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74-412: Passive revolution describes a gradual but continuous reorganization of the state and economy in order to preserve the power of the elite by incorporating or neutralizing the power of adversarial groups through transforming them into partners, all without overcoming the fundamental social contradictions. Gramsci argued that when a social group lacks the strength to establish hegemony , it will instead choose

148-417: A broader view of history. The research of Adam Watson was world-historical in scope. For him, hegemony was the most common order in history (historical "optimum") because many provinces of "frank" empires were under hegemonic rather than imperial rule. Watson summarized his life-long research: There was a spectrum of political systems ranging between multiple independent states and universal empire. The further

222-575: A given society. He developed the theory of cultural hegemony , an analysis of economic class (including social class) and how the ruling class uses consent as well as force to maintain its power. Hence, the philosophic and sociologic theory of cultural hegemony analysed the social norms that established the social structures to impose their Weltanschauung (world view)—justifying the social, political, and economic status quo —as natural, inevitable, and beneficial to every social class, rather than as artificial social constructs beneficial solely to

296-523: A path where its interests and demands will "be satisfied by small doses, legally, in a reformist manner-- in such a way that it was possible to preserve the political and economic positions of the old ruling class." This "avoid[s] the popular masses going through a period of political experience such as occurred in France in the years of Jacobinism ." Gramsci uses "passive revolution" in a variety of contexts with slightly different meanings. The primary usage

370-408: A political relationship of power wherein a sub-ordinate society (collectivity) perform social tasks that are culturally unnatural and not beneficial to them, but that are in exclusive benefit to the imperial interests of the hegemon, the superior, ordinate power; hegemony is a military, political, and economic relationship that occurs as an articulation within political discourse . Beyer analysed

444-607: A political system evolved towards one of the extremes, the greater was the gravitational pull towards the hegemonic center of the spectrum. Hegemony may take different forms. Benevolent hegemons provide public goods to the countries within their sphere of influence. Coercive hegemons exert their economic or military power to discipline unruly or free-riding countries in their sphere of influence. Exploitative hegemonies extract resources from other countries. A prominent theory in International Relations focusing on

518-409: A society". In theories of imperialism , the hegemonic order dictates the internal politics and the societal character of the subordinate states that constitute the hegemonic sphere of influence , either by an internal, sponsored government or by an external, installed government . The term hegemonism denoted the geopolitical and the cultural predominance of one country over other countries, e.g.

592-408: Is a state that is de jure independent but de facto completely dependent upon an outside power and subject to its orders. Puppet states have nominal sovereignty , except that a foreign power effectively exercises control through economic or military support. By leaving a local government in existence the outside power evades all responsibility, while at the same time successfully paralysing

666-415: Is not a proper theory because it amounts to a series of allegedly redundant claims that apparently could not be used predictively. A number of International Relations scholars have examined the decline of hegemons and their orders. For some, such decline tends to be disruptive because the stability that the hegemon provided gives way to a power vacuum. Others have maintained that cooperation may persist in

740-474: Is the political, economic, and military predominance of one state over other states, either regional or global. In Ancient Greece (ca. 8th BC – AD 6th c.), hegemony denoted the politico-military dominance of the hegemon city-state over other city-states. In the 19th century, hegemony denoted the "social or cultural predominance or ascendancy; predominance by one group within a society or milieu" and "a group or regime which exerts undue influence within

814-565: Is to contrast the passive transformation of bourgeois society in 19th-century Italy with the active revolutionary process of the bourgeoisie in France. Whereas the French case is seen by Gramsci as an authentic revolution guided by social forces, the Italian case was 'elite-driven'; a process of modernization that did not disrupt the social arrangements of power in Italy but instead modernized it on

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888-583: Is unlikely due to the difficulties in projecting power over large bodies of water. A Historian analyzed the claim: Disregarding recent (since 1492 AD) events, the hypothesis makes sense. In 1281, water and the "good wind" (kamikaze) indeed stopped the Mongols on the way to Japan. Later, however, even with all sorts of kamikaze, water ceased to stop. In 1945, the citizens of Hamburg and Dresden, Berlin and Tokyo, Hiroshima and Nagasaki (those who survived), would not describe water power as stopping; certainly not

962-556: The Cold War . Most notably, American political scientists John Mearsheimer and Joseph Nye have argued that the US is not a genuine global hegemon because it has neither the financial nor the military resources to impose a proper, formal, global hegemony. This theory is heavily contested in academic discussions of international relations, with Anna Beyer being a notable critic of Nye and Mearsheimer. According to Mearsheimer, global hegemony

