Irrigation (also referred to as watering of plants ) is the practice of applying controlled amounts of water to land to help grow crops , landscape plants , and lawns . Irrigation has been a key aspect of agriculture for over 5,000 years and has been developed by many cultures around the world. Irrigation helps to grow crops, maintain landscapes, and revegetate disturbed soils in dry areas and during times of below-average rainfall. In addition to these uses, irrigation is also employed to protect crops from frost , suppress weed growth in grain fields, and prevent soil consolidation . It is also used to cool livestock , reduce dust , dispose of sewage , and support mining operations. Drainage , which involves the removal of surface and sub-surface water from a given location, is often studied in conjunction with irrigation.
179-985: The Polavaram Project is an under construction multi-purpose irrigation project on the Godavari River in the Eluru District and East Godavari District in Andhra Pradesh . The project has been accorded National project status by the Central Government of India . Its reservoir back water spreads up to the Dummugudem Anicut (i.e. approx 150 km back from Polavaram dam on main river side) and approx 115 km on Sabari River side. Thus back water spreads into parts of Chhattisgarh and Odisha States. It gives major boost to tourism sector in Godavari Districts as
358-629: A Public Interest Litigation (PIL) lodged in the year 2002, the Supreme Court (SC) refused to give any direction for implementation of the Rivers Interlinking Project. SC stated that it involves policy decisions which are part of legislative competence of state and central governments. However, SC directed the Ministry of Water Resources to constitute an experts committee, the 'Special Committee on ILR' (SC ILR), to pursue
537-589: A wildlife sanctuary in Papikonda National Park , and several hectares of farm land. Sixty-four years after the initial conception of the project, the Government of Andhra Pradesh secured the environmental clearance from the central agency in 2005. This clearance was obtained after the state government prepared a ₹ 4,500 crore forest management plan and rehabilitation and resettlement proposal covering 59,756 hectares that were being lost under
716-403: A Hydro electricity project at Konta / Motu just upstream of the confluence point of Sileru tributary with Sabari River (tri-junction point of Andhra Pradesh, Odisha and Chhattisgarh borders). When this project is constructed, the land submergence would be more than that of Polavaram backwaters. It would be better for Odisha and Chhattisgarh to enter into an agreement with Andhra Pradesh to shift
895-540: A ball drive, gear drive, or impact mechanism. Rotors can be designed to rotate in a full or partial circle. Guns are similar to rotors, except that they generally operate at very high pressures of 275 to 900 kPa (40 to 130 psi) and flows of 3 to 76 L/s (50 to 1200 US gal/min), usually with nozzle diameters in the range of 10 to 50 mm (0.5 to 1.9 in). Guns are used not only for irrigation, but also for industrial applications such as dust suppression and logging . Sprinklers can also be mounted on moving platforms connected to
1074-419: A circular or semi-circular pattern. Traveling Sprinklers: These move along the hose path on their own, watering as they go, ideal for covering long, narrow spaces. Each type offers different advantages based on garden size and shape, water pressure, and specific watering needs. Subirrigation has been used for many years in field crops in areas with high water tables . It is a method of artificially raising
1253-589: A clock or timer. Most automatic systems employ electric solenoid valves . Each zone has one or more of these valves that are wired to the controller. When the controller sends power to the valve, the valve opens, allowing water to flow to the sprinklers in that zone. There are two main types of sprinklers used in lawn irrigation, pop-up spray heads and rotors. Spray heads have a fixed spray pattern, while rotors have one or more streams that rotate. Spray heads are used to cover smaller areas, while rotors are used for larger areas. Golf course rotors are sometimes so large that
1432-426: A computerized set of valves . In sprinkler or overhead irrigation, water is piped to one or more central locations within the field and distributed by overhead high-pressure sprinklers or guns. A system using sprinklers, sprays, or guns mounted overhead on permanently installed risers is often referred to as a solid-set irrigation system. Higher pressure sprinklers that rotate are called rotors and are driven by
1611-419: A costly proposition in ecological, geological, hydrological and economical terms, but in the long run the net benefits coming from it will far outweigh these costs or losses. However, they suggest that there is a lack of an international legal framework for the projects India is proposing. In at least some inter-link projects, neighbouring countries such as Bangladesh may be affected, and international concerns for
1790-458: A demand-supply gap, that only worsens with India's rising population. Proponents claim the answers to India's water problem is to conserve the abundant monsoon water bounty, store it in reservoirs, and use this water in areas which have occasional inadequate rainfall, or are known to be drought-prone or in those times of the year when water supplies become scarce. In a 2007 article the authors claim inter-linking of rivers to initially appear to be
1969-494: A direct financial cost to the farmer. Irrigation often requires pumping energy (either electricity or fossil fuel) to deliver water to the field or supply the correct operating pressure. Hence increased efficiency will reduce both the water cost and energy cost per unit of agricultural production. A reduction of water use on one field may mean that the farmer is able to irrigate a larger area of land, increasing total agricultural production. Low efficiency usually means that excess water
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#17327725744092148-411: A displaced population. Human rights activists came out against the project because of these reasons. In addition, one activist pointed out that this interlinking of the rivers will harm the interests of the region in the state. Environmental activist Medha Patkar said that the project not only will displace several thousands of families, it will also submerge several archaeological sites, coal deposits,
2327-416: A flood (spate), water is diverted to normally dry river beds (wadis) using a network of dams, gates and channels and spread over large areas. The moisture stored in the soil will be used thereafter to grow crops. Spate irrigation areas are in particular located in semi-arid or arid, mountainous regions. Micro-irrigation , sometimes called localized irrigation , low volume irrigation , or trickle irrigation
2506-526: A fraction of that land is irrigated, and most irrigation relies on monsoon. River interlinking is claimed to be a possible means of assured and better irrigation for more farmers, and thus better food security for a growing population. In a tropical country like India with high evapotranspiration , food security can be achieved with water security which in turn is achieved with energy security to pump water to uplands from water surplus lower elevation river points up to sea level. When sufficient salt export
2685-425: A growing population, and large impoverished rural population that relies on monsoon-irrigated agriculture. Weather uncertainties, and potential climate change induced weather volatilities, raise concerns of social stability and impact of floods and droughts on rural poverty. The population of India is expected to grow further at a decelerating pace and stabilize around 1.5 billion by 2050, or another 300 million people –
2864-409: A higher profit than potatoes. The land is flood irrigated twice a day to simulate tidal flooding; the water is pumped from the sea using wind power. Additional benefits are soil remediation and carbon sequestration . Until the 1960s, there were fewer than half the number of people on the planet as of 2024. People were not as wealthy as today, consumed fewer calories and ate less meat , so less water
3043-831: A new massive dam named Palnadu Sagar across hill range near Bollapalle with 700 TMC capacity reservoir is possible using of flood water of Krishna River and Godavari River diverted with this lift project. It will submerge nearly 300Sq KM of land at FRL 260m MSL .Palnadu Sagar spillway with Francis Turbine will take and release water into Nagarjuna Sagar right canal along with Hydroelectricity power generation. Flood water of Krishna River will be pumped to Palnadu Sagar. The water stored in Palnadu Sagar will be used for irrigation and drinking in drought years. Vykuntapuram barrage would be constructed on Krishna river located near 16°34′41″N 80°24′43″E / 16.57806°N 80.41194°E / 16.57806; 80.41194 in
3222-424: A rectangular or square pattern. They are good for covering large, flat areas evenly. Impact (or Pulsating) Sprinklers: These create a rotating, pulsating spray, which can cover a circular or semi-circular area. They are useful for watering large lawns. Stationary Sprinklers: These have a fixed spray pattern and are best for smaller areas or gardens. Rotary Sprinklers: These use spinning arms to distribute water in
3401-708: A result of irrigation and the subsequent effects on natural and social conditions in river basins and downstream of an irrigation scheme . The effects stem from the altered hydrological conditions caused by the installation and operation of the irrigation scheme. Amongst some of these problems is depletion of underground aquifers through overdrafting . Soil can be over-irrigated due to poor distribution uniformity or management wastes water, chemicals, and may lead to water pollution . Over-irrigation can cause deep drainage from rising water tables that can lead to problems of irrigation salinity requiring watertable control by some form of subsurface land drainage . In 2000,
3580-424: A single sprinkler is combined with a valve and called a 'valve in head'. When used in a turf area, the sprinklers are installed with the top of the head flush with the ground surface. When the system is pressurized, the head will pop up out of the ground and water the desired area until the valve closes and shuts off that zone. Once there is no more pressure in the lateral line, the sprinkler head will retract back into
3759-458: A year by Polavaram right bank canal from Polavaram reservoir to Prakasam barrage across Krishna river is not exceeding 80 tmcft at 75% dependability. When additional Godavari water exceeding 80 tmcft is transferred from Polavaram reservoir, Karnataka and Maharashtra are entitled with additional water from the unallocated Krishna river waters in the same proportion (i.e. 21:14:45) provided all the following conditions are satisfied. Thus Andhra Pradesh
