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124-625: The Panin family was an old and prominent Russian noble family , known since the beginning of the 16th century. Members of the family held the title of Count in the Russian Empire , granted to them on 22 September 1767 by Catherine the Great . Panin ( Russian : Па́нин ), or Panina (feminine; Па́нина) is also a Russian surname. "Panin" may refer to: "Panina" may refer to: Russian nobility The Russian word for nobility, dvoryanstvo derives from Slavonic dvor (двор), meaning

248-883: A nobiliary particle before a surname (as von in German or de in French ); however, the Russian name suffix -skij which means “of” and is equal to “von” and “de” was used in many noble surnames especially topographic surnames as nobiliary particle. Russian noblemen were accorded an official salutation, or style , that varied by rank: your high born ( Russian : ваше высокородие , romanized :  vashe vysokorodie ), your high well born ( Russian : ваше высокоблагородие , romanized :  vashe vysokoblagorodie ), your well born ( Russian : ваше благородие , romanized :  vashe blagorodie ), etc. Titled nobility ( Russian : титулованное дворянство )

372-552: A Western direction. In 1755 also during Elizabeth's reign, advanced secondary schools and the University of Moscow were founded with curricula that included foreign languages, philosophy, medicine and law; the material was chiefly based on imported texts from the west. Most significantly Peter III freed the nobility from obligatory civil and military service in 1762, allowing them to pursue personal interests. While some used this liberty as an excuse to lead lavish lives of leisure,

496-594: A different attitude and approach to ruling the nobility. Yet, the cultural impact of Peter I and Catherine II was set in stone. Ironically, by introducing the nobility to political literature from Western Europe, Catherine exposed Russia's autocracy to them as archaic and illiberal. While the nobility was conservative as a whole, a liberal and radical minority remained constant throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries, resorting to violence on multiple occasions in order to challenge Russia's traditional political system (see Decembrist Revolt , Narodnaya Volya ). Although Peter

620-416: A fifth of the serfs were mortgaged, half by 1842. By 1859, a third of nobles' estates and two-thirds of their serfs were mortgaged to noble banks or to the state. The nobility was also weakened by the scattering of their estates, lack of primogeniture and the high turnover and mobility from estate to estate. After the peasant reform of 1861 the economic position of the nobility weakened. The influence of

744-522: A large market for fake titles and coats of arms has developed since 1991. Supposedly original letters of nobility “from the Tsarist era” or confirmation diplomas from dubious associations can even be purchased on the Internet. Nobility was transferred by inheritance or was bestowed by a fount of honour , i.e. the sovereign of the Russian Empire , and was typically ranked as per below, with those of

868-546: A lieutenant. Not only were political and social activities carefully monitored and prevented, there was interference regarding religious convictions. Local clergy accused Prince Shakhovskoi of "heresy", due to his interest in natural sciences. Authorities investigated and restrained other Decembrists for not attending church. The regime thoroughly censored all correspondences, especially communication with relatives. Messages were scrupulously reviewed by both officials in Siberia and

992-746: A number of imperial sentence reductions, exiles started to complete their labor terms years ahead of schedule. The labor was of minimal travail; Stanislav Leparsky, commandant of Petrovsky Zavod, failed to enforce Decembrists' original labor sentences, and criminal convicts carried out much of the work in place of the revolutionaries. Most Decembrists left Petrovsky Zavod between 1835 and 1837, settling in or near Irkutsk, Minusinsk, Kurgan, Tobol'sk, Turinsk, and Yalutorovsk. Those Decembrists who had already lived in or visited Siberia, such as Dimitri Zavalishin, prospered upon leaving Petrovsky Zavod's confines, but most found it physically arduous and more psychologically unnerving than prison life. The Siberian population met

1116-486: A public address, then stabbed by Yevgeny Obolensky . At the same time, a rebelling squad of grenadiers , led by Lieutenant Nikolay Panov, entered the Winter Palace but failed to seize it and retreated. After spending most of the day in fruitless attempts to parley with the rebel force, Nicholas ordered a cavalry charge by Her Sovereign Majesty Empress Maria Theodorovna's Chevalier Guard Regiment that slipped on

1240-637: A select group became increasingly educated in Western ideas through schooling, reading, and travel. As before, these changes applied to few and represented a gradual shift in noble identity rather than a sudden or universal one. Marc Raeff in Origins of the Russian Intelligentsia has suggested this was not a noble victory but a sign the state didn't need them as much now that they had plenty of trained officials. When Catherine II ascended

1364-424: A slump in grain prices, forcing the peasants to farm more land. At the same time, despite their efficiency, large peasant households split up (from 9.5 to 6.8 persons per household in central Russia, 1861–1884). The resulting land hunger increased prices 7-fold and made it easier for nobles to sell or rent land rather than farm it themselves. From 1861 to 1900 40% of noble land was sold to peasants (70% of this went to

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1488-578: A standardized curriculum to be taught in her newly created public schools. While many members of the lower classes were allowed into these schools, Catherine hoped that they could become educated enough to rise through the meritocratic Table of Ranks and eventually become nobles themselves. Catherine also established the Society for the Translation of Foreign Books, “to bring enlightenment to those Russians who could not read either French or German.” It

1612-738: A stereotype there in the 1920s) and from there often to the USA , where a large part of the surviving members of the Imperial Family of Russia, the House of Romanov , and their descendants live today. The Russian Orthodox Church Outside of Russia quickly developed. Under Bolshevik rule, many nobles were persecuted, imprisoned, tortured, and shot. Emperor Nicholas II and his family were banished to Yekaterinburg and murdered there. Thousands of dissidents, devout Christians, members of non-Russian peoples, communist officials and many nobles who remained in

1736-466: A taste of the Enlightenment , of which they had experienced little. While even the most educated of the nobility still supported the autocracy that upheld the feudal system on which they depended, some considered how to make it more representative and to improve the bureaucracy. The period between Peter I and Catherine II represents gradual yet significant developments in western culture among

1860-639: A unitary Poland (i.e., more or less the territory of the former Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth ), without any Russian involvement in the affairs of these territories. In 1816, several officers of the Imperial Russian Guard founded a society known as the Union of Salvation , or of the Faithful and True Sons of the Fatherland. The society acquired a revolutionary cast after it was joined by

