Early life (1825–40) Consolidation (1840–53) Growth (1853–64) Paraguayan War (1864–70) Apogee (1870–81) Decline and fall (1881–89) Exile and death (1889–91) Legacy
171-531: Early life (1825–40) Consolidation (1840–53) Growth (1853–64) Paraguayan War (1864–70) Apogee (1870–81) Decline and fall (1881–89) Exile and death (1889–91) Legacy Dom Pedro II (2 December 1825 – 5 December 1891), nicknamed the Magnanimous ( Portuguese : O Magnânimo ), was the second and last monarch of the Empire of Brazil , reigning for over 58 years. Pedro II
342-468: A Tupi–Guarani language . His passion for reading allowed him to assimilate any information. Pedro II, was not a genius, although he was intelligent and possessed a facility for accumulating knowledge. As a constitutional monarch, his education was followed closely by the National Assembly, which demanded from Itanhaém progress reports concerning his studies. During this time, Pedro II
513-519: A daguerreotype camera in March 1840. He set up one laboratory in São Cristóvão devoted to photography and another to chemistry and physics. He also had an astronomical observatory constructed. The Emperor considered education to be of national importance and was himself a concrete example of the value of learning. He remarked: "Were I not an Emperor, I would like to be a teacher. I do not know of
684-578: A serious political crisis in July 1868 resulting from a quarrel between the cabinet and Luís Alves de Lima e Silva (then-Marques and later Duke of Caxias), the commander-in-chief of the Brazilian forces in Paraguay. Caxias was also a politician and was a member of the opposing party to the ministry. The Emperor sided with him, leading to the cabinet's resignation. As Pedro II maneuvered to bring about
855-610: A conflict with the Argentine Confederation regarding ascendancy over territories adjacent to the Río de la Plata and free navigation of that waterway. Since the 1830s, Argentine dictator Juan Manuel de Rosas had supported rebellions within Uruguay and Brazil. It was only in 1850 that Brazil was able to address the threat posed by Rosas. An alliance was forged between Brazil, Uruguay and disaffected Argentines, leading to
1026-451: A decisive role by unequivocally backing the government's actions. He was a conscientious adherent of Catholicism, which he viewed as advancing important civilizing and civic values. While he avoided anything that could be considered unorthodox, he felt free to think and behave independently. The Emperor accepted new ideas, such as Charles Darwin 's theory of evolution , of which he remarked that "the laws that he [Darwin] has discovered glorify
1197-591: A deep psychological impact. While traveling, he was largely freed of the restrictions imposed by his office. Under the pseudonym "Pedro de Alcântara", he enjoyed moving about as an ordinary person, even taking a train journey solely with his wife. Only while touring abroad could the Emperor shake off the formal existence and demands of the life he knew in Brazil. It became more difficult to reacclimate to his routine as head of state upon returning. Upon his sons' early deaths,
1368-404: A few years previously Pedro II remarked: "What sort of fear could I have? That they take the government from me? Many better kings than I have lost it, and to me it is no more than the weight of a cross which it is my duty to carry." At the same time, Pedro II worked to prevent quarrels between the national political parties from impairing the military response. The Emperor prevailed over
1539-469: A hemispheric power. Internationally, Europeans began to regard the country as embodying familiar liberal ideals, such as freedom of the press and constitutional respect for civil liberties. Its representative parliamentary monarchy also stood in stark contrast to the mix of dictatorships and instability endemic in the other nations of South America during this period. At the beginning of the 1850s, Brazil enjoyed internal stability and economic prosperity. Under
1710-489: A long period of weak governments, dictatorships, and constitutional and economic crises. The men who had exiled him soon began to see in him a model for the Brazilian Republic . A few decades after his death, his reputation was restored and his remains were returned to Brazil with celebrations nationwide. Historians have regarded the Emperor positively and several have ranked him as the greatest Brazilian. Pedro
1881-420: A man of mediocre intelligence, though honest. He was wise enough to provide the young Emperor with an extraordinary education. The guardian had a "great influence on the democratic character and thought of Pedro II." The professors who were already teaching Pedro II and his sisters under José Bonifácio were retained by the new guardian. The exception was Friar Pedro de Santa Mariana who was nominated to occupy
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#17327764805582052-416: A man who, at 1.90 meters (6 ft 3 in) tall with blue eyes and blond hair, was seen as handsome. With growth, his weaknesses faded and his strengths of character came to the fore. He became self-assured and learned to be not only impartial and diligent, but also courteous, patient and personable. Barman said that he kept "his emotions under iron discipline. He was never rude and never lost his temper. He