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#17327725744093938-399: Is supplementary to rainfall as happens in many parts of the world, or whether it is ' full irrigation' whereby crops rarely depend on any contribution from rainfall. Full irrigation is less common and only happens in arid landscapes experiencing very low rainfall or when crops are grown in semi-arid areas outside of any rainy seasons. Surface irrigation, also known as gravity irrigation, is
4117-767: Is 47,726 crores at 2017-18 prices. In December 2016, NABARD handed over ₹1,981 crores, as part of its loan from the Long Term Irrigation Fund (LTIF) under the Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana (PMKSY). NABARD provided a loan of ₹2,981.54 crores during 2016-17 and ₹979.36 crores during 2017-18 under the LTIF to the National Water Development Authority (NWDA) for the project. In its 2018 budget, Andhra Pradesh allocated ₹9000 crores to
4296-480: Is a form of sprinkler irrigation utilising several segments of pipe (usually galvanized steel or aluminium) joined and supported by trusses , mounted on wheeled towers with sprinklers positioned along its length. The system moves in a circular pattern and is fed with water from the pivot point at the center of the arc. These systems are found and used in all parts of the world and allow irrigation of all types of terrain. Newer systems have drop sprinkler heads as shown in
4475-485: Is a scarce commodity and several basins such as Cauvery, Yamuna, Sutlej, Ravi and other smaller inter-State/intra-State rivers are short of water. 99 districts of the country are classified as drought prone, an area of about 40 million hectare is prone to recurring floods. The inter-link project is expected to help reduce the scale of this suffering and associated losses. The National Perspective Plan comprised, starting 1980s, of two main components: An intrastate component
4654-481: Is a serious problem for the country. The nation sees cycles of drought years and flood years, with large parts of the west and south experiencing more deficits and large variations, resulting in immense hardship, particularly for the poorest farmers and rural populations. Lack of irrigation water regionally leads to crop failures and farmer suicides . Despite abundant rains during July–September, some regions in other seasons see shortages of drinking water. Some years,
4833-503: Is a system where water is distributed under low pressure through a piped network, in a pre-determined pattern, and applied as a small discharge to each plant or adjacent to it. Traditional drip irrigation use individual emitters, subsurface drip irrigation (SDI), micro-spray or micro-sprinklers, and mini-bubbler irrigation all belong to this category of irrigation methods. Drip irrigation, also known as microirrigation or trickle irrigation, functions as its name suggests. In this system, water
5012-425: Is about 1500 m. In view of large depth of excavation which is more than 30 m deep, to reach hard rock at this dam site, the dam project was not found economical to take up. However, a lucrative alternate site is feasible located in upstream of Polavaram site where the river passes through deep gorges of Papi hill range. The width of river is about 300 m only in the rocky gorge stretch. Thirty years back, this alternative
5191-415: Is also the means of delivery of fertilizer. The process is known as fertigation . Deep percolation, where water moves below the root zone, can occur if a drip system is operated for too long or if the delivery rate is too high. Drip irrigation methods range from very high-tech and computerized to low-tech and labor-intensive. Lower water pressures are usually needed than for most other types of systems, with
5370-434: Is before Supreme court. Proceedings are going on. Supreme Court identified 13 issues to settle the dispute. Irrigation There are several methods of irrigation that differ in how water is supplied to plants. Surface irrigation , also known as gravity irrigation, is the oldest form of irrigation and has been in use for thousands of years. In sprinkler irrigation , water is piped to one or more central locations within
5549-622: Is being managed by India's National Water Development Agency, which is part of the Ministry of Jal Shakti . NWDA has studied and prepared reports on 14 interlink projects for the Himalayan component, 16 for the peninsular component, and 37 intrastate river-linking projects. Average rainfall in India is about 4,000 billion cubic metres, but most of the country's rainfall falls over a 4-month period —June through September. Furthermore, rain across
Polavaram Project - Misplaced Pages Continue
5728-422: Is common in many parts of the world as rainfed agriculture , or it can be full irrigation, where crops rarely rely on any contribution from rainfall. Full irrigation is less common and only occurs in arid landscapes with very low rainfall or when crops are grown in semi-arid areas outside of rainy seasons. The environmental effects of irrigation relate to the changes in quantity and quality of soil and water as
5907-422: Is delivered at or near the root zone of plants, one drop at a time. This method can be the most water-efficient method of irrigation, if managed properly; evaporation and runoff are minimized. The field water efficiency of drip irrigation is typically in the range of 80 to 90% when managed correctly. In modern agriculture, drip irrigation is often combined with plastic mulch , further reducing evaporation, and
6086-457: Is dependent upon farmers having sufficient access to water. However, water scarcity is already a critical constraint to farming in many parts of the world. There are several methods of irrigation. They vary in how the water is supplied to the plants. The goal is to apply the water to the plants as uniformly as possible, so that each plant has the amount of water it needs, neither too much nor too little. Irrigation can also be understood whether it
6265-455: Is divided in four major parts. This component will irrigate an additional 25 million hectares by surface waters, 10 million hectares by increased use of ground waters and generate hydro power, apart from benefits of improved flood control and regional navigation. The main part of the project would send water from the eastern part of India to the south and west. The southern development project (Phase I) would consist of four main parts. First,
6444-472: Is entitled to transfer Godavari water in excess of 80 tmcft in three out of four years (below 75% dependability) reducing the water releases from Nagarjunasagar dam for Krishna delta requirements and need not share water with other states beyond 80 tmcft. The above interstate water sharing agreement does not cover the Godavari water transferred to Krishna river which is not displacing the water releases from
6623-477: Is estimated at 1,869 billion cubic meters. Of this, for topological and other reasons, only about 690 billion cubic meter of the available surface water can be utilised for irrigation, industrial, drinking and ground water replenishment purposes. In other words, about 1,100 billion cubic meter of water is available, on average, every year for irrigation in India. This amount of water is adequate for irrigating 140 million hectares. As of 2007, about 60% of this potential
6802-542: Is in the plain area at approximately 10 km downstream from the 50 km long narrow gorge in the Papi Hills. It is also to be ascertained whether the higher backwater level during the PMF in Godavari river is solely due to the presence of long narrow gorge which is acting as a natural dam/barrier or further enhanced by the presence of the downstream Polavaram barrage. It is purely an academic interest showing concern for
6981-720: Is issued merging seven mandals of Khammam district with divided Andhra Pradesh, stating only then can the Polavaram Project be completed without further delay in future. The Polavaram Project Authority was constituted by the Union Cabinet in May 2014 and the construction of project head works were taken up earnestly. The Naidu government has acquired the complete lands that required across the right canal by solving court petition issues of farmers who lost their agricultural lands from both districts of West Godavari and Krishna and
7160-424: Is less expensive to install than a center pivot, but much more labor-intensive to operate – it does not travel automatically across the field: it applies water in a stationary strip, must be drained, and then rolled to a new strip. Most systems use 100 or 130 mm (4 or 5 inch) diameter aluminum pipe. The pipe doubles both as water transport and as an axle for rotating all the wheels. A drive system (often found near
7339-543: Is located on the right bank of the river for which nearly 5.5 km long and 1.0 km wide approach and spill channels up to river bed level is envisaged involving nearly 70 million cubic meters earth/rock excavation which is nearly 2/3rd of the project's total earthwork. The maximum flood level at Polavaram is 28 metres (92 ft) MSL and lowest water level is 10.9 metres (36 ft) MSL. Two cofferdams are planned, one up to 41 metres (135 ft) MSL, to facilitate faster pace of work on earth-cum-rock fill dam to complete
Polavaram Project - Misplaced Pages Continue
7518-552: Is lost through seepage or runoff, both of which can result in loss of crop nutrients or pesticides with potential adverse impacts on the surrounding environment. Indian Rivers Inter-link The Indian rivers interlinking project is a proposed large-scale civil engineering project that aims to effectively manage water resources in India by linking rivers using a network of reservoirs and canals to enhance irrigation and groundwater recharge and reduce persistent floods in some parts and water shortages in other parts of
7697-431: Is not an intrastate project). The States Government of Bihar proposed 6 inter-linking projects, Maharashtra 20 projects, Gujarat 1 project, Orissa 3 projects, Rajasthan 2 projects, Jharkhand 3 projects and Tamil Nadu proposed 1 inter-linking proposal between rivers inside their respective territories. Since 2005, NWDA completed feasibility studies on the projects, found 1 project infeasible, 20 projects as feasible, 1 project
7876-701: Is not running out of water but water is running out of India. The rivers inter-linking feasibility reports completed by 2013, suggest the following investment needs and potential economic impact: The cost conversion in US $ is at latest conversion price on the historical cost estimates in Indian rupees Some activists and scholars have, between 2002 and 2008, questioned the merits of Indian rivers inter-link projects, and questioned if appropriate study of benefits and risks to environment and ecology has been completed so far. Bandyopadhyay et al. claim there are knowledge gaps between
8055-486: Is not taking place from a river basin to the sea in an attempt to harness the river water fully, it leads to river basin closure, and the available water in the downstream area of the river basin closer to the sea becomes saline and/ or alkaline water . Land irrigated with saline or alkaline water gradually turns into saline or alkali soils . The water percolation in alkali soils is very poor leading to waterlogging problems. Proliferation of alkali soils would compel
8234-421: Is often no alternative for farmers but to use water polluted with urban waste directly to water their crops. There can be significant health hazards related to using untreated wastewater in agriculture. Municipal wastewater can contain a mixture of chemical and biological pollutants. In low-income countries, there are often high levels of pathogens from excreta. In emerging nations , where industrial development
8413-443: Is often the irrigation choice for developing nations, for low value crops and for large fields. Where water levels from the irrigation source permit, the levels are controlled by dikes ( levees ), usually plugged by soil. This is often seen in terraced rice fields (rice paddies), where the method is used to flood or control the level of water in each distinct field. In some cases, the water is pumped, or lifted by human or animal power to
8592-422: Is outpacing environmental regulation, there are increasing risks from inorganic and organic chemicals. The World Health Organization developed guidelines for safe use of wastewater in 2006, advocating a ‘multiple-barrier' approach wastewater use, for example by encouraging farmers to adopt various risk-reducing behaviors. These include ceasing irrigation a few days before harvesting to allow pathogens to die off in
8771-586: Is practiced in the vineyards at Lanzarote using stones to condense water. Fog collectors are also made of canvas or foil sheets. Using condensate from air conditioning units as a water source is also becoming more popular in large urban areas. As of November 2019 a Glasgow-based startup has helped a farmer in Scotland to establish edible saltmarsh crops irrigated with sea water. An acre of previously marginal land has been put under cultivation to grow samphire , sea blite , and sea aster ; these plants yield
8950-484: Is received during summer months through monsoons in the Himalayan catchments of the Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna (GBM) basin. The northeastern region of the country receives heavy precipitation, in comparison with the northwestern, western and southern parts. The uncertainty of the start date of the monsoons, sometimes marked by prolonged dry spells and fluctuations in seasonal and annual rainfall
9129-478: Is similar in principle and action to subsurface basin irrigation. Another type of subirrigation is the self-watering container, also known as a sub-irrigated planter . This consists of a planter suspended over a reservoir with some type of wicking material such as a polyester rope. The water is drawn up the wick through capillary action. A similar technique is the wicking bed ; this too uses capillary action. Modern irrigation methods are efficient enough to supply
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#17327725744099308-437: Is supplied at one end using a large hose. After sufficient irrigation has been applied to one strip of the field, the hose is removed, the water drained from the system, and the assembly rolled either by hand or with a purpose-built mechanism, so that the sprinklers are moved to a different position across the field. The hose is reconnected. The process is repeated in a pattern until the whole field has been irrigated. This system
9487-460: Is supplying water to Vizag city . Uttarandhra Sujala Sravanthi lift irrigation scheme will also use the Godavari water and a sanction of ₹2,114 crores was made in 2017 for its first phase. All the irrigated lands under these lift schemes can be supplied from Polavaram right and left canals by gravity flow when Polavaram reservoir level is above the canal's full supply level of 41.15 m MSL. However these lift stations are to be operated every year during
9666-480: Is the estimated probable maximum flood (PMF) once in 1000 years duration. Odisha argues that otherwise there would be additional submergence above 150 ft MSL in its territory during peak floods. The recorded maximum flood is 3.0 million cusecs in the year 1986 during the last 115 years. The projected back water level build-up at Konta due to PMF in Godavari river after construction of the Polavaram project with
9845-535: Is under construction to supply irrigation water for 200,000 acres in Khammam, Krishna, Eluru and West Godavari districts drawing Godavari River water from the backwaters of Polavaram reservoir. This is a joint project between Andhra Pradesh and Telangana states. This project was shelved and merged with another project by the Telangana state. The revised cost of the total project including the 960 MW power station
10024-583: Is used for irrigation in agriculture, the nutrient (nitrogen and phosphorus) content of the treated wastewater has the benefit of acting as a fertilizer . This can make the reuse of excreta contained in sewage attractive. In developing countries , agriculture is increasingly using untreated municipal wastewater for irrigation – often in an unsafe manner. Cities provide lucrative markets for fresh produce, so they are attractive to farmers. However, because agriculture has to compete for increasingly scarce water resources with industry and municipal users, there
10203-556: Is usually not considered as a form of irrigation. Rainwater harvesting is the collection of runoff water from roofs or unused land and the concentration of this. Irrigation with recycled municipal wastewater can also serve to fertilize plants if it contains nutrients, such as nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium. There are benefits of using recycled water for irrigation, including the lower cost compared to some other sources and consistency of supply regardless of season, climatic conditions and associated water restrictions. When reclaimed water
10382-674: The Guinness Book of World Records by pouring 32,100 cubic meters of concrete in 24 hours by Navayuga Engineering . The project beat the existing record of 21,580 cubic meters which was achieved by Abdul Wahid Bin Shabib, RALS Contracting LLC and Alfa Eng. Consultant (all UAE), in Dubai between May 18 and 20 in 2017. The Chief minister of Andhra Pradesh N. Chandrababu Naidu unveiled the first crest gate of Polavaram project on 24 December 2018. National River-Linking Project , which works under
10561-589: The Mahanadi , Godavari . Krishna and Kaveri rivers would all be inter-linked by canals. Reservoirs and dams would be built along the course of these rivers. These would be used to transfer surplus water from the Mahanadi and Godavari rivers to the south of India. Under Phase II, some rivers that flow west to the north of Mumbai and the south of Tapi would be inter-linked. The water would supply additional drinking water needs of Mumbai and provide irrigation in
10740-663: The Pattiseema Lift Irrigation Project has been launched in order to pump the Godavari river water and sent to Krishna river. In June, the state was bifurcated under the Andhra Pradesh Reorganisation Act . In December 2017, it was reported that the project contractor, Transstroy was seeking a deadline extension and a budget escalation. Transstroy was reported to have its ₹4,300 crore loan turn NPA in July 2015. In January 2018,
10919-577: The United States , China , and European countries like the United Kingdom , also fund and organize some schemes within other nations. By 2021 the global land area equipped for irrigation reached 352 million ha, an increase of 22% from the 289 million ha of 2000 and more than twice the 1960s land area equipped for irrigation. The vast majority is located in Asia (70%), where irrigation
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#173277257440911098-631: The Vykuntapuram barrage pond since canal level is 33 m MSL at Ambapuram hill near Vijayawada . As water supply from Nagarjuna Sagar Left Bank Canal is highly erratic, Muktyala Lift Irrigation scheme is proposed by drawing water from the back waters of Vykuntapuram barrage on left bank of Krishna river. There is a proposal to link Nagarjuna Sagar Dam across the Krishna River and Somasila Dam across Penna River with 400 km canal as part of national river linking program. With help from
11277-573: The commercial greenhouse production, usually for potted plants . Water is delivered from below, absorbed by upwards, and the excess collected for recycling. Typically, a solution of water and nutrients floods a container or flows through a trough for a short period of time, 10–20 minutes, and is then pumped back into a holding tank for reuse. Sub-irrigation in greenhouses requires fairly sophisticated, expensive equipment and management. Advantages are water and nutrient conservation, and labor savings through reduced system maintenance and automation . It
11456-600: The 1970s, Dr. K.L. Rao , a dams designer and former irrigation minister proposed "National Water Grid". He was concerned about the severe shortages of water in the South and repetitive flooding in the North every year. He suggested that the Brahmaputra and Ganga basins are water surplus areas, and central and south India as water deficit areas. He proposed that surplus water be diverted to areas of deficit. When Rao made
11635-565: The Andhra Pradesh Reorganisation Act, 2014, Telangana state has already given the approval in all respects to the Polavaram project. In June 2018, it was reported that Naveen Patnaik, Chief Minister of Odisha had written to the Central Government to halt the Polavaram Project. Odisha, Chhattisgarh and Andhra Pradesh entered into an agreement (clause vi of final order, page 80 of original GWDT) which
11814-676: The Ganga-Brahmaputra basin. The Scheme will benefit not only the States in the Ganga-Brahmaputra Basin, but also Nepal and Bangladesh, assuming river flow management treaties are successfully negotiated. The Himalayan component would consist of a series of dams built along the Ganga and Brahmaputra rivers in India, Nepal and Bhutan for the purposes of storage. Canals would be built to transfer surplus water from
11993-771: The Godavari in Andhra Pradesh through rivers like Teesta - Mahananda - Subarnarekha and Mahanadi. The inter-links under consideration for Peninsular component are as follows, with respective status of feasibility studies: India approved and commissioned NWDA in June 2005 to identify and complete feasibility studies of intra-State projects that would inter-link rivers within that state. The Governments of Nagaland, Meghalaya, Kerala, Punjab, Delhi, Sikkim, Haryana, Union Territories of Puducherry, Andaman & Nicobar islands, Daman & Diu and Lakshadweep responded that they have no intrastate river connecting proposals. Govt. of Puducherry proposed Pennaiyar – Sankarabarani link (even though it
12172-827: The Indian Government, AP Govt can construct a new canal up to Somasila Dam as per DPR of Indian Rivers Inter-link program specifications. Thus the Godavari River water will travel up to Somasila Dam and then Swarnamukhi in Chittoor district via existing Somasila Swarnamukhi link canal. GoAP can also provide water to Tamil Nadu with this Godavari water and retained water in Krishna River (15 TMC allocation of Krishna water to Telugu Ganga) will be used for other projects in Rayalaseema region. In future
12351-651: The Krishna & Godavari river flood waters for creating additional irrigated area in Prakasam , Potti Sriramulu Nellore , Cudapah , Chittoor districts and further transfer of Godavari water to Kavery river in Tamil Nadu under interstate rivers linking project This project is similar to Kalpasar Project to store Narmada River water in Gulf of Khambhat sea. Fresh water coastal reservoirs can be established in
12530-496: The Nagarjunasagar dam for the requirements of Krishna delta. Thus Andhra Pradesh need not share with other states the water transferred via Krishna river or any reservoir located on Krishna river for the water needs of any of its area (including Krishna basin) other than Krishna delta. To stabilize the existing irrigated ayacut area under Nagarjuna sagar right canal , a new lift project construction with greenfield alignment
12709-760: The Nile river in Egypt and Sudan; and in the Mississippi-Missouri river basin, the Southern Great Plains, and in parts of California in the United States. Smaller irrigation areas are spread across almost all populated parts of the world. By 2012, the area of irrigated land had increased to an estimated total of 3,242,917 km (801 million acres), which is nearly the size of India. The irrigation of 20% of farming land accounts for
12888-541: The Polavaram Project Authority (PPA). Bills amounting to ₹548 crores have been received by the PPA for examination. As per the inter state agreements dated 4 August 1978 (page 89) and 29 January 1979 (page 101) with Andhra Pradesh, the states of Karnataka and Maharashtra are entitled to use 21 tmcft and 14 tmcft respectively out of the unallocated waters of Krishna river when Godavari water transferred in
13067-591: The Polavaram dam in Odisha and Chhattisgarh states is a fraction of the Andhra Pradesh area which is affected by the floods in the Godavari River. During the years from 1953 to 2011, Andhra Pradesh suffered nearly ₹ 55,800 crore which is 26% of total flood damage in India. It is justified to raise the FRL of Polavaram dam further on this ground alone. One single criterion shall be applied by the tribunals/courts for all
13246-606: The Polavaram project during the dry season. The dam construction involves the building of a 1.5-m-thick concrete diaphragm wall up to depths from 40 to 120 m below the river bed under the earth dam which is the first of its kind in India. The purpose of diaphragm wall is to secure the river bed stability for withstanding the water pressure across the dam. The project would constitute an earth-cum-rock fill dam of 2,310 metres (7,580 ft) length, spillway of 907 metres (2,976 ft) with 48 vents to enable discharge of 5,000,000 cu ft/s (140,000 m/s) of water. The spillway
13425-625: The Polavaram reservoir along with lean season inflows, excluding the downstream Godavari Delta water requirements, can be diverted into these canals. Thus the total annual water utilization capacity of the Polavaram project is 550 tmcft. The water storage available in Sileru river basin is used as usual for the full water requirements of the Godavari Delta. The hydropower plant (960 MW) will generate 2.29 billion kWh green or renewable electricity annually. Polavaram reservoir will also create
13604-399: The Polavaram right bank canal is nothing but Budameru/ Velagaleru flood diversion canal which has flow limitation of 10,000 cusecs. Thus water flow from Polavaram right bank canal to Krishna River can be enhanced by constructing a 25 MW power plant. A fresh water coastal reservoir of storage capacity 1000 Tmcft (thousand million cubic feet) could be constructed along the sea coast to store
13783-479: The Polavaram right bank canal would be remodelled to enhance its capacity to 50,000 cusecs by raising its embankments for augmenting water transfer to meet shortages in the Krishna river basin and the needed environmental flows downstream of Prakasam barrage. A 25 MW hydropower station can be established utilising Polavaram right bank canal water near Vijayawada city by transferring water via Budameru river and Eluru canal to Prakasam barrage pond. The last portion of
13962-510: The Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayi Yojana (PMKSY) towards the project. By June 2018, ₹13,000 crore had been spent on the project. An expenditure of ₹16,035.88 crores has been incurred on the project from April 2014 to December 2022. A sum of ₹13,226.04 crores has been released by the centre for the execution of the project since April 2014. Bills amounting to ₹2,390.27 crores were rejected for reimbursement by
14141-541: The Presidency's irrigation department, made the first survey of the project site and made a definitive proposal for a reservoir at Polavaram. Sri Iyer not only envisaged cultivation of 350,000 acres (140,000 ha) over two crop seasons through this project, but also planned for a 40 MW hydroelectric plant within the project. The project, when it was conceived in 1946–47, was estimated to cost Rs 129 crore. In 1980, then Chief Minister of Andhra Pradesh Tanguturi Anjaiah laid
14320-455: The Study recommended that sizeable surplus water was to be transferred from the Godavari River basin to the Krishna River basin. The capacity of right and left canals are 17,500 cusecs each. During the monsoon months (July to October), nearly 360 tmcft of Godavari flood flows at the rate of 3 tmcft per day can be diverted into the canals. At least another 190 tmcft water from the water stored in
14499-532: The aegis of the Indian Ministry of Water Resources , was designed to overcome the deficit in water in the country. As a part of this plan, surplus water from the Himalayan rivers is to be transferred to the peninsular rivers of India. This exercise, with a combined network of 30 river-links and a total length of 14,900 kilometres (9,300 mi) at an estimated cost of US$ 120 billion (in 1999), would be
14678-1106: The art construction technology of tunnels and underground hydroelectric station. The progress up to the year 2012 in construction of dam structures and the hydro electric station is almost nil. The alternate site located in the gorge stretch is still worth of re-examination to reduce the ever-increasing cost of Polavaram dam. The spillway and non-overflow dam are founded on Khondalite bedrock in Polavaram Project. Khondalites, which are feldspar-rich, often contain soft graphite, hard garnet, etc. in addition to other minerals. Khondalites are highly weathered and hence unsuitable at dam site. The project reservoir has live storage 75.2 tmcft at canal's full supply level of 41.15 metres (135 ft) MSL and gross storage 194 tmcft thereby enabling irrigation of 23,20,000 acres (including stabilisation of existing irrigated lands) in Krishna , West Godavari , Eluru district , East Godavari , Visakhapatnam , Vizianagaram and Srikakulam districts of Andhra Pradesh. The silt free dead storage water of nearly 100 tmcft above
14857-469: The center pivot. This type of system is known as LEPA (Low Energy Precision Application). Originally, most center pivots were water-powered. These were replaced by hydraulic systems ( T-L Irrigation ) and electric-motor-driven systems (Reinke, Valley, Zimmatic). Many modern pivots feature GPS devices. A series of pipes, each with a wheel of about 1.5 m diameter permanently affixed to its midpoint, and sprinklers along its length, are coupled together. Water
15036-485: The centre of the wheel line) rotates the clamped-together pipe sections as a single axle, rolling the whole wheel line. Manual adjustment of individual wheel positions may be necessary if the system becomes misaligned. Wheel line systems are limited in the amount of water they can carry, and limited in the height of crops that can be irrigated. One useful feature of a lateral move system is that it consists of sections that can be easily disconnected, adapting to field shape as
15215-407: The claimed benefits and potential threats from environment and ecological impact. They also question whether the inter-linking project will deliver the benefits of flood control . Vaidyanathan claimed, in 2003, that there are uncertainty and unknowns about operations, how much water will be shifted and when, whether this may cause water logging, salinity/alkalinity and the resulting desertification in
15394-565: The coastal areas of Maharashtra . In Phase 3, the Ken and Chambal rivers would be inter-linked to serve regional water needs of Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh . Over Phase 4, a number of west-flowing rivers in the Western Ghats , would be inter-linked for irrigation purposes to east flowing rivers such as Kaveri and Krishna. The 800-km long Mahanadi - Godavari interlinking project would link River Sankosh originating from Bhutan to
15573-413: The coastal reservoir. With 70 tmcft live storage above the full supply level of its canals and another 100 tmcft above the spillway sill level, Polavaram reservoir will assist in moderating the Godavari flood water to make adequate water flow to the coastal reservoir. The offshore earth dam extending up to 8 m msl high, is in the form of two parallel dikes separated by 1000 meters gap. The main purpose of
15752-496: The command areas of these projects. Other scholars have asked whether there are other technologies to address the cycle of droughts and flood havoc's, with less uncertainties about potential environmental and ecological impact. Rivers may change their courses every (approximately) 100 years, so the interlinking may not be useful after 100 years. Interlinking may also lead to deforestation and cause ecological imbalances, widely expected to alter fish communities. A study concluded that
15931-711: The components of these irrigation systems are hidden under ground, since aesthetics are important in a landscape. A typical lawn sprinkler system will consist of one or more zones, limited in size by the capacity of the water source. Each zone will cover a designated portion of the landscape. Sections of the landscape will usually be divided by microclimate , type of plant material, and type of irrigation equipment. A landscape irrigation system may also include zones containing drip irrigation, bubblers, or other types of equipment besides sprinklers. Although manual systems are still used, most lawn sprinkler systems may be operated automatically using an irrigation controller , sometimes called
16110-587: The construction. The problem continued until 2010, when Chief Minister of Odisha Naveen Patnaik remained steadfast in his demand for compensation and rehabilitation of tribals of his state who would be displaced due to the submerging of their land. Odisha and Chhattisgarh have filed a petition in the Supreme Court against the Project which has probability of temporarily submerging large areas of its state and allege that union government are going ahead with
16289-416: The country. India accounts for 18% of global population and about 4% of the world's water resources . One of the solutions to solve the country's water woes is to link its rivers and lakes. The interlinking project has been split into three parts: a northern Himalayan rivers interlink component, a southern peninsular component, and starting in 2005, an intrastate river-linking component. The project
16468-408: The crop or field requirements. Increasing the application efficiency means that the amount of crop produced per unit of water increases. Improved efficiency may either be achieved by applying less water to an existing field or by using water more wisely thereby achieving higher yields in the same area of land. In some parts of the world, farmers are charged for irrigation water hence over-application has
16647-478: The designed maximum water level (measured at dam point) shall be cross-checked with the level that can occur at Konta in Sabari basin from the PMF generated in the upstream of Konta when the downstream main Godavari is not under spate. Then only enhanced submergence during the PMF of the Godavari river in Odisha and Chhattisgarh states can be assessed due to the Polavaram dam construction. The location of Polavaram dam
16826-482: The development of the rivers of the sub-continent, each state of India, as well as its international neighbours stand to gain by way of additional irrigation, hydro power generation, navigation and flood control. The project may also contribute to food security to the anticipated population peak of India. The Ganga-Brahmaputra-Meghna is a major international drainage basin which carries more than 1,000 million acre feet out of total 1440 million acre feet in India. Water
17005-524: The dry lands to the extent of 10,000,000 acres. Water from this coastal reservoir would be pumped uplands to Ramathirtham water tank (near 15°37′37″N 79°48′47″E / 15.62694°N 79.81306°E / 15.62694; 79.81306 ) which is at 85 m msl. From this water tank, dry lands in Prakasam and Nellore districts up to Tamil Nadu border can be brought under irrigation by gravity canals. From this canal, water would be further pumped to
17184-433: The dry season to draw water from the substantial dead storage available behind the flood gates of the Polavaram dam. So these lift schemes are not for few years operation till the Polavaram dam is constructed but for permanent operation regularly for at least four months in every year. Nearly 80 tmcft live storage capacity available to Andhra Pradesh in Sileru river basin can also augment the water availability additionally to
17363-526: The eastern tributaries of the Ganga to the west. This is expected to contribute to flood control measures in the Ganga and Brahmaputra river basins. It could also provide excess water for the Farakka Barrage to flush out the silt at the port of Kolkata . By 2015, fourteen inter-links under consideration for Himalayan component are as follows, with feasibility study status identified: This Scheme
17542-410: The entire field uniformly with water, so that each plant has the amount of water it needs, neither too much nor too little. Water use efficiency in the field can be determined as follows: Increased irrigation efficiency has a number of positive outcomes for the farmer, the community and the wider environment. Low application efficiency infers that the amount of water applied to the field is in excess of
17721-502: The exception of low-energy center pivot systems and surface irrigation systems, and the system can be designed for uniformity throughout a field or for precise water delivery to individual plants in a landscape containing a mix of plant species. Although it is difficult to regulate pressure on steep slopes, pressure compensating emitters are available, so the field does not have to be level. High-tech solutions involve precisely calibrated emitters located along lines of tubing that extend from
17900-1115: The existing command area (situated below 60 m MSL) under Nagarjuna Sagar right bank canal to facilitate extension of Nagarjuna Sagar right bank canal connecting to Kandaleru feeder canal / Somasila reservoir for serving irrigation needs in Prakasam , Potti Sriramulu Nellore and Chittur districts including Chennai drinking water supply . A branch from this lift canal is also extended up to Pulichinthala dam (FRL 53.34 m MSL) to store Godavari water in Pulichintala reservoir during drought years and to irrigate low lands along Krishna river up to Pulichintala dam. Another high level lift canal from above Krishna river location 16°42′50″N 80°08′24″E / 16.71389°N 80.14000°E / 16.71389; 80.14000 up to 90 m MSL would be constructed to join Nagarjuna Sagar tail pond (FRL 75 m MSL) irrigating lands en route along Krishna river in Guntur district. During drought years,
18079-481: The existing command area under Nagarjunasagar left canal in AP facilitating 40 tmcft saved Krishna river water for diversion to Rayalaseema from Srisailam reservoir . GoAP announced the decision to construct Purushothapatnam Lift Irrigation Scheme to transfer water at the rate of 3,500 cusecs to Polavaram left bank canal and further pumping at the rate of 1,400 cusecs to Yeleru reservoir for feeding Yeleru canal which
18258-435: The farmers to cultivate rice or grasses only as the soil productivity is poor with other crops and tree plantations . Cotton is the preferred crop in saline soils compared to many other crops. Interlinking water surplus rivers with water deficit rivers is needed for the long-term sustainable productivity of the river basins and for mitigating the anthropogenic influences on the rivers by allowing adequate salt export to
18437-530: The few thousand hectares of farm/forest land submerged by the backwater level build-up once in five hundred or thousand years (against the permitted norm of once in 25 years) without showing concern for the thousands of square kilometers land submerged in the area downstream of the dam with a river flood of magnitude five million cusecs. Thirty-two years have passed after the GWDT award in 1980, Maharashtra, Odisha and Chhattisgarh have not made serious efforts to harness
18616-488: The field and distributed by overhead high-pressure water devices. Micro-irrigation is a system that distributes water under low pressure through a piped network and applies it as a small discharge to each plant. Micro-irrigation uses less pressure and water flow than sprinkler irrigation. Drip irrigation delivers water directly to the root zone of plants. Subirrigation has been used in field crops in areas with high water tables for many years. It involves artificially raising
18795-410: The first phase of the project by June 2018. With coffer dams inclusion and the bed level of the approach and discharge canals of the spillway increased to 17 metres (56 ft) MSL, the spillway related rock excavation is reduced by 70% leading to substantial cost reduction in the project's head works cost. Ultimately, the material of cofferdams would be excavated and reused for the peripheral portions of
18974-620: The foundation stone for the prestigious Polavaram irrigation project. In the year 2004 Y. S. Rajasekhara Reddy performs bhoomi pooja with the estimation cost of 8,261 cr and the administrative sanction was accorded for construction of right and left canals at a cost of Rs 1,320 crore and Rs 1,353 crore. After decades of delay, the main Polavaram Dam construction began under the next successive government of N. Chandrababu Naidu . After 2014 elections, then Chief Minister-elect N. Chandrababu Naidu has refused to be sworn in unless an ordinance
19153-410: The gravity open canal links with shortest distance and cost effective manner. BJP -led NDA government of Atal Bihari Vajpayee had propagated the idea of interlinking of rivers to deal with the problem of drought and different parts of the country at the same time. The Congress general secretary Rahul Gandhi said in 2009 that the entire idea of interlinking of rivers was dangerous and that he
19332-534: The ground. In flower beds or shrub areas, sprinklers may be mounted on above ground risers or even taller pop-up sprinklers may be used and installed flush as in a lawn area. Hose-end sprinklers are devices attached to the end of a garden hose, used for watering lawns, gardens, or plants. They come in a variety of designs and styles, allowing you to adjust the water flow, pattern, and range for efficient irrigation. Some common types of hose-end sprinklers include: Oscillating Sprinklers: These spray water back and forth in
19511-409: The image that follows. As of 2017 most center pivot systems have drops hanging from a U-shaped pipe attached at the top of the pipe with sprinkler heads that are positioned a few feet (at most) above the crop, thus limiting evaporative losses. Drops can also be used with drag hoses or bubblers that deposit the water directly on the ground between crops. Crops are often planted in a circle to conform to
19690-473: The interlinking of rivers in India has a long history. During the British colonial rule , for example, the 19th century engineer Arthur Cotton proposed the plan to interlink major Indian rivers in order to hasten import and export of goods from its colony in indian_subcontinent , South Asia , as well as to address water shortages and droughts in southeastern India, now Andhra Pradesh and Odisha . In
19869-399: The interlinks will add nearly 170 million acre feet of water for beneficial uses in India, enabling irrigation over an additional area of 35 million hectares, generation of 40,000 MW capacity hydro power, flood control and other benefits. The total surface water available to India is nearly 1440-million-acre feet (1776 billion cubic meters) of which only 220-million-acre feet was being used in