1984-517: Is a Russian symbol of the devotion of a wife to her husband. Maria Volkonskaya, the wife of the Decembrist leader Sergei Volkonsky, notably followed her husband to his exile in Irkutsk. Despite the spartan conditions of this banishment, Sergei Volkonsky and his wife Maria took opportunities to celebrate the liberalising mode of their exile. Sergei took to wearing an untrimmed beard (rejecting Peter

2108-534: Is called a dvoryanin (plural: dvoryane ). Pre- Soviet Russia shared with other countries the concept that nobility connotes a status or social category rather than a title. Throughout the 18th and 19th centuries, the title of the nobleman in Russia gradually became a formal status, rather than a reference to a member of the aristocracy, due to a massive influx of commoners via the Table of ranks . Many descendants of

2232-506: Is clear that, like Peter I, Catherine the Great desired to construct a new nobility, a “new race,” which would both resemble western noblemen and prove knowledgeable in discussions of modern issues. And, according to accounts from foreign visitors, the noblemen did, in fact, resemble those of Western Europe in their dress, topics of discussion, and taste in literature and performance. She also gave away 66,000 serfs in 1762–72, 202,000 in 1773–93, and 100,000 in one day: 18 August 1795. Thus she

2356-666: Is neither the undisputed pretender to the throne nor does she - who is not a reigning monarch - have any constitutional authority to ennoble herself. Neither the Russian CILANE member association, the Union de la Noblesse Russe based in Paris, which largely consists of descendants of the “White Emigrants”, nor the Association of Baltic knighthoods , which unites the families of the Baltic-German enrolled nobility of

2480-572: The 1905 Russian Revolution 3,000 manors were burnt (15% of the total). The Russian imperial nobility was multi-ethnic. Native non-Russians such as the Poles , Georgians , Lithuanians , Tatars , and Germans formed an important segment of the noble estate. The Baltic German nobility was particularly prominent. According to the 1897 |census, 0.87% of Russians were classified as hereditary nobles versus 5.29% of Georgians and 4.41% of Poles, followed by Lithuanians, Tatars, Azerbaijanis, and Germans. After

2604-830: The Carpatho-Ukraine aka Zakarpattia ), Croatia, Serbia, Dalmatia , the Czech lands of Bohemia and Moravia , i.e. all Slavic & Vlach countries with the exception of Bulgaria and Macedonia , in the future. This society joined the Southern Society and adopted its program in exchange for the recognition of the Slavic federation zeal by the Southern society in September 1825. When Emperor Alexander I died on 1 December [ O.S. 19 November] 1825,

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2728-609: The Charter to the Gentry . The Charter introduced an organization of the nobility: every province ( guberniia ) and district ( uezd ) had an Assembly of Nobility . The chair of an assembly was called Province/District Marshal of Nobility . In 1831 Nicholas I restricted the assembly votes to those with over 100 serfs, leaving 21,916 voters. By 1805 the various ranks of the nobility had become confused, as reflected in War and Peace . In

2852-523: The Commune and by 1900 two thirds of the nobles' arable land was rented to the peasantry). Between 1900–1914, over 20% of remaining noble land was sold but only 3% of the 155 estates over 50,000 destiny . According to the 1897 census, 71% of the top 4 ranks of the civil service were nobles. But in the civil service as a whole, noble membership declined from 49.8% in 1755 to 43.7% in the 1850s and to 30.7% in 1897. There were 1.2 million nobles, about 1% of

2976-516: The Decembrists (Russian: декабристы , romanized:  dekabristy ). At first, many officers were encouraged by Tsar Alexander I 's early liberal reformation of Russian society and politics. Liberalism was encouraged on an official level, creating high expectations during the period of rapprochement between Napoleon and Alexander. The major advocate for reform in Alexander's regime

3100-666: The February Revolution of 1917 and still occupied many positions in politics and state administration (e.g. Prince Georgy Lvov ), was suppressed and abolished in the October Revolution by the new Soviet government run by the Bolsheviks with a decree of November 10/November 23, 1917. All classes of nobility ceased to exist as a class defined by state law. The vast majority of wealthy and high-ranking nobles left Russia as " White émigrés " or fell victim to

3224-653: The Order of the Archangel Michael (founded in 1988) or the Ladies' Order of Saint Anastasia (founded in 2010) to their members. She even goes so far as to raise such people “to the nobility.” In 2007, she is said to have ennobled the former head of the Russian domestic secret service Federal Security Service (FSB), Nikolai Patrushev , who is considered one of Vladimir Putin's closest confidants (and one of his possible successor candidates). Patrushev himself described

3348-739: The Russian Civil War or the Red Terror by the Bolsheviks. Countless nobles died in the civil war after the October Revolution - in the White Army units there were entire regiments that consisted exclusively of noble officers. Others emigrated, especially to Switzerland , preferably to Geneva , to Poland , Germany and France , where Paris became the center of Russian emigrants (the “princely taxi drivers” were

3472-622: The United States . In New York, the Russian Nobility Association in America , was founded in 1933. The number of descendants of noble families still living in Russia today is difficult to estimate after more than 70 years of communism, but with around 100 million inhabitants in 1917 it could be at least 50-60,000. While most of the descendants of the princely and comital houses have lived in western countries since

3596-777: The United States Declaration of Independence and the American Revolution may also have influenced Decembrists, as they did other nations. The constitution written by Nikita Muravyov was highly similar to the United States Constitution . But the Decembrists were against slavery in the United States . They worked to free any slaves and serfs from all countries in Russia immediately. Pestel and his followers opposed

3720-557: The court of a prince or duke ( knyaz ), and later, of the tsar or emperor. Here, dvor originally referred to servants at the estate of an aristocrat . In the late 16th and early 17th centuries, the system of hierarchy was a system of seniority known as mestnichestvo . The word dvoryane described the highest rank of gentry , who performed duties at the royal court, lived in it ( Moskovskie zhiltsy , "Moscow dwellers"), or were candidates to it, as for many boyar scions ( dvorovye deti boyarskie , vybornye deti boyarskie ). A nobleman