1036-967: The Korean War , the Laotian Civil War , the Arab–Israeli conflict , the Vietnam War , the Afghan War , the Angolan Civil War , and the Central American Civil Wars . Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, the United States was the world's sole hegemonic power. Various perspectives on whether the US was or continues to be a hegemon have been presented since the end of

1110-739: The Netherlands under French revolutionary protection. In Italy, the French First Republic encouraged a proliferation of small republics in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, known as sister republics . In Eastern Europe, Napoleon 's First French Empire established the Polish client state of the Duchy of Warsaw . In 1896, Britain established a state in Zanzibar . During Japan's imperial period , and particularly during

1184-546: The Odendaal Commission . Three of them were granted self-rule. These Bantustans were replaced with separate ethnicity-based governments in 1980. The Republic of Kuwait was a short-lived pro-Iraqi state in the Persian Gulf that only existed three weeks before it was annexed by Iraq in 1990. The Republic of Serbian Krajina was a self-proclaimed territory ethnically cleansed by Serbian forces during

1258-621: The Pacific War (parts of which are considered the Pacific theatre of World War II ), the Imperial Japanese government established a number of dependent states. Several European governments under the domination of Germany and Italy during World War II have been described as "puppet régimes". The formal means of control in occupied Europe varied greatly. These states fall into several categories. The Axis demand for oil and

1332-708: The Spring and Autumn period (c. 770–480 BC), when the weakened rule of the Eastern Zhou dynasty led to the relative autonomy of the Five Hegemons ( Ba in Chinese [ 霸 ]). The term is translated as lord protector , or lord of the covenants , or chief of the feudal lords and is described as intermediate between king of independent state and Emperor of All under Heaven . The hegemons were appointed by feudal lord conferences and were nominally obliged to support

1406-447: The "passive revolution" of the reforms, party bureaucrats and intellectuals created a new technocratic elite that won the support of rural peasants who wanted personal control of land and urban people who wanted more consumer goods and a higher living standard. Hegemony Hegemony ( / h ɛ ˈ dʒ ɛ m ən i / , UK also / h ɪ ˈ ɡ ɛ m ən i / , US also / ˈ h ɛ dʒ ə m oʊ n i / )

1480-595: The 1970s and 1980s, four ethnic Bantustans - some of which were extremely fragmented - called "homelands" by the government of the time, were carved out of South Africa and given nominal sovereignty . Mostly Xhosa people resided in the Ciskei and Transkei , Tswana people in Bophuthatswana , and Venda people in the Venda . The principal purpose of these states was to remove South African citizenship from

1554-557: The 1980s, some scholars singled out Japan's economic growth and technological sophistication as a threat to U.S. primacy. More recently, analysts have focused on the economic and military rise of China and its challenge to U.S. hegemony. Scholars differ as to whether bipolarity or unipolarity is likely to produce the most stable and peaceful outcomes. Kenneth Waltz and John Mearsheimer are among those who argue that bipolarity tends to generate relatively more stability, whereas John Ikenberry and William Wohlforth are among those arguing for

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1628-455: The 20th century. A hegemon may shape the international system through coercive and non-coercive means. According to Nuno Monteiro, hegemony is distinct from unipolarity. The latter refers to a preponderance of power within an anarchic system, whereas the former refers to a hierarchical system where the most powerful state has the ability to "control the external behavior of all other states." The English school of international relations takes

1702-629: The 7th century to the 12th century, the Umayyad Caliphate and later Abbasid Caliphate dominated the vast territories they governed, with other states like the Byzantine Empire paying tribute. In 7th century India, Harsha , ruler of a large empire in northern India from AD 606 to 647, brought most of the north under his hegemony. He preferred not to rule as a central government, but left "conquered kings on their thrones and contenting himself with tribute and homage." From

1776-513: The King of Zhou, whose status parallel to that of the Roman Pope in the medieval Europe. In 364 BC, Qin emerged victorious from war and its Duke Xian (424–362 BC) was named hegemon by the King of Zhou. Qin rulers did not preserve the official title of hegemon but in fact kept the hegemony over their world: "For more than one hundred years [before 221 BC] Qin commanded eight lands and brought

1850-563: The Mediterranean – the Ptolemaic Kingdom – was annexed by Augustus in the very beginning of his reign in 30 BC. Augustus initiated an unprecedented era of peace, shortly after his reign called Pax Romana . This peace however was imperial rather than hegemonic. Classic and modern scholars who call Pax Romana "hegemonic peace," use the term "hegemony" in its broader sense which includes both hegemony and empire. From