20048-480: The irrigated area with 20 million tube wells installed. About 15 percent of India's food is being produced using rapidly depleting groundwater . The end of the era of massive expansion in groundwater use is going to demand greater reliance on surface water supply systems. Proponents of the project suggest India's water situation is already critical, and it needs sustainable development and management of surface water and groundwater usage. Some proponents feel that India
20227-490: The irrigation results in flooding or near flooding of the cultivated land. Historically, surface irrigation is the most common method of irrigating agricultural land across most parts of the world. The water application efficiency of surface irrigation is typically lower than other forms of irrigation, due in part to the lack of control of applied depths. Surface irrigation involves a significantly lower capital cost and energy requirement than pressurised irrigation systems. Hence it
20406-455: The issues for arguments. Telangana said to the court it is in-principle agree for the project but the center should take up study by neutral central institute like CWPRS, Pune to study the impact of Backwater due to increase of 36 lakh cusecs to 50 lakh cusecs of spillway design discharge, it is to ascertain the safety of important temple town like Bhadrachalam, Mining areas and heavy water Plant. Orissa also insisted on backwater studies. The matter
20585-480: The large nation is not uniform, with the east and north getting most rainfall and the west and south getting less. India also sees years of excess monsoons and floods, followed by below-average or late monsoons accompanied by droughts. This geographical and time variance in availability of natural water versus year-round demand for irrigation, drinking, and industrial water creates a demand–supply gap that has been worsening with India's rising population. Proponents of
20764-478: The largest ever infrastructure project in the world. In this project's case, the Godavari River basin is considered as a surplus one, while the Krishna River basin is considered to be a deficit one. As of 2008, 644 tmcft of underutilised water from Godavari River flowed into the Bay of Bengal . But as of 2017 over 3000 tmcft are drained unutilised into Bay of Bengal. Based on the estimated water requirements in 2025,
20943-531: The length of the sea dikes is nearly 200 km. The area of the coastal reservoir would be nearly 2900 km. A barrage would be constructed across the Vashista Godavari river (near 16°19′41″N 81°43′15″E / 16.32806°N 81.72083°E / 16.32806; 81.72083 ( Vashista Godavari barrage ) ) near Antervedi Pallipalem town. A flood canal (1.5 km long) from this barrage would feed Godavari river water to
21122-517: The length of this lift project canal, Pressure Main and fewer lift stages and also enables the lifting of water up to Srisailam Project via Existing Reversible Reverse turbine pump houses in Nagarjuna Sagar Dam and Srisailam project . It is even more economical, if we construct a new gravity canal from Ibrahimpatnam to Vykuntapuram Barrage pond to deliver the Polavaram right main canal/ Budameru diversion canal waters directly into
21301-399: The level of the land. Surface irrigation is even used to water urban gardens in certain areas, for example, in and around Phoenix, Arizona . The irrigated area is surrounded by a berm and the water is delivered according to a schedule set by a local irrigation district . A special form of irrigation using surface water is spate irrigation , also called floodwater harvesting. In case of
21480-441: The line is moved. They are most often used for small, rectilinear, or oddly-shaped fields, hilly or mountainous regions, or in regions where labor is inexpensive. A lawn sprinkler system is permanently installed, as opposed to a hose-end sprinkler, which is portable. Sprinkler systems are installed in residential lawns, in commercial landscapes, for churches and schools, in public parks and cemeteries, and on golf courses . Most of
21659-402: The livelihoods of people who rely on specific aquatic species for their income. Lakra et al., in their 2011 study, claim large dams, interbasin transfers and water withdrawal from rivers is likely to have negative as well as positive impacts on freshwater aquatic ecosystem. As regards to the impact on fish and aquatic biodiversity , there could be positive as well as negative impacts. India has
21838-423: The location of this Hydro electricity project further downstream in Andhra Pradesh territory to harness Sileru river water also for hydroelectricity generation. This joint project of the three states would eliminate the backwaters issue of the Polavaram dam. The 200 km long stretch of the Sabari river forming boundary between Chhattisgarh and Odisha drops by 2.25 meters per km length on average. This stretch of
22017-875: The main earth-cum-rock fill dam. On the left side of the river, 12 water turbines , each having 80 Megawatt capacity, were to be installed. Without removing the upper and lower coffer dams after the construction of the ECRF dam, the 960 MW hydropower plant can not be commissioned as they are blocking the water passages of the powerhouse. The right canal connecting to Krishna River in upstream of Prakasam Barrage (173 kilometres (107 mi) long) discharges 17,500 cu ft/s (500 m/s) at head works and left canal (182 kilometres (113 mi) long) discharges 17,500 cu ft/s (500 m/s) of water. Indira Dummugudem lift irrigation scheme starting at 17°33′49″N 81°14′49″E / 17.56361°N 81.24694°E / 17.56361; 81.24694 ( Rudrammakota )
22196-582: The major Godavari tributaries such as Sabari River , Indravati River and Pranahita River to utilize the allocated share of Godavari waters. This underutilization of water is the main reason for the very high flood flows at the Polavaram dam site. The vast area in excess of 10,000 square km up to sea are frequently flooded (at least once in a decade) by Godavari floods in Andhra Pradesh by the flood waters originating in Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Odisha and Chhattisgarh states. The land submergence due to
22375-406: The matter with the governments as no party had pleaded against the implementation of the Rivers Interlinking Project. India receives about 4,000 cubic kilometers of rain annually, or about 1 million gallons of fresh water per person every year. However, the precipitation pattern in India varies dramatically across distance and over calendar months. Much of the precipitation in India, about 85%,
22554-734: The national level perhaps is the only permanent solution to the water scarcity problem in the country. Karunanidhi said the government should make an assessment of the project's feasibility starting with the south-bound rivers. DMK for 2014 general elections added Nationalisation and inter-linking of rivers to its manifesto. Kalpasar Project is an irrigation project which envisages storing Narmada River water in an offshore freshwater reservoir located in Gulf of Khambhat sea for further pumping to arid Sourashtra region for irrigation use. The National perspective plan envisions about 150-million-acre feet (MAF) (185 billion cubic meters) of water storage along with building inter-links. These storages and
22733-457: The needed water pumping power. The dikes are built by dredging sand and clay from the nearby shallow sea bed to reduce the construction cost. Nearly 1850 tmcft of water of Godavari and Krishna flood waters can be utilized for irrigation, etc. requirements with this freshwater coastal reservoir. Vast lands in the districts of Prakasam, Nellore , Cudapah, Ananthapur and Chittoor are drought prone and do not have adequate water sources for irrigating
22912-435: The oldest form of irrigation and has been in use for thousands of years. In surface ( furrow, flood , or level basin ) irrigation systems, water moves across the surface of agricultural lands, in order to wet it and infiltrate into the soil. Water moves by following gravity or the slope of the land. Surface irrigation can be subdivided into furrow, border strip or basin irrigation . It is often called flood irrigation when
23091-538: The open sea. The top surface of the inner dike would serve as access to the mainland from the mega harbor with rail and road links. The coastal reservoir whose full reservoir water level (FRL) is at 0.0 m msl, would also reduce drastically the cyclone damage and flooding in coastal areas of West Godavari, Krishna , Guntur and Prakasam districts. It would also greatly improve the irrigated coastal land drainage in these districts. The coastal reservoir area can also be used for locating floating solar power plants to generate
23270-436: The overarching goal of increasing self-sufficiency. Irrigation water can come from groundwater (extracted from springs or by using wells ), from surface water (withdrawn from rivers , lakes or reservoirs ) or from non-conventional sources like treated wastewater , desalinated water , drainage water , or fog collection . While floodwater harvesting belongs to the accepted irrigation methods, rainwater harvesting
23449-402: The plan. In 1982, India financed and set up a committee of nominated experts, through National Water Development Agency (NWDA) to complete detailed studies, surveys and investigations in respect of reservoirs, canals and all aspects of feasibility of interlinking peninsular rivers and related water resource management. NWDA has produced many reports over 30 years, from 1982 through 2013. However,
23628-467: The potential to install nearly 1,58,000 MW high head pumped-storage hydroelectric plants in the future. The dam could not be taken up for construction during the last century on techno-economical grounds. The proposed dam site at Polavaram is located where the river emerges from the last range of the Eastern Ghats into plains covered with deep alluvial sandy strata. At Polavaram, the river width
23807-561: The problem temporarily becomes too much rainfall and weeks of havoc from floods. This excess-scarcity, regional disparity and flood-drought cycles have created the need for water resources management. Rivers inter-linking is one proposal to address that need. Due to global warming , fossil fuels use is discouraged and carbon neutral , clean, and renewable energy sources like solar and wind power are encouraged which are intermittent and variable types of electricity generation. Pumped storage hydroelectric power plants are needed to store