3844-558: The serfs was considered from the very beginning; for that purpose, a majority of the nobility was to be invited in order to petition the Emperor about it. This was later thought of on many occasions, but we soon came to realize that the nobility could not be persuaded. And as time went on we became even more convinced, when the Ukrainian nobility absolutely rejected a similar project of their military governor. Historians have noted that

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3968-556: The tsar did so in 1861. Of Russia's nobles, 62.8% were szlachta from the nine western gubernii in 1858 and still 46.1% in 1897. Obrok or cash rent was most common in the north while barshchina or labor rent was found mainly in the southern Black Earth Region. In the reign of Nicholas I (1825–1855) the latter brought three times the income of cash rent (though this needed less administration). In 1798 Ukrainian landlords were banned from selling serfs separately from land. In 1841 landless nobles were banned also. Descended from

4092-481: The 9,000 loyal troops stationed outside the Senate building, with some desultory shooting from the rebel side. A vast crowd of civilian on-lookers began fraternizing with the rebels but did not join the action. Eventually, Nicholas (the new tsar) appeared in person at the square and sent Count Mikhail Miloradovich to parley with the rebels. Miloradovich was fatally shot in the back by Pyotr Kakhovsky while delivering

4216-685: The Decembrist Revolt. The leaders of the society elected Prince Sergei Trubetskoy as interim ruler. On the morning of 26 December [ O.S. 14 December], a group of officers commanding about 3,000 men (elements of Life-Guards Moscow Regiment , Grenadier Life Guards Regiment, and Naval Equipage of the Guard) assembled in Senate Square , where they refused to swear allegiance to the new tsar, Nicholas I, proclaiming instead their loyalty to Konstantin. They expected to be joined by

4340-432: The Decembrist leaders and could have been aware of their clandestine organizations, notably Alexander Pushkin , Aleksander Griboyedov , and Aleksey Yermolov . On 25 July [ O.S. 13 July] 1826, the first party of Decembrist convicts began its exodus to Siberia. Among this group were Prince Trubetskoi, Prince Obolensky, Peter and Andrei Borisov, Prince Volkonsky, and Artamon Muraviev, all of them bound for

4464-588: The Decembrists fundamentally influenced Siberian life. Their presence was most definitely felt culturally and economically, political activity being so far removed from the "pulse of national life" so as to be negligible. While in Petrovsky Zavod, Decembrists taught each other foreign languages, arts and crafts, and musical instruments. They established "academies" made up of libraries, schools, and symposia. In their settlements, Decembrists were fierce advocates of education, and founded many schools for natives,

4588-653: The Decembrists lived in isolation, their scholarly activities encompassed Siberia at large, including its culture, economy, administration, population, geography, botany, and ecology. Despite restricted circumstances, the Decembrists accomplished an extraordinary amount, and their work was deeply appreciated by Siberians. On 26 August 1856, with the ascent of Alexander II to the throne, the Decembrists received amnesty, and their rights, privileges were restored. Their children obtained rights, privileges and even titles of their fathers (such as princes) even if their fathers' titles were not restored. However, not all chose to return to

4712-485: The Decembrists sparked an intellectual awakening: literary writings, propaganda, newspapers, and books from European Russia began to circulate the eastern provinces, the local population developing a capacity for critical political observation. The Decembrists even held a certain influence within Siberian administration; Dimitry Zavalishin played a critical role in developing and advocating Russian Far East policy. Although

4836-409: The Decembrists with great hospitality. Natives played central roles in keeping lines of communication open among Decembrists, friends, and relatives. Most merchants and state employees were also sympathetic. To the masses, the Decembrist exiles were "generals who had refused to take the oath to Nicholas I." They were great figures that had suffered political persecution for their loyalty to the people. On

4960-769: The Decembrists';) was a failed coup d'état led by liberal military and political dissidents against the Russian Empire . It took place in Saint Petersburg on 26 December [ O.S. 14 December] 1825, following the sudden death of Emperor Alexander I . Alexander's brother and heir-presumptive Grand Duke Konstantin Pavlovich privately renounced his claim to the throne two years prior to Alexander's sudden death on 1 December [ O.S. 19 November] 1825. The line of succession therefore fell to their younger brother Nicholas, who would ascend to

5084-698: The FSB employees in an interview as “our new nobility” because of their sense of dedicated service. The aristocratic associations are therefore faced with the question of how to deal with such “new aristocrats”, who usually have no biographical or cultural connection to the traditional nobility, but are often historically connected to the CPSU or the KGB and are often influential. Some of these associations have taken this line and recognize such “nobility” as legitimate. Most, however, reject it, because Grand Duchess Maria Vladimirovna

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5208-546: The Great 's reforms and salon fashion), wearing peasant dress and socialising with many of his peasant associates with whom he worked the land at his farm in Urik. Maria, equally, established schools, a foundling hospital and a theater for the local population. Sergei returned after 30 years of his exile had elapsed, though his titles and land remained under royal possession. Other exiles preferred to remain in Siberia after their sentences were served, preferring its relative freedom to

5332-403: The Great . While cultural westernization was mostly superficial and restricted to court, it coincided with the efforts of Russian autocrats to link Russia to Western Europe in more fundamental ways – socially, economically and politically. However, Russia's existing economic system, which lacked a sizable middle class and which relied heavily on forced labor , proved an insurmountable obstacle to

5456-546: The Great is considered to be the first westernized ruler of Russia, there were, in fact, contacts between the Muscovite nobility and Western Europe before his reign . Ivan III , starting in 1472, sent numerous agents to Italy to study architecture . Both Michael Romanov (1613–1645) and his son Alexis (1645–1676) invited and sponsored European visitors – mostly military, medical, and building specialists – who came to Moscow in foreign dress, speaking foreign languages. When

5580-489: The Landed army ( Russian : поместное войско , romanized :  pomestnoe voisko )—the basic military force of Russia. Peter the Great finalized the status of the nobility, while abolishing the boyar title. The adoption of the fashions, mannerisms, and ideals of Western Europe by the Russian nobility was a gradual process rooted in the strict guidelines of Peter the Great and the educational reforms of Catherine

5704-724: The Russian nobility who fled Russia after the Bolshevik Revolution played a significant role in the White Emigre communities which settled in Europe , in North America , and in other parts of the world. In the 1920s and 1930s, several Russian nobility associations were established outside Russia, including groups in France (the Union de la Noblesse Russe (UNR) is a member organization of CILANE ), Belgium , and

5828-509: The Russian tsar's crown. Some see Grand Duchess Maria Vladimirovna of Russia as the legitimate heir to the throne, but she is not recognized by the other remaining branches of the Romanov family. In particular, she has come to terms with the new Russian elite around President Vladimir Putin and awards some historical dynastic orders of the Tsars and sometimes even newly created orders such as

5952-845: The Soviet Union later fell victim to the “ purges ” under Stalin . However, a significant number of the (mostly untitled) small nobility, who had inconspicuous names, had previously served as civil servants and mostly owned little land, came to terms with the circumstances. Some of them even took part in building the new state - such as Lenin himself, Foreign Minister Georgy Chicherin as well as intelligence chief Felix Dzerzhinsky and his successor Vyacheslav Menzhinsky , both of whom came from Polish noble families; also Stalin's secret service chief Vsevolod Merkulov , Marshals Mikhail Tukhachevsky and Konstantin Rokossovsky . Occasionally, members of prominent aristocratic families also adapted to

6076-648: The Third Division of the political intelligence service at Saint Petersburg. This screening process necessitated dry, careful wording on the part of Decembrists. In the words of Bestuzhev, correspondence bore a "lifeless ... imprint of officiality." Under the settlement regime, allowances were extremely meager. Certain Decembrists, including the Volkonskys, the Murav'yovs, and the Trubetskoys, were rich, but

6200-706: The Union of Prosperity, together with the members of the Union of Salvation. ) After a mutiny in the Semenovsky Regiment in 1820, the society decided to suspend activity in 1821. Two groups, however, continued to function secretly: a Southern Society , based at Tulchin , a small garrison town in Ukraine , in which Pestel was the outstanding figure, and a Northern Society , based at Saint Petersburg, led by guard officers Nikita Muraviev , Prince S. P. Trubetskoy and Prince Eugene Obolensky. The political aims of

6324-628: The United States' federal model in peaceful times as threatening to the would-be Russian/United Slavic federation; they only approved the US revolutionary model. While agreeing with Pestel that the American revolutionary model could be the best form for Russia, the Polish patriotic society would not agree to participate in establishing a federation. They wanted a United States-style republic or other state, with Lithuania, Belarus and Ukraine to be included in

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6448-608: The West. Some were financially inhibited, others had no family, and many were weak with old age. To many, Siberia had become home. Those that did return to European Russia did so with enthusiasm for the enforcement of the Emancipation Reforms of 1861. The exile of the Decembrists led to the permanent implantation of an intelligentsia in Siberia. For the first time, a cultural, intellectual, and political elite came to Siberian society as permanent residents; they integrated with

6572-475: The Winter Palace to be interrogated, tried, and convicted. Kakhovsky was executed by hanging, together with four other leading Decembrists: Pavel Pestel; the poet Kondraty Ryleyev ; Sergey Muravyov-Apostol; and Mikhail Bestuzhev-Ryumin . A further 31 Decembrists facing the death penalty were instead imprisoned. Other Decembrists were exiled to Siberia , Kazakhstan , and the Far East . Suspicion also fell on several eminent persons who were on friendly terms with

6696-510: The abolition of serfdom, the non-Russian nobility, with the exception of Finland , lost their special status. Later, many of the impoverished or déclassé Polish and Georgian nobles became leaders of nationalist and radical political movements, including Bolshevism . Quoting historian John Armstrong , Andrei Znamenski describes the Baltic Germans as a "mobilized diaspora" who acted as the Russian Empire's cultural and diplomatic envoys. The nobility, members of which had played an active role in

6820-437: The boyars began to imitate the westerners in dress and hairstyle, Tsar Alexis in 1675 and then Tsar Feodor in 1680 restricted foreign fashions to distinguish between Russians and outsiders, but these were not effectively enforced until the 1690s. Peter the Great was, first and foremost, eager to do away with Russia's reputation as an Asiatic land and to propel his new empire onto the political stage of Western Europe. One of

6944-483: The cannon fire, many sank. The revolt in the north came to an end. There was a rumor that during the nighttime, police and loyal army units were detached to clean the city and the Neva river, as many of the dead, dying, and wounded had been cast into it. While the Northern Society scrambled in the days leading up to the revolt, the Southern Society (based in Tulchin) took a serious blow. The day before (25 December [ O.S. 13 December]), acting on reports of treason,

7068-491: The circumstances, either becoming Bolsheviks themselves, like the diplomat Leonid Leonidovich Obolensky (1873−1930), father of the actor Leonid Obolensky , or supporting the new system, like the writer Aleksey Nikolayevich Tolstoy or the actor Mikheil Gelovani . Some married into the proletariat and the next, Soviet-influenced generation was accepted into the Soviet academic elite, such as Georgy Golitsyn , Vladimir Vladimirovich Golitsyn or Andrey Gagarin . Many members of

7192-413: The country and participated alongside natives in its development. With the failure of the Decembrists, Russia's autocracy would continue for almost a century, although serfdom would be officially abolished in 1861 and the parliaments in Russia and Finland would be established in 1905. Finland had a parliament since Alexander I, but the number of electors was limited. The Russian Constitution of 1905

7316-451: The court lifestyle, wearing their cavalry swords at balls (to indicate their unwillingness to dance), and committing themselves to academic study. These new practices captured the spirit of the times as a willingness by the Decembrists to embrace both the peasant (i.e., the fundamental Russian people) and ongoing reform movements from intellectuals abroad. Pavel Pestel identified reasons for reform: The desirability of granting freedom to

7440-439: The court of a prince or an important boyar . From the 14th century land ownership by nobles increased, and by the 17th century, the bulk of feudal lords and the majority of landowners were nobles. The nobles were granted estates out of State lands in return for their service to the Tsar, either for as long as they performed service or for their lifetime. By the 18th century, these estates had become private property. They made up

7564-454: The cover of his radical periodical Polar Star . Alexander Pushkin addressed poems to his Decembrist friends; Nikolai Nekrasov , whose father served together with Decembrists in Ukraine, wrote a long poem about the Decembrist wives; and Leo Tolstoy started writing a novel on that liberal movement, which would later evolve into War and Peace . In the Soviet era Yuri Shaporin produced an opera entitled Dekabristi (The Decembrists), about