1924-856: The Pacific Ocean and the Caribbean Sea . Britain also controlled the Indian subcontinent and large portions of Africa. In Europe, Germany, rather than Britain, may have been the strongest power after 1871, but Samuel Newland writes: Bismarck defined the road ahead as … no expansion, no push for hegemony in Europe. Germany was to be the strongest power in Europe but without being a hegemon. … His basic axioms were first, no conflict among major powers in Central Europe; and second, German security without German hegemony." These fluctuations form

1998-634: The Roman people. "Alliance" and "friendship," not any kind of subordination, bound them to Rome. No regular or formal tribute was extracted from client states. The land of a client state could not officially be a basis for taxation. The overall fact is that, despite extensive conquests, the Romans did not settle down nor extracted revenues in any subdued territories between 200 and 148 BC. The first good evidence for regular taxation of another kingdom comes from Judea as late as 64 BC. The Roman hegemony of

2072-528: The Soviet Union, but Yugoslavia retained autonomy within its own borders. After the Tito–Stalin split in 1948, the relationship between the two countries deteriorated significantly. Yugoslavia was expelled from the international organisations of the Eastern Bloc . After Stalin's death and a period of de-Stalinization by Nikita Khrushchev , peace was restored, but the relationship between the two countries

2146-529: The Soviet economy, military, science, and technology. After the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, most of its former satellites moved towards democratisation. Only China, Cuba, Laos , and Vietnam remain one-party communist states. In 1992, all references to Marxism–Leninism in the constitution of North Korea were dropped by the Supreme People's Assembly and replaced with Juche . In 2009,

2220-585: The UK, the US, and the USSR) were given permanent seats on the U.N. Security Council , the organization's most powerful decision-making body. Following the war, the US and the USSR were the two strongest global powers and this created a bi-polar power dynamic in international affairs, commonly referred to as the Cold War . American hegemony during this time has been described as "Empire by invitation" . The hegemonic conflict

2294-417: The US and China, but has faced opposition to this claim. According to the recent study published in 2019, the authors argued that a "third‐way hegemony" or Dutch‐style hegemony apart from a peaceful or violent hegemonic rise may be the most feasible option to describe China in its global hegemony in the future. In the historical writing of the 19th century, the denotation of hegemony extended to describe

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2368-664: The US in Latin America and Japan in East Asia . France, the UK, Italy, the Soviet Union and later Nazi Germany (1933–1945) all either maintained imperialist policies based on spheres of influence or attempted to conquer territory but none achieved the status of a global hegemonic power. After the Second World War , the United Nations was established and the five strongest global powers (China, France,

2442-448: The United States established through the creation of international institutions (such as the United Nations, International Monetary Fund , World Bank, and World Trade Organization). Constructivist scholar Martha Finnemore argues that legitimation and institutionalization are key components of unipolarity. Academics have argued that in the praxis of hegemony, imperial dominance is established by means of cultural imperialism , whereby

2516-542: The Xhosa, Tswana, and Venda peoples, and so provide grounds for denying them their democratic rights. All four Bantustans were reincorporated into a democratic South Africa on 27 April 1994, under a new constitution . The South African authorities established ten Bantustans in South West Africa (present-day Namibia ), then illegally occupied by South Africa, in the late 1960s and early 1970s in accordance with

2590-404: The abstract power of the status quo , indirect imperial domination. J. Brutt-Griffler, a critic of this view, has described it as "deeply condescending" and "treats people ... as blank slates on which global capitalism's moving finger writes its message, leaving behind another cultural automaton as it moves on." Culturally, hegemony also is established by means of language , specifically

2664-493: The anti-hegemonic coalition and attacked Qin in 318 BC. "Qin, supported by one annexed state, overwhelmed the world coalition." The same scenario repeated itself several times. ) until Qin decisively moved from hegemony to conquests and annexations in 221 BC. Rome established its hegemony over the entire Mediterranean after its victory over the Seleucid Empire in 189 BC. Officially, Rome's client states were outside

2738-686: The arrival of the Age of Discovery and the Early modern period , they began to gradually lose their hegemony to other European powers. In The Rise of the Qi Ye Ji Tuan and the Emergence of Chinese Hegemony Jayantha Jayman writes, "If we consider the Western dominated global system from as early as the 15th century, there have been several hegemonic powers and contenders that have attempted to create