2223-524: A man with a strong sense of duty and devotion toward his country and his people, yet increasingly resentful of his role as monarch. Pedro II inherited an empire on the verge of disintegration, but he turned Brazil into an emerging power in the international arena. The nation grew to be distinguished from its Hispanic neighbors on account of its political stability, freedom of speech, respect for civil rights, vibrant economic growth, and form of government—a functional representative parliamentary monarchy . Brazil
2394-565: A more important title. Prior to the American ownership of the Southwest, a number of Americans immigrated to California , where they often became Mexican citizens and changed their given names to Spanish equivalents, for example " Juan Temple " for Jonathan Temple. It was common for them to assume the honorific "don" once they had attained a significant degree of distinction in the community. In Spanish colonial Philippines , this honorific
2565-442: A position belonging to the emperor alone." The "generation of politicians who had come to power in the 1830s, following upon the abdication of Pedro I, had learned from bitter experience the difficulties and dangers of government. By 1840 they had lost all faith in their ability to rule the country on their own. They accepted Pedro II as an authority figure whose presence was indispensable for the country's survival." The Liberals took
2736-554: A regency was created. It proved to be weak and to have little effective authority, which led the nation into anarchy, ravaged by political faction struggles and countless rebellions. Exploited as a tool by rival political factions in pursuit of their own interests, Pedro II was manipulated into accepting an early elevation to majority status on 22 July 1840 at age 14, thus putting an end to nine years of chaotic regency rule. Pedro de Alcântara João Carlos Leopoldo Salvador Bibiano Francisco Xavier de Paula Leocádio Miguel Gabriel Rafael Gonzaga
2907-538: A regional power. The Paraguayan Army invaded the Brazilian province of Mato Grosso (the area known after 1977 as the state of Mato Grosso do Sul ), triggering the Paraguayan War . Four months later, Paraguayan troops invaded Argentine territory as a prelude to an attack on Rio Grande do Sul . Aware of the anarchy in Rio Grande do Sul and the incapacity and incompetence of its military chiefs to resist
3078-401: A remarkable education, although they were given no preparation for governing the nation. Pedro II excluded Isabel from participation in government business and decisions. Sometime around 1850, Pedro II began having discreet affairs with other women. The most famous and enduring of these relationships involved Luísa Margarida Portugal de Barros, Countess of Barral , with whom he formed
3249-471: A reputation for impartiality, work in accord with the popular mood, and avoid any flagrant imposition of his will on the political scene." The Emperor's more notable political successes were achieved primarily because of the non-confrontational and cooperative manner with which he approached both issues and the partisan figures with whom he had to deal. He was remarkably tolerant, seldom taking offense at criticism, opposition or even incompetence. He did not have
3420-520: A romantic and intimate, though not adulterous, friendship after she was appointed governess to the emperor's daughters in November 1856. Throughout his life, the Emperor held onto a hope of finding a soulmate, something he felt cheated of due to the necessity of a marriage of state to a woman for whom he never felt passion. This is but one instance illustrating his dual identity: one who assiduously carried out his duty as emperor and another who considered
3591-512: A simple black tail coat, trousers, and cravat. For special occasions he would wear court dress, and he only appeared in full regalia with crown, mantle, and scepter twice each year at the opening and closing of the General Assembly. Pedro II held politicians and government officials to the strict standards which he exemplified. The Emperor adopted a strict policy for the selection of civil servants based on morality and merit. To set
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#17327764805583762-454: A single entity. The general opinion, both at home and abroad, was that these accomplishments had been possible due to Brazil's "governance as a monarchy and the character of Pedro II". Pedro II was neither a British-style figurehead nor an autocrat in the manner of Russian czars . The Emperor exercised power through cooperation with elected politicians, economic interests, and popular support. The active presence of Pedro II on
3933-669: A surprise to Christie, who changed his tenor and proposed a peaceful settlement through international arbitration. The Brazilian government presented its demands and, upon seeing the British government's position weaken, severed diplomatic ties with Britain in June 1863. As war with the British Empire threatened, Brