . Aflaq's downfall caused a split within the Ba'ath Party; the party was de facto dissolved and two Ba'ath Parties were established, one Iraqi-led Ba'ath Party and one Syrian-led Ba'ath Party . The Syrian-led party was led by Jadid and his supporters and hailed Zaki al-Arsuzi , the founder of the Arab Ba'ath in 1940, as the father of Ba'athist thought , while
18447-453: Was agreed to reinstate Syria's membership. The Arab League is a political organization which tries to help integrate its members economically, and solve conflicts involving member states without asking for foreign assistance. It possesses elements of a state representative parliament while foreign affairs are often conducted under UN supervision. The Charter of the Arab League endorsed the principle of an Arab nation-state while respecting
18590-481: Was all the Arabs; let us today make all the Arabs Muhammad." The Muslim of Muhammad's days were, according to Aflaq, synonymous with Arabs – the Arabs were the only ones to preach the message of Islam during Muhammad's lifetime. In contrast to Jesus, who was a religious leader, but not a political leader, Muhammad was both – the first leader of Islam and of the Arab world. Therefore, secularisation could not take
18733-453: Was confirmed by unopposed plebiscites five times. His son and current President Bashar al-Assad , was confirmed by an unopposed referendum in July 2000. He was confirmed again on 27 May 2007 with 97.6% of the vote Along with the National Progressive Front , the president decides issues of war and peace and approves the state's 5-year economic plans. The National Progressive Front also acts as
18876-426: Was crushed by the Ba'athist government under the pretext of "national unity and stability". Hafez al-Assad built his government around three pillars, core of which is the Ba'ath party and its affiliated organizations which holds extensive influence over the society through its monopoly over the media and civil activism. Alawite elites who are loyal to the Assad family form another patronage network. The final pillar
19019-423: Was elected to the party's executive committee and was elected "'Amid" (meaning the party's leader). The Arab Ba'ath Party merged with Akram al-Hawrani 's Arab Socialist Party to establish the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party in 1952; Aflaq was elected the party's leader in 1954. During the mid-to-late 1950s the party began developing relations with Gamal Abdel Nasser , the President of Egypt , which eventually led to
19162-515: Was established in 1965. The Arab League has not achieved much cooperation throughout its history. According to Michael Barnett and Etel Solingen , the design of the Arab League reflects Arab leaders' individual concerns for regime survival: "the politics of Arab nationalism and a shared identity led Arab states to embrace the rhetoric of Arab unity in order to legitimize their regimes, and to fear Arab unity in practice because it would impose greater restrictions on their sovereignty." The Arab League
19305-668: Was established to support the Iraqi Government led by Rashid Ali al-Gaylani against the British invasion during the Anglo–Iraqi War . Al-Arsuzi, the leader of the other Arab Ba'ath movement, was skeptical of the new committee, and opposed helping the Iraqis on the ground that they would lose anyway. In 1941 the movement began publishing documents under the name the "Arab Ihya Movement". Later, in 1945, Aflaq and al-Bitar asked
19448-457: Was held in Damascus in 1947. Aflaq took the pre-eminent position of Amid , sometimes translated as 'doyen' or as 'leader'; and was elected to a four-member executive committee. Under the constitution adopted at the congress, this made him effective leader of the party, with sweeping powers within the organisation; al-Bitar was elected Secretary General of the National Command. Zaki al-Arsuzi ,
19591-434: Was not ready to establish a liberal democracy yet. Aflaq, who had been set free, was rearrested during al-Zai'm's presidency and sent to the notorious Mezzeh Prison . Al-Za'im's rule did not last for long, and in August 1949, he was toppled, and Hashim al-Atassi , who was democratically elected, took his place. Al-Atassi established a national unity government , and Aflaq was appointed to the post of Minister of Education ,
19734-439: Was regularly exploited by oppressive elites to sedate the people and prevent the outbreak of mass revolutions against the prevailing socio-political order. Aflaq wrote in his collection of essays titled " Fi Sabil al-Ba’ath " (trans. "The Road to Renaissance"): "... the oppressed who see religion in this era a weapon that the oppressors rely upon ... those who exploit the corrupt situation exploit this corruption because it drugs
19877-463: Was succeeded as Secretary General of the National Command by Munif al-Razzaz , a Jordanian of Syrian origin. However, the power between the two camps was unexpectedly reshuffled when Amin al-Hafiz defected to Aflaq's camp. In contrast to other military officers al-Hafiz had very little influence within or outside the party. Al-Hafiz's defection led to a resurgence of activity within Aflaq's faction, al-Bitar and Umran were brought back from Spain to form
20020-525: Was suspended from the Arab League on 26 March 1979 due to the Egypt–Israel peace treaty , with the League's headquarters moving from Cairo to Tunis , Tunisia. In 1987, Arab League states restored diplomatic relations with Egypt, the country was readmitted to the League in May 1989 and the League's headquarters were moved back to Cairo in September 1990. Libya was suspended on 22 February 2011, following
20163-605: Was the only truth, but believed that the "importance of material economic conditions in life" was one of the greatest discoveries in modern history. Even so, Aflaq was critical of both capitalism and communism, and did not want either of the two power blocs to collapse during the Cold War , believing that the Cold War was a sort of check and balance on their power. For more than 2 decades, Michel Aflaq's essay compilation titled " Fi Sabil al-Ba’ath " (trans: "The Road to Renaissance")
20306-634: Was the primary ideological book of the Ba'ath party . The work was published by Aflaq in 1940. Aflaq's advocacy of a national revival conflicted with the problem of reconciling goals of Arab nationalism with the universal Islamic values so engrained in Arab life. His answer was to assert that Islam was the most sublime expression of Arabism : one had out grown out of the other and there is no contradiction between them. Arguing that Islam, from its inception, revealed in Arabic Qur'an, meets Arab needs, embodies Arab values and launched Arabs on their conquest of
20449-485: Was to ban all political parties, including the Ba'ath Party. The Ba'ath Party leadership, and several leading members, escaped to Lebanon in the wake of increased government repression. In Lebanon Aflaq and al-Bitar agreed to a merger of the Arab Ba'ath Party and the Arab Socialist Party (ASP), led by Akram al-Hawrani , to establish the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party in 1952. The newly formed party worked as
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