2812-436: The basis for cyclical theories by George Modelski and Joshua S. Goldstein , both of whom allege that naval power is vital for hegemony. The early 20th century, like the late 19th century, was characterized by multiple Great Powers but no global hegemon. World War I strengthened the United States and, to a lesser extent, Japan. Both of these states' governments pursued policies to expand their regional spheres of influence ,

2886-546: The behalf of elite classes to secure their own position. The change described is not abrupt but a slow and gradual metamorphosis that may take years or generations to accomplish. In addition to his comparison of the French Revolution versus the Italian case, Gramsci also associates Italian fascism with the notion of passive revolution. Gramsci also used the term for the mutations of the structures of capitalist economic production that he recognized primarily in

2960-681: The benefits" of this hegemony. After the defeat and exile of Napoleon, hegemony largely passed to the British Empire , which became the largest empire in history, with Queen Victoria (1837–1901) ruling over one-quarter of the world's land and population at its zenith. Like the Dutch, the British Empire was primarily seaborne; many British possessions were located around the rim of the Indian Ocean, as well as numerous islands in

3034-665: The concern of the Allies that Germany would look to the oil-rich Middle East for a solution, caused the invasion of Iraq by the United Kingdom and the invasion of Iran by the UK and the Soviet Union. Pro-Axis governments in both Iraq and Iran were removed and replaced with Allied-dominated governments. As Soviet forces prevailed over the German Army on the Eastern Front during World War II, the Soviet Union supported

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3108-419: The conflict when it was suspected that their government's policies might destabilize the balance of power . Reinhard Hildebrandt calls this a period of "dual-hegemony", where "two dominant states have been stabilizing their European spheres of influence against and alongside each other ." Proxy wars became battle grounds between forces supported either directly or indirectly by the hegemonic powers and included

3182-485: The constitution was quietly amended to not only remove all Marxist–Leninist references from the first draft, but also drop all references to communism . In some cases, the process of decolonisation has been managed by the decolonising power to create a neo-colony , that is a nominally independent state whose economy and politics permits continued foreign domination. Neo-colonies are not normally considered puppet states. The Netherlands formed several puppet states in

3256-478: The contemporary hegemony of the United States at the example of the Global War on Terrorism and presented the mechanisms and processes of American exercise of power in 'hegemonic governance'. In the field of International Relations , hegemony generally refers to the ability of an actor to shape the international system. Usually this actor is a state, such as Britain in the 19th century or the United States in

3330-531: The creation of communist governments throughout Eastern Europe. Specifically, the People's Republics in Poland , Romania , Czechoslovakia , Bulgaria , Hungary , and Albania were dominated by the Soviet Union . While all of these People's Republics did not "officially" take power until after WWII ended, they all have roots in pro-communist wartime governments. Yugoslavia was a communist state closely linked to

3404-551: The development of the US factory system of the 1920s and 1930s. Passive revolution is detailed by Gramsci as an elite process of state restructuring in Italy specifically, but it has been used as a frame of analysis for viewing other transitions to capitalist modernity. 'Passive revolution has been characterized by the quote from Prince Don Fabrizio Corbera of Salina in Giuseppe Tomasi di Lampedusa ’s novel Il Gattopardo : ‘Everything must change so that everything can remain

3478-529: The development of wind power for the efficient production and delivery of goods and services. This, in turn, made possible the Amsterdam stock market and concomitant dominance of world trade. In France, King Louis XIV (1638–1715) and ( Emperor ) Napoleon I (1799–1815) attempted true French hegemony via economic, cultural and military domination of most of Continental Europe . However, Jeremy Black writes that, because of Britain, France "was unable to enjoy

3552-524: The double habakusha—those who survived in Hiroshima on August 6 and within next two days managed to reach Nagasaki. Had Mearsheimer arranged a poll of double habakushas on August 10, "Does, in your opinion, water power stop?" he would have collected unanimous negative, not necessarily literal, replies. Just the day before the anniversary of the original kamikaze (August 15), the Japanese announced

3626-422: The face of hegemonic decline because of institutions or enhanced contributions from non-hegemonic powers. There has been a long debate in the field about whether American hegemony is in decline. As early as in the 1970s, Robert Gilpin suggested that the global order maintained by the United States would eventually decline as benefits from the public goods provided by Washington would diffuse to other states. In

3700-605: The former Dutch East Indies as part of its effort to quell the Indonesian National Revolution . Following the Belgian Congo 's independence as Congo-Leopoldville in 1960, Belgian interests supported the short-lived breakaway State of Katanga (1960–1963). Indonesia established a Provisional Government of East Timor following its invasion of East Timor in December 1975. During