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7688-406: The development of a free market economy. Furthermore, the lower classes (an overwhelming majority of the Russian population) lived virtually isolated from the upper classes and the imperial court. Thus, most of the nobility's “western” tendencies were largely aesthetic and confined to a tiny proportion of the populace. As different rulers ascended the throne in the 19th century, each figure brought

7812-501: The eight ex-Polish provinces where the Tsar wanted to weaken the Szlachta . The other 10% lived in Astrakhan and in the barren north. In the whole Empire, peasant land declined 4.1% - 13.3% outside the ex-Polish zone and 23.3% in the 16 black-earth provinces. Georgia's serfs suffered the loss of 1 ⁄ 5 of their land in Tiflis province, 1 ⁄ 3 in Kutaisi province. These redemption payments were not abolished till January 1, 1907. The influx of New World grain caused

7936-534: The emperor even before the revolution. When the society consisting of Russian landlords had refused to kill the emperor based on such rumors, Yakushkin left the society. The more liberal Mikhail Muravyov-Vilensky created a new charter similar to that of Tugendbund . It did not have revolutionary plans and the society was called the Union of Prosperity. It was still considered illegal and similar to masonic lodges . (The small Order of Russian knights, excepting its prominent member Alexander von Benckendorff , also joined

8060-678: The emperor's vengeance in full. Sentenced by court-martial, many of these "commoners" received thousands of lashes. Those that survived went to Siberia on foot, chained alongside common criminals. Fifteen out of 124 Decembrists were convicted of "state-crimes" by the Supreme Criminal Court, and sentenced to "exile-to-settlement". These men were sent directly to isolated locales, such as Berezov, Narym , Surgut , Pelym , Irkutsk , Yakutsk , and Vilyuysk , among others. Few Russians inhabited these places: The populations consisted mainly of Siberian aborigines, such as Tunguses , Yakuts , Tatars , Ostyaks , Mongols , and Buryats . Of all those exiled,

8184-503: The era of the Napoleonic Wars , there were counts who were wealthier and more important than princes and noble families whose wealth had been dissipated partly through lack of primogeniture , partly through extravagance and due to poor estate-management. Young noblemen served in the military but did not thereby acquire new landed estates. Tolstoy reported later improvements: some nobles paid more attention to estate management, and some, like Andrey Bolkonsky , freed their serfs even before

8308-554: The first of which opened at Nerchinsk. Schools were also founded for women, and soon exceeded capacity. Decembrists contributed greatly to the field of agriculture, introducing previously unknown crops such as vegetables, tobacco, rye, buckwheat, and barley, and advanced agricultural methods such as hothouse cultivation. Trained doctors among the political exiles promoted and organized medical aid. The homes of prominent exiles like Prince Sergei Volkonsky and Prince Sergei Trubetskoi became social centers of their locales. All throughout Siberia,

8432-441: The following privileges: The Russian Tsardom came into being around the Grand Duchy of Moscow by the incorporation of various political entities surrounding it. After Peter the Great returned from his grand tour he implemented reforms aimed at westernization of his realm, including officially adopting the title of Emperor of All Russia , preceding the traditional Slavic title of Tsar . Peter and his successors also streamlined

8556-434: The former Russian Empire, recognize Maria Vladimirovna or anyone else as holder of the throne with the power of ennoblement. However, the fact that influential “would-be nobles” make up a significant proportion of the members of the new Russian aristocratic associations leads to major conflicts within and between the Russian aristocratic associations. Since membership in the nobility is neither legally recognized nor protected,

8680-409: The former ancient Russian aristocracy, including royalty, saw their formal standing change to merchants , burghers , or even peasants , while people descended from serfs (like Vladimir Lenin 's father) or clergy (like in the ancestry of actress Lyubov Orlova ) gained formal nobility. The nobility arose in the 12th and 13th centuries as the lowest part of the feudal military class, which comprised

8804-456: The gentry, the landholding, but not serf-owning, odnodvortsy were between peasants and nobles. They emerged as frontier settlers recruited from the class of boyar scions . The status of the odnodvortsy changed gradually from singleholding farmers to taxed state peasants. The nobility was too weak to oppose the Emancipation reform of 1861 . In 1858, three million serfs were held by 1,400 landlords (1.4%) while 2 million by 79,000 (78%). In 1820

8928-483: The guarding of prisoners, but it also allowed the Decembrists to continue to exist as a community. This was especially true at Chita. The move to Petrovsky Zavod, however, forced Decembrists to divide into smaller groups; the new location was compartmentalized with an oppressive sense of order. Convicts could no longer congregate casually. Although nothing could destroy the Decembrists' conception of fraternity, Petrovsky Zavod forced them to live more private lives. Owing to

9052-488: The highest noble prestige ranked first. Unlike the ancient nobility, which was exclusively hereditary, the remaining classes of nobility could be acquired. A newly designated noble was usually entitled to landownership . A loss of land did not automatically mean loss of nobility. In later Imperial Russia , higher ranks of state service (see Table of Ranks ) were automatically granted nobility, not necessarily associated with land ownership. Russian did not in general employ

9176-573: The human rights, Muraviev-Vilensky and others). In 1826, Speransky was appointed by Nicholas I to head the Second Section of His Imperial Majesty's Own Chancellery , a committee formed to codify Russian law. Under his leadership, the committee produced a publication of the complete collection of laws of the Russian Empire, containing 35,993 enactments. This codification called the "Full Collection of Laws" ( Polnoye Sobraniye Zakonov )

9300-411: The icy cobbles and retired in disorder. Eventually, at the end of the day, Nicholas ordered three artillery pieces to open fire with grapeshot ammunition to devastating effect. To avoid the slaughter, the rebels broke and ran. Some attempted to regroup on the frozen surface of the river Neva to the north. However, they were targeted by the artillery and suffered many casualties. As the ice was broken by

9424-468: The idealistic Pavel Pestel . The charter was similar to charters of the organizations of carbonari . Pestel was supported by Yakushkin when there were rumors that the emperor had intended to transfer the capital from Saint Petersburg to Warsaw , and to liberate all peasants without the consent of Russian landlords. They would not be able to influence a government based in Warsaw. Yakushkin intended to kill