23986-567: The production of 40% of food production. The scale of irrigation increased dramatically over the 20th century. In 1800, 8 million hectares globally were irrigated, in 1950, 94 million hectares, and in 1990, 235 million hectares. By 1990, 30% of the global food production came from irrigated land. Irrigation techniques across the globe includes canals redirecting surface water, groundwater pumping, and diverting water from dams. National governments lead most irrigation schemes within their borders, but private investors and other nations, especially
24165-492: The project concept and plans. Social activists campaigned that the project may be disastrous in terms of cost, potential environmental and ecological damage, water table and the dangers inherent with tinkering with nature. The central government of India, from 2005 through 2013, instituted a number of committees, rejected a number of reports, and financed a series of feasibility and impact studies, each with changing environmental law and standards. In February 2012, while disposing
24344-402: The project could reduce rainfall and change rainfall patterns in the region. Water storage and distributed reservoirs are likely to displace people – a rehabilitation process that has attracted concern of sociologists and political groups. Further, the inter-link would create a path for aquatic ecosystems to be affected by movement of species from one river to another, which in turn may affect
24523-545: The project must be negotiated. Cost of power generation by solar power projects would be below Rs. 1.0 per Kwh in few years. Availability of cheaper, clean and perennial/renewable power would favour more water lifting/pumping and tunnels in the river link projects rather than purely gravity links to economize on cost, reduce construction time and reduce land submergence by optimum use of existing reservoirs/less storage, etc. Tunnelling technology/methodology has also undergone drastic improvements to make them alternate choice to
24702-404: The project without the necessary permissions from Environment Ministry. Under section 90 of the Andhra Pradesh Reorganisation Act, 2014 , union government has taken the responsibility of taking all clearances and approvals for the project execution and also declared the project as national project. The states also allege that public hearing in the effected areas are not held. Under section 90 (3) of
24881-594: The project. In June 2018, the Central Government approved ₹1,400 crores which had been sanctioned in January, but not released, through Extra Budgetary Resources raised by NABARD. These funds were from outside the LTIF. In January 2018, it was reported that the project cost had escalated to ₹58,319 crore. In June 2018, The Water Ministry sanctioned ₹417.44 crore as grant-in-aid under the Accelerated Irrigation Benefit Programme under
25060-470: The project. In addition, ₹ 40,000 was to be allotted for each dwelling to be constructed for the displaced as against ₹ 25,000 provided by other states. Despite this clearance, the project faced political roadblocks. The Communist Party of India (M) and Bharat Rashtra Samithi were troubled with the issue of submerging agricultural lands by the project. Meanwhile, work on the project began in April 2006 and
25239-652: The projects were not pursued. The river inter-linking idea was revived in 1999, after the National Democratic Alliance formed the Government of India , but this time with a major strategic shift. The proposal was modified to intra-basin development as opposed to inter-basin water transfer. By 2004, the United Progressive Alliance (UPA) led by the Congress Party was in power, and it resurrected its opposition to
25418-452: The proposal, several inter-basin transfer projects had already been successfully implemented in India, and Rao suggested that the success be scaled up. In 1980, India's then Ministry of Water Resources came out with a report entitled "National Perspectives for Water Resources Development". This report split the water development project in two parts – the Himalayan and Peninsular components. The Congress Party came to power and it abandoned
25597-475: The regions saw increases in the area equipped for irrigation, with Africa growing the fastest (+29%), followed by Asia (+25%), Oceania (+24%), the Americas (+19%) and Europe (+2%). Irrigation enables the production of more crops, especially commodity crops in areas which otherwise could not support them. Countries frequently invested in irrigation to increase wheat , rice , or cotton production, often with
25776-562: The reservoir covers the famous Papikonda National Park , Polavaram hydro electric project (HEP) and National Waterway 4 are under construction on left side of the river. It is located 40 km to the upstream of Sir Arthur Cotton Barrage in Rajamahendravaram City and 25 km from Rajahmundry Airport . In July 1941, the first conceptual proposal for the project was mooted by the erstwhile Madras Presidency. Diwan Bahadur L. Venkatakrishna Iyer , then Chief Engineer in
25955-482: The right side branch of the Godavari river, is joining the sea and the mouth of the Gundlakamma River (near 15°34′09″N 80°13′49″E / 15.56917°N 80.23028°E / 15.56917; 80.23028 ( Western tip of Coastal reservoir ) ), is highly suitable for creating the freshwater coastal reservoir. The average width of the sea up to 20 m depth is nearly 16 km wide and
26134-484: The river has substantial hydroelectricity generation potential by building medium head (< 20 m) barrages in series to minimize land submergence. The surplus water of Indravati River in Odisha can also be diverted to Sabari river via Jouranala through which Indravati River flood waters naturally overflow into Sabari basin for power generation. In July 2018, a two-member bench of the Supreme Court asked Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Odisha and Chhattisgarh governments to frame
26313-730: The river interlinking projects claim the answer to India's water problem is to conserve the abundant monsoon water bounty, store it in reservoirs, and deliver this water—using the planned project—to areas and over times when water becomes scarce. Beyond water security , the project is also seen to offer potential benefits to transport infrastructure through navigation and hydro power as well as broadening income sources in rural areas through fish farming . Opponents are concerned about well-known environmental, ecological, and social displacement impacts as well as unknown risks associated with tinkering with nature. Others are concerned that some projects may have international impacts. A proposal regarding
26492-588: The sea in the form of environmental flows . India needs infrastructure for logistics and the movement of freight. Using connected rivers as navigation is a cleaner, low carbon footprint form of transport infrastructure , particularly for ores and food grains . India currently stores only 30 days of rainfall, while developed nations strategically store 900 days worth of water demand in arid areas river basins, and reservoirs. India's dam reservoirs store only 200 cubic meters per person. India also relies excessively on groundwater, which accounts for over 50 percent of
26671-416: The sea level, is lesser challenging technically when compared to Saemangeum Seawall project which is having 36 meters average water depth. The sea area up to 20 meters depth adjacent to coast line between the locations (near 16°19′19″N 81°42′22″E / 16.32194°N 81.70611°E / 16.32194; 81.70611 ( Eastern tip of Coastal reservoir ) ) where Vashista Godavari,
26850-463: The sea. The rainwater falling on the coastal reservoir area and runoff water from its catchment area is adequate to cater to the seepage and evaporation losses from the coastal reservoir. The 180 km long, 1000 m gap between the two dikes is also used as deep water mega harbor for shipping, ship breaking, ship building, etc. For shipping purpose, the breakwater outer dike facing the sea is envisaged with few locks fitted with twin gates for access to
27029-650: The shallow sea area by constructing sea dikes / bunds/ causeway up to the depth of 20 meters from the coast line. Water can be pumped from this artificial freshwater lagoon throughout the year for meeting agriculture, etc. needs. Also top surface of the dike can be used as coastal road & rail rout. The proposed dikes would be similar to the land reclamation of North Sea area called Delta Works in Netherlands or Saemangeum Seawall in South Korea . The earth bunds / dikes located on sea bed at 20 meters below
27208-407: The size of United States – compared to the 2011 census. This will increase demand for reliable sources of food and improved agriculture yields – both of which, claims India's National Council of Applied Economic Research, require significantly improve irrigation network than the current state. The average rainfall in India is about 4,000 billion cubic meters, of which annual surface water flow in India
27387-507: The spillway crest level 24.5 metres (80 ft) MSL, can also be used in downstream lift irrigation projects ( Pattiseema lift , Tadipudi lift , Chintalapudi lift, Thorrigedda lift, Pushkara lift, Purushothapatnam lift, Venkatanagaram lift, Chagalnadu lift , etc.) and Dowleswaram Barrage during the summer months. Chintalapudi lift / Jalleru project will supply water to irrigate most of the highlands in Eluru district and NTR districts including
27566-400: The sprinkler arrives back at the reel the system shuts off. This type of system is known to most people as a "waterreel" traveling irrigation sprinkler and they are used extensively for dust suppression, irrigation, and land application of waste water. Other travelers use a flat rubber hose that is dragged along behind while the sprinkler platform is pulled by a cable. Center pivot irrigation
27745-412: The state government signed a new contract for the project spillway, spill channel and stilling basin concrete work with Navayuga Engineering By June 2018, 1,10,355 acres of the required 1,68,213 acres had been acquired. On June 11, 2018, the Polavaram diaphragm wall was completed marking a significant milestone in the project construction. On January 7, 2019, The Polavaram project in Andhra Pradesh entered
27924-432: The submerged lands whether they are related to reservoir projects construction or due to river floods (i.e. non-utilization of river water). Upstream states shall not take granted that downstream state areas are permitted to be flooded /inundated by the river flood water without offering agreeable relief/comforts. Odisha and Chhattisgarh entered into an agreement (clause 3e, Annexure F, Page 159 of original GWDT) to construct
28103-493: The sunlight; applying water carefully so it does not contaminate leaves likely to be eaten raw; cleaning vegetables with disinfectant; or allowing fecal sludge used in farming to dry before being used as a human manure. Irrigation water can also come from non-conventional sources like treated wastewater , desalinated water , drainage water , or fog collection . In countries where humid air sweeps through at night, water can be obtained by condensation onto cold surfaces. This