3774-625: The hegemon of his world. In the Greek world of 5th century BC , the city-state of Sparta was the hegemon of the Peloponnesian League (6th to 4th centuries BC) and King Philip II of Macedon was the hegemon of the League of Corinth in 337 BC (a kingship he willed to his son, Alexander the Great ). Likewise, the role of Athens within the short-lived Delian League (478–404 BC)

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3848-492: The hegemonic horizontal alliance led by Qin and the anti-hegemonic alliance called perpendicular or vertical . "The political world appears as a chaos of ever-changing coalitions, but in which each new combination could ultimately be defined by its relation to Qin." The first anti-hegemonic or perpendicular alliance was formed in 322 BC. Qin was supported by one state, Wei , which it had annexed two years previously. The remaining five great warring states of China joined in

3922-609: The hegemony of the Great Powers established with European colonialism in Africa, Asia, and Latin America. In International Relations theories, hegemony is distinguished from empire as ruling only external but not internal affairs of other states. From the post-classical Latin word hēgemonia (1513 or earlier) from the Greek word ἡγεμονία , hēgemonía , 'authority, rule, political supremacy', related to

3996-661: The imposed lingua franca of the hegemon (leader state), which then is the official source of information for the people of the society of the sub-ordinate state. Writing on language and power, Andrea Mayr says, "As a practice of power, hegemony operates largely through language." In contemporary society, an example of the use of language in this way is in the way Western countries set up educational systems in African countries mediated by Western languages. Puppet state List of forms of government A puppet state , puppet régime , puppet government or dummy government

4070-557: The late 9th to the early 11th century, the empire developed by Charlemagne achieved hegemony in Europe, with dominance over France, most of Northern and Central Italy, Burgundy and Germany. From the 11th to the late 15th centuries the Italian maritime republics , in particular Venice and Genoa held hegemony in the Mediterranean, dominating trade between Europe and the Orient for centuries, and having naval supremacy. However, with

4144-476: The late Republic left to the Mediterranean kings internal autonomy and obliged them not to enter alliances hostile to Rome and not to wage offensive wars without consent of the Senate. Annexations usually followed when client kings broke this order ( Macedonia in 148 BC and Pontus in 64 BC ). In the course of these and other annexations, Rome gradually evolved from hegemony into empire. The last major client state of

4218-456: The leader state (hegemon) dictates the internal politics and the societal character of the subordinate states that constitute the hegemonic sphere of influence , either by an internal, sponsored government or by an external, installed government. The imposition of the hegemon's way of life—an imperial lingua franca and bureaucracies (social, economic, educational, governing)—transforms the concrete imperialism of direct military domination into

4292-532: The local government they tolerate. Puppet states differ from allies , who choose their actions of their own initiative or in accordance with treaties they have voluntarily entered. Puppet states are forced into legally endorsing actions already taken by a foreign power. Puppet states are "endowed with the outward symbols of authority", such as a name, flag , anthem , constitution , law codes , motto , and government, but in reality are appendages of another state which creates, sponsors or otherwise controls

4366-511: The lord of equal rank to its court." One of the six other great powers, Wei , was annexed as early as 324 BC. From the reign of Duke Xian on, "Qin gradually swallowed up the six [other] states until, after hundred years or so, the First Emperor was able to bring all kings under his power." The century preceding the Qin's wars of unification in 221 BC was dominated by confrontation between

4440-523: The predominance of one country upon other countries; and, by extension, hegemonism denoted the Great Power politics (c. 1880s – 1914) for establishing hegemony (indirect imperial rule), that then leads to a definition of imperialism (direct foreign rule). In the early 20th century, the Italian Marxist philosopher Antonio Gramsci used the idea of hegemony to talk about politics within

4514-455: The puppet government. International law does not recognise occupied puppet states as legitimate . Puppet states can cease to be puppets through: The term is a metaphor which compares a state or government to a puppet controlled by a puppeteer with strings. The first recorded use of the term "puppet government" was in 1884, in reference to the Khedivate of Egypt . In the Middle Ages , vassal states existed based on delegation of

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4588-402: The role of hegemonies is hegemonic stability theory . Its premise is that a hegemonic power is necessary to develop and uphold a stable international political and economic order. The theory was developed in the 1970s by Robert Gilpin and Stephen D. Krasner , among others. It has been criticized on both conceptual and empirical grounds. For example, Robert Keohane has argued that the theory