9548-465: The image and personality of the courtiers to appear forced and awkward. Friedrich Christian Weber , a representative of Britain, commented in 1716 that the nobles “wear the German Dress; but it is easy to observe on many, that they have not been long used to it”. While none of the rulers in power from 1725 to 1762 focused as strongly on cultural westernization, Peter sparked a transformation that

9672-519: The interests of Russian landlords, i.e. with land to be retained by landlords, in a style similar to the abolition of serfdom in Baltic provinces. They also supported equality before the law. The Southern Society, under Pestel's influence, was more radical and wanted to abolish the monarchy, establish a republic, similar to the Union of Salvation, and contrary to the Union of Salvation plans, to redistribute land, taking half into state ownership and dividing

9796-577: The intervention of family members. This process of petitioning, and the resultant concessions made by the tsar and officials, was and would continue to be a standard practice of political exiles in Siberia. The chain of bureaucratic procedures and orders linking Saint Petersburg to Siberian administration was often circumvented or ignored. These breaks in bureaucracy afforded exiles a small capacity for betterment and activism. Wives of many Decembrists, as well as some nieces and sisters, followed their husbands into exile. The term Dekabristka ("Decembrist wife")

9920-615: The largest group of prisoners was sent to Chita, Zabaykalsky Krai , transferred three years later to Petrovsky Zavod , near Nerchinsk. This group, sentenced to hard labor, included principal leaders of the Decembrist movement as well as the members of the United Slavs. Siberian Governor-General Lavinsky argued that it was easiest to control a large, concentrated group of convicts, and Emperor Nicholas I pursued this policy in order to maximize surveillance and to limit revolutionaries' contact with local populations. Concentration facilitated

10044-414: The learning of foreign languages especially French , which was the foremost political and intellectual language of Europe at the time. For the nobility, these changes felt even more forced than fashion regulations. As with clothing, there was uniform acceptance of Western mannerisms at court but general disregard for them outside of St. Petersburg. Furthermore, when Westerners visited Peter's court they found

10168-639: The majority of exiles had no money, and were forced to live off a mere 15 desyatins (about 16 hectares) of land, the allotment granted to each settler. Decembrists, with little to no knowledge of the land, attempted to eke out a living on wretched soil with next to no equipment. Financial aid from relatives and wealthier comrades saved many; others perished. Despite extensive restrictions, limitations, and hardships, Decembrists believed that they could improve their situation through personal initiative. A constant stream of petitions came out of Petrovsky Zavod addressed to General Leparskii and Emperor Nicholas I. Most of

10292-472: The many ways he hoped to achieve this was by changing the upper-class culture; he believed that forcing selected features of western fashion, education, and language onto the nobility would hasten Russia's rise to international prestige. In 1697, he began to send nobles on compulsory trips abroad to England, Holland, and Italy. While the Tsar primarily designed these expeditions for naval training, he also encouraged

10416-476: The midst of this confusing transition into Nicholas' reign , the Northern Society , a secret society of liberal revolutionaries, nobles, and military officials, organized a conspiracy to replace the Russian Empire's autocratic regime with a constitutional monarchy . To seize control of the government and implement a regime change , it sought to convince the military that Nicholas was usurping

10540-577: The mines at Nerchinsk . The journey eastward was fraught with hardship, yet for some it offered refreshing changes in scenery and peoples following imprisonment. Decembrist Nikolay Vasil'yevich Basargin was unwell when he set out from Saint Petersburg, but he recovered his strength on the move; his memoirs depict the journey to Siberia in a cheerful light, full of praise for the "common people" and commanding landscapes. Not all Decembrists could identify with Basargin's positive experience. Because of their lower social standing, "soldier-Decembrists" experienced

10664-482: The more Jacobin , centralizing program of Pavel Pestel or the pan-Slavic confederation-advocating revolutionaries of the "Society of United Slavs". The majority of Decembrists were not members of illegal organizations similar to the participants of palace revolutions . Some were members of the Union of Prosperity only, sympathetic to an official, pro-governmental fairly conservative program. But their revolt, unlike previous Romanov palace revolutions, has been considered

10788-400: The more moderate Northern Society were a British-style constitutional monarchy with a limited franchise . They envisioned that it could be replaced with a republic in the future but only according to the will of the people. They also believed there should be a legislative assembly and did not call for the execution of the imperial family. They supported the abolition of serfdom , according to

10912-452: The nobility was further reduced by the new law statutes of 1864 , which repealed their right of electing law officer. The reform of the police in 1862 limited the landowners' authority locally, and the establishment of all-estate Zemstvo local government did away with the exclusive influence of nobility in local self-government. These changes occurred despite the nobles keeping nearly all the meadows and forests and having their debts paid by

11036-399: The nobility was only passed on in the male line . The acceptance of descendants through the female line, which is contrary to tradition and is now practiced by some of the more recent associations, is therefore very controversial. The various aristocratic associations have different opinions not only with regard to aristocratic law, but also with regard to the succession of the pretenders to

11160-588: The nobility, replacing the long-sleeved traditional Muscovite robes with European clothing. Beginning in 1699 the tsar decreed strict dress requirements borrowing from German, Hungarian, French and British styles, fining any noblemen who failed to obey. Peter himself, who usually wore German dress and had a trimmed mustache, acted as a prime example. While the nobility universally followed Peter's fashion preferences at court, they greatly resented these styles, which they saw as blasphemous. Away from St. Petersburg , very few noblemen followed Peter's guidelines and enforcement

11284-487: The nobility. Empress Anna gave many privileges to the nobility. In 1730 she repealed the primogeniture law introduced by Peter the Great allowing the sub-division of estates. In 1736 the age at which nobles had to start service was raised from 15 to 20 and length of service was changed to 25 years instead of life and families with more than one son could keep one to manage the family estate. In 1726 Catherine I and in 1743 Empress Elizabeth further regulated noble dress in

11408-461: The noblemen to learn about the arts of the west. Furthermore, Peter prioritized sending Russian natives as opposed to foreign expatriates; he was intent on “breeding” a new nobility that conformed to western customs but represented the Slavic people as a whole. When the travelers returned to Moscow, Peter tested them on their training, insisting on further education for those whose accumulated knowledge