28282-703: The surplus electricity generated during daylight time by the solar power plants and supply the required electricity during the night hours. Water security , energy security , and food security can be achieved by interlinking rivers by envisaging multipurpose freshwater coastal reservoirs . Population increase in India is the other driver of the need for river inter-linking. India's population growth rate has been falling but still continues to increase by about 10 to 15 million people every year. The resulting demand for food must be satisfied with higher yields and better crop security, both of which require adequate irrigation of about 140 million hectares of land. Currently, just
28461-407: The toe of Pulichinthala Project . It is more economical to construct first stage pump house of this lift project to lift water from Prakasam Barrage back waters into newly created Vykuntapuram Barrage pond and the second lift stage from Vykuntapuram Barrage pond to existing K.L Rao sagar / Pulichintala Project and later lift stages from K.L Rao Sagar to Nagarjuna sagar right canal.It will shorten
28640-812: The total fertile land was 2,788,000 km (689 million acres) and it was equipped with irrigation infrastructure worldwide. About 68% of this area is in Asia, 17% in the Americas, 9% in Europe, 5% in Africa and 1% in Oceania. The largest contiguous areas of high irrigation density are found in Northern and Eastern India and Pakistan along the Ganges and Indus rivers; in the Hai He, Huang He and Yangtze basins in China; along
28819-454: The twin dikes is to prevent any sea water seepage into the coastal reservoir as its water level is below the sea water level. The water level between the dikes is always maintained at a minimum of 2 m above sea level by pumping fresh water from the coastal reservoir to the 1000 m gap between the dikes. The higher level water barrier between the two dikes eliminates any seawater seepage into the coastal reservoir by establishing freshwater seepage to
28998-799: The uplands up to 600 m msl across the Seshachalam mountains to irrigate vast area in Chittoor, Cudapah and Ananthapur districts . This gravity canal would also be extended further to transfer 350 tmcft water up to the Kavery river in Tamil Nadu state during South-west monsoon period. The total cost to Andhra Pradesh state would be less than ₹1,00,000 crores which is nearly ₹1,00,000 per acre of newly irrigated lands. The proposed project would displace 276 villages and 44,574 families spread across Andhra Pradesh state mainly. Tribals constitute 50% of such
29177-414: The upstream of Prakasam barrage with FRL at 25m MSL to receive Godavari water diverted from Polavaram dam. A low level lift canal from the Krishna river located near 16°42′50″N 80°08′24″E / 16.71389°N 80.14000°E / 16.71389; 80.14000 at 20 m MSL in the downstream of Pulichintala dam will be executed to feed Godavari water diverted from Polavaram Dam to some of
29356-405: The water source by a hose. Automatically moving wheeled systems known as traveling sprinklers may irrigate areas such as small farms, sports fields, parks, pastures, and cemeteries unattended. Most of these use a length of polyethylene tubing wound on a steel drum. As the tubing is wound on the drum powered by the irrigation water or a small gas engine, the sprinkler is pulled across the field. When
29535-414: The water table to allow the soil to be moistened from below the plants' root zone. Often those systems are located on permanent grasslands in lowlands or river valleys and combined with drainage infrastructure. A system of pumping stations, canals, weirs and gates allows it to increase or decrease the water level in a network of ditches and thereby control the water table. Subirrigation is also used in
29714-404: The water table to moisten the soil below the root zone of plants. Irrigation water can come from groundwater (extracted from springs or by using wells ), from surface water (withdrawn from rivers , lakes or reservoirs ) or from non-conventional sources like treated wastewater , desalinated water , drainage water , or fog collection . Irrigation can be supplementary to rainfall , which
29893-510: The water transferred by this canal to Nagarjuna Sagar tail pond is further lifted to Nagarjuna Sagar and Srisailam reservoirs with the existing pumped storage hydro units for use in all the projects receiving water from these reservoirs. This high level lift canal is an alternative to Dummugudem to Sagar lift canal planned in Telangana region which would transfer Godavari river water from Dummugudem to Nagarjuna Sagar tail pond. Ultimately
30072-625: The year 1979. The rest is neither utilized nor managed, and it causes disastrous floods year after year. Up to 1979, India had built over 600 storage dams with an aggregate capacity of 171 billion cubic meters. These small storages hardly enable a seventh of the water available in the country to be utilized beneficially to its fullest potential. From India-wide perspective, at least 946 billion cubic meters of water flow annually could be utilized in India, power generation capacity added and perennial inland navigation could be provided. Also some benefits of flood control would be achieved. The project claims that
30251-413: Was a key component of the green revolution; the Americas account for 16% and Europe for 8% of the world total. India (76 million ha) and China (75 million ha) have the largest equipped area for irrigation, far ahead of the United States o fAmerica (27 million ha). China and India also have the largest net gains in equipped area between 2000 and 2020 (+21 million ha for China and +15 million ha for India). All
30430-655: Was added in 2005. Himalayan Rivers Development envisages construction of storage reservoirs on the main Ganga and the Brahmaputra and their principal tributaries in India and Nepal along with inter-linking canal system to transfer surplus flows of the eastern tributaries of the Ganga to the West apart from linking of the main Brahmaputra with the Ganga. Apart from providing irrigation to an additional area of about 22 million hectares and generating about 30 million kilowatt of hydro-power, it will provide substantial flood control in
30609-715: Was circulated to involved States in March 2019. The concerns of involved states had been attended in September 2020. The Indian Rivers Inter-link project is similar in scope and technical challenges as other major global river inter-link projects, such as: Other completed rivers inter-linking projects include the Marne-Rhine Canal in France, the All-American Canal and California State Water Project in
30788-558: Was expected to be completed by February 2007. After 30% work of excavation work on the canals and 15% of the spillway works had been completed, the work was halted in May 2006 to seek clearance from the Ministry of Forests and Environment. The neighbouring state of Odisha also expressed its concern on the submerging of its land and decided to study this together with the officials from Andhra Pradesh. In response, Chief Minister of Andhra Pradesh Late Y. S. Rajasekhara Reddy clarified that neither Odisha nor Chhattisgarh would be affected by
30967-437: Was found technologically challenging task to connect the reservoir with the irrigation canals via tunnels across the ghat area. Also, costly underground hydro electric station is mandated compared to river bed based hydro electric station. When the project was actually taken up in the year 2004, the old finalised designs at Polavaram site are adopted without re-examining the latest cost of upstream alternate site in view of state of
31146-403: Was made part of Godavari Water Disputes Tribunal (GWDT) award. The agreement allows Andhra Pradesh to construct the Polavaram reservoir with full reservoir level (FRL) at 150 feet above the mean sea level (MSL). Odisha approached Supreme Court against the design discharge capacity of the Polavaram dam spillway stating that it should be designed for five million cusecs (cubic feet per second) which
31325-666: Was needed to produce their food. They required a third of the volume of water humans presently take from rivers. Today, the competition for water resources is much more intense, because there are now more than seven billion people on the planet, increasing the likelihood of overconsumption of food produced by water-thirsty animal agriculture and intensive farming practices. This creates increasing competition for water from industry , urbanisation and biofuel crops . Farmers will have to strive to increase productivity to meet growing demands for food , while industry and cities find ways to use water more efficiently. Successful agriculture
31504-469: Was opposed to interlinking of rivers as it would have "severe" environmental implications. Jairam Ramesh , a cabinet minister in former UPA government, said the idea of interlinking India's rivers was a "disaster", putting a question mark on the future of the ambitious project. Karunanidhi , whose DMK has been a key ally of the Congress-led UPA at the centre, wrote that linking rivers at
31683-422: Was realized through irrigation network or natural flow of Indian rivers, lakes and adoption of pumps to pull ground water for irrigation. 80% of the water India receives through its annual rains and surface water flow, happens over a 4-month period – June through September. This spatial and time variance in availability of natural water versus year-round demand for irrigation, drinking and industrial water creates
31862-467: Was started in the first phase of Godavari Penna River linking project by having five step ladder pumping stages and a gravity canals to transfer 7,000 cusecs of Godavari water from Prakasam Barrage back waters into the Nagarjuna sagar right canal near Nekarikallu by utilizing 73 tmcft of Godavari water. With FRL 25M newly created Vykuntapuram Barrage pond will have back waters beyond Pokkunuru up to
32041-587: Was withdrawn by Government of Maharashtra, and others are still under study. On 16 September 2015, first linking was completed of rivers Krishna and Godavari . It is still under review. But it isn't considered as a true river interlinking as it is just a small lift irrigation with few lines of pipes. NWDA had drafted Detailed Project Report (DPR) of Godavari-Cauvery link project consisting of three links; Godavari (Inchampalli/Janampet) – Krishna (Nagarjunasagar), Krishna (Nagarjunasagar) – Pennar (Somasila), Pennar (Somasila)-Cauvery (Grand Anicut) link projects which
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