4662-414: The rule of a country by a king to noble men of lower rank. Since the Peace of Westphalia of 1648, the concept of a nation came into existence where sovereignty was connected more to the people who inhabited the land than to the nobility who owned the land. An earlier similar concept is suzerainty , the control of the external affairs of one state by another. The Batavian Republic was established in

4736-486: The ruling class. From the Gramsci analysis derived the political science denotation of hegemony as leadership ; thus, the historical example of Prussia as the militarily and culturally predominant province of the German Empire (1871–1918); and the personal and intellectual predominance of Napoleon Bonaparte upon the French Consulate (1799–1804). Contemporarily, in Hegemony and Socialist Strategy (1985), Ernesto Laclau and Chantal Mouffe defined hegemony as

4810-412: The same’. Professor Yiching Wu writes that China's post-Mao reforms were an example of passive revolution. The Chinese Communist Party under Deng Xiaoping coped with socioeconomic woes through consolidating its power, using market mechanisms and commodification to create controlled openings "to buy precious time in relation to both global capitalist competition and domestic popular discontent." Through

4884-524: The stabilizing impact of unipolarity. Some scholars, such as Karl Deutsch and J. David Singer argued that multipolarity was the most stable structure. Scholars disagree about the sources and stability of U.S. unipolarity. Realist international relations scholars argue that unipolarity is rooted in the superiority of U.S. material power since the end of the Cold War. Liberal international relations scholar John Ikenberry attributes U.S. hegemony in part to what he says are commitments and self-restraint that

4958-413: The transformation proved to be fatal and eventually led to the fall of the Roman Empire. His book gives implicit advice to Washington to continue the present hegemonic strategy and refrain from establishing an empire. In 2006, author Zhu Zhiqun claimed that China is already on the way to becoming the world hegemon and that the focus should be on how a peaceful transfer of power can be achieved between

5032-412: The unconditional surrender. They knew: water will not stop. Not this time. The French Socialist politician Hubert Védrine in 1999 described the US as a hegemonic hyperpower, because of its unilateral military actions worldwide. Pentagon strategist Edward Luttwak , in The Grand Strategy of the Roman Empire , outlined three stages, with hegemonic being the first, followed by imperial. In his view

5106-500: The whole Roman imperium, and preserved their entire sovereignty and international rights and privileges. With few exceptions, the Roman treaties with client states ( foedera ) were formulized on equal terms without any expression of clientship and the Romans almost never used the word "client." The term "client king" is an invention of the post-Renaissance scholarship. Those who are conventionally called by modern historians of Rome "client kings" were referred to as "allies and friends" of

5180-402: The word ἡγεμών , hēgemṓn , ' leader ' . The political pattern of Sumer was hegemony shifting from city to city and called King of Kish . According to the Sumerian King List , Kish established the hegemony yet before the Flood . One of the earliest literary legacies of humankind, the Epic of Gilgamesh , is a case of anti-hegemonic resistance . Gilgamesh fights and overthrows

5254-422: The world order in their own images." He lists several contenders for historical hegemony: Phillip IV tried to restore the Habsburg dominance but, by the middle of the 17th century "Spain's pretensions to hegemony (in Europe) had definitely and irremediably failed." In late 16th- and 17th-century Holland, the Dutch Republic's mercantilist dominion was an early instance of commercial hegemony, made feasible by

5328-522: Was ideological , between communism and capitalism , as well as geopolitical, between the Warsaw Pact countries (1955–1991) and NATO / SEATO / CENTO countries (1949–present/1954–1977/1955–1979). During the Cold War both hegemons competed against each other directly (during the arms race ) and indirectly (via proxy wars ). The result was that many countries, no matter how remote, were drawn into

5402-599: Was never completely mended. Yugoslavia continued to pursue independent policies and became the founding member of the Non-Aligned Movement . The Soviet Union continued to exert some influence over the People's Republic of China before the Sino-Soviet split in 1961. Some other countries which once were Soviet puppet governments included Mongolia , North Korea , North Vietnam , the reunified Vietnam and Cuba , all of which had substantial dependence on

5476-467: Was that of a "hegemon". The super-regional Persian Achaemenid Empire of 550 BC–330 BC dominated these sub-regional hegemonies prior to its collapse. Ancient historians such as Herodotus ( c.   484 BC – c.  425 BC ). Xenophon ( c.   431 BC – 354 BC) and Ephorus ( c.  400 BC – 330 BC) pioneered the use of the term hēgemonía in the modern sense of hegemony . In Ancient East Asia, Chinese hegemony existed during

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