11532-522: The petitions were written by Decembrists' wives who had cast aside social privileges and comfort to follow their husbands into exile. These wives joined under the leadership of Princess Mariia Volkonskaia, and by 1832, through relentless petitions, managed to secure for their men formal cancellation of labor requirements, and several privileges, including the right of husbands to live with their wives in privacy. Decembrists managed to gain transfers and allowances through persuasive petitions as well as through

11656-435: The police arrested Pavel Pestel . It took two weeks for the Southern Society to learn of the events in the capital. Meanwhile, other members of the leadership were arrested. The Southern Society, and a nationalistic group called the United Slavs, discussed revolt. When learning of the location of some of the arrested men, the United Slavs freed them by force. One of the freed men, Sergey Muravyov-Apostol , assumed leadership of

11780-637: The population (8% in Poland; compare with 4% in Hungary and 1 to 1.5% in France). Their military influence waned: in the Crimean War 90% of officers were noble, by 1913 the proportion had sunk to 50%. They lived increasingly away from their estates: in 1858 only 15 to 20% of Russian nobles lived in cities, by 1897 it was 47.2%. By 1904 1 ⁄ 3 of noble land was mortgaged to the noble bank. During

11904-419: The presence of a large civilian crowd. A standoff ensued, during which Nicholas' envoy, Mikhail Miloradovich , was assassinated. The loyalists eventually opened fire with heavy artillery, scattering the rebels. In the aftermath of the coup attempt, many of the rebels were sentenced to hanging, imprisonment, or exile to Siberia . The individuals who participated in the conspiracy and coup attempt became known as

12028-521: The reorganization of Russia's government. Because of increasing hostility, he was forced to flee into exile. Returning from exile in 1819, Speransky was appointed as the governor of Siberia, with the task of reforming local government. In 1818, the tsar asked Count Nikolay Nikolayevich Novosiltsev to draw up a constitution. The abolition of serfdom in the Baltic provinces was instituted between 1816 and 1819. However, internal and external unrest, which

12152-659: The rest among the peasants. The Society of United Slavs (also known as the Slavic Union – Pan-Slavism ) was established in Novohrad-Volynsky (now Zviahel ) in Ukraine in 1823. Its never-written program was similar to that of the Southern Society but the main emphasis was on the equal federation of Russia (including Ukraine), Poland, Moldavia (including Bessarabia) with the attachment of Wallachia , Transylvania, Hungary (including Slovakia, Slovenia, Vojvodina ,

12276-470: The rest of the troops stationed in Saint Petersburg, but they were disappointed. The revolt was hampered when it was deserted by its supposed leader Prince Trubetskoy. His second-in-command, Colonel Bulatov, also vanished from the scene. After a hurried consultation, the rebels appointed Prince Eugene Obolensky as a replacement leader. For hours, there was a stand-off between the 3,000 rebels and

12400-470: The revolt, with the libretto written by Aleksey Nikolayevich Tolstoy . It premiered at the Bolshoi Theatre on 23 June 1953. To some extent, the Decembrists were in the tradition of a long line of palace revolutionaries of 1725–1825 who wanted to place their candidate on the throne, but many Decembrists also wanted to implement either classical liberalism or a moderate conservatism contrary to

12524-438: The revolt. After converting the soldiers of Vasilkov to the cause, Muraviev-Apostol easily captured the city. The rebelling army was confronted by superior forces that were heavily armed with artillery loaded with grapeshot . On 15 January [ O.S. 3 January] 1826, the rebels met defeat, and the surviving leaders were sent to Saint Petersburg to stand trial with the northern leaders. The Decembrists were taken to

12648-562: The revolution, many members of lower-ranking families have remained in Russia. After the Dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, aristocratic associations and organizations that maintained noble traditions were permitted again in Russia, but the Russian nobility no longer exists as a social class. The historical noble families are known from the sources. However, in Russia, as everywhere in Europe, according to historical aristocratic law,

12772-516: The room. In 1705 he decreed a beard tax on all men of rank in Moscow and ordered certain officers to seek out noble beards and shave them on sight. He only allowed peasants, priests, and serfs to retain the ingrained and religious Russian tradition of wearing beards, which the Orthodox populace considered an essential aspect of their duty to convey the image of God. He also reformed the clothing of

12896-520: The royal guards swore allegiance to the presumed successor, Alexander's brother Konstantin . When Konstantin made his renunciation public, and Nicholas stepped forward to assume the throne, the Northern Society acted. With the capital in temporary confusion, and one oath to Konstantin having already been sworn, the society scrambled in secret meetings to convince regimental leaders not to swear allegiance to Nicholas. These efforts culminated in

13020-454: The state, while the ex-serfs paid 34% over the market price for the shrunken plots they kept. This figure was 90% in the northern regions, 20% in the black-earth region but zero in the Polish provinces. In 1857, 6.79% of serfs were domestic, landless servants who stayed landless after 1861. Only Polish and Romanian domestic serfs got land. Ninety percent of the serfs who got larger plots lived in

13144-450: The stifling intrigues of Moscow and Saint Petersburg, and after years of exile there was not much for them to return to. Many Decembrists thrived in exile, in time becoming landowners and farmers. In later years, they became idols of the populist movement of the 1860s and the 1870s as the Decembrists' advocacy of reform (including the abolition of serfdom) won them many admirers, including the writer Leo Tolstoy . During their time in exile,

13268-792: The stratification of the Russian nobility, adopting European-style titles such as Count and Baron and discontinuing the archaic titles of Boyars . The Russian system of noble titles evolved into its final form: His Imperial Majesty The Lord Emperor and Autocrat of All Russia ( Его Императорское Величество Государь Император и Самодержец Всероссийский ) ( Ваше Императорское Величество ) His Imperial Highness The Lord Heir Tsesarevich and Grand Prince ( Его Императорское Высочество Государь Наследник Цесаревич и Великий Князь ) * ( Ваше Императорское Высочество ) Decembrist Revolt Government victory The Decembrist Revolt ( Russian : Восстание декабристов , romanized :  Vosstaniye dekabristov , lit.   'Uprising of

13392-405: The throne as Emperor Nicholas I . Neither the Russian government nor the general public were initially aware of Konstantin's renouncement, and as a result, parts of the military took a premature oath of loyalty to Konstantin. A general swearing of loyalty to the true emperor Nicholas was scheduled for 26 December [ O.S. 14 December] 1825 in Senate Square , Saint Petersburg. In

13516-452: The throne from Konstantin. On December 26th, Northern Society members led a force of approximately 3,000 troops into Senate Square to prevent the loyalty-swearing ceremony and to rally additional soldiers and officers to their cause. This group of rebels, although disorganized due to indecision and dissension among its leaders, confronted troops loyal to Nicholas outside the Senate building in

13640-440: The throne, she quickly made her political and philosophical opinions clear in the “Instruction” of 1767, a lengthy document which she prepared for the nobility, drawing largely from and even plagiarizing ideas from the west, especially those of Jean-Jacques Rousseau . The point she emphasized first and foremost was that Russia was a truly European state, and her reforms of the court and education reflect this belief. While Catherine

13764-473: The tsar believed stemmed from political liberalization, led to a series of repressions and a return to a former government of restraint and conservatism. Meanwhile, the experiences of the Napoleonic Wars and realization of the suffering of peasant soldiers resulted in Decembrist officers and sympathizers being attracted to reform changes in society. They displayed their contempt of court by rejecting

13888-524: The west. For the first time in the history of the Russian court, “intellectual pursuits became fashionable”. When foreigners visited the court, Catherine expected the noblemen and their ladies to flaunt not only their western appearance but also their ability to discuss current events in western languages. Catherine also made specific reforms in institutional education that pushed the nobility's culture further westward. She based Russian education on that of Austria, importing German textbooks and adopting in 1786

14012-430: The whole, indigenous Siberian populations greatly respected the Decembrists and were extremely hospitable in their reception of them. Upon arrival at places of settlement, exiles had to comply with extensive regulations under a strict governmental regime. Local police watched, regulated, and notated every move that Decembrists attempted to make. Dimitri Zavalishin was thrown into prison for failing to remove his hat before

14136-511: The wife. Estateless nobility ( Russian : беспоместное дворянство ) was nobility acquired by state service, but without a grant of land. In addition, the ancient nobility ( Russian : Древнее дворянство ) was recognised, descendants of Rurik , Gediminas and historical boyars and knyazes , e.g., the Shuyskies , Galitzins , Naryshkins , Khilkoffs , Gorchakovs , Belosselsky-Belozerskys and Chelyadnins . Russian nobility possessed

14260-554: Was Count Mikhail Mikhailovich Speransky . During his early years in the regime, Speransky helped inspire the organization of the Ministry of the Interior , the reform of ecclesiastic education, and strengthening the government's role in the country's economic development. Speransky's role increased greatly in 1808. From then until 1812, when they feared him as a liberal similar to Napoleon and his invasion, Speransky developed plans for

14384-468: Was able to bind the nobility to herself. From 1782, a kind of uniform was introduced for civilian nobles called uniform of civilian service or simply civilian uniform . The uniform prescribed colors that depended on the territory. The uniform was required at the places of service, at the Court, and at other important public places. The privileges of the nobility were fixed and were legally codified in 1785 in

14508-540: Was called "The basic laws" as the Decembrists had called it. Though defeated, the Decembrists did effect some change on the regime. Their dissatisfaction forced Nicholas I to turn his attention inward to address the issues of the empire. He included many Decembrists who had joined his forces on the Senate Square and did not ultimately support the revolt in spite of their participation in Decembrist meetings into his government (such as Benkendorf, appointed to supervise

14632-505: Was lax. Peter also demanded changes in mannerisms and language among nobles. To supply Russians with a basic set of “proper” morals and habits, he ordered publication of manuals on Western etiquette. The most popular of these was The Honourable Mirror of Youth or A Guide to Social Conduct Gathered from Various Authors , a compilation of rules of conduct from numerous European sources, initially published in St. Petersburg in 1717. He also encouraged

14756-410: Was now unstoppable. Through their education and travels, some members of the nobility began to understand the extent to which Russia lagged behind Western Europe in the complexity of their political and educational systems, their technology and economy. By 1750, the ideas of secularism , skepticism and humanism had reached sects of the elite class, providing some with a new worldview and giving Russia

14880-491: Was presented to Nicholas I , and formed the basis for the "Collection of Laws of the Russian Empire" ( Svod Zakonov Rossiskoy Imperii ), the positive law valid for the Russian Empire. Speransky's liberal ideas were subsequently scrutinized and elaborated by Konstantin Kavelin and Boris Chicherin . Although the revolt was a proscribed topic during Nicholas' reign, Alexander Herzen placed the profiles of executed Decembrists on

15004-530: Was primarily preoccupied with impressing westerners (especially the philosophers , with whom she corresponded in writing), in doing so she also made significant efforts to educate the nobility and expose them to western philosophy and art. She designed an imperial court in the style of Louis XIV , entertaining the nobility with performances of western theatre and music. She encouraged the understanding of French, German, and English languages so that nobles could read classic, historical, and philosophical literature from

15128-414: Was the highest category: those who had titles such as prince , count and baron . The latter two titles were introduced by Peter the Great . A baron or count could be either proprietary ( actual ) (владетельный (действительный))— i.e., who owned land in the Russian Empire —or titular (титулярный), i.e., only endowed with a rank or title. Hereditary nobility ( Russian : потомственное дворянство )

15252-413: Was transferred to wife, children, and further direct legal descendants along the male ( agnatic ) line. In exceptional cases, the emperor could transfer nobility along indirect or female lines, e.g., to preserve a notable family name. Personal nobility ( Russian : личное дворянство ) could, for instance, be acquired by admission to orders of knighthood of the Russian Empire . It was transferable only to

15376-567: Was unsatisfactory. By 1724, he had established – for the purpose of scientific study and discovery – the Academy of Sciences , which he modeled after “the ones in Paris, London, Berlin, and other places”. Peter's westernizing efforts became more radical after 1698 when he returned from his expedition through Europe known as the Grand Embassy . Upon arriving Peter summoned the nobility to his court and personally shaved almost every beard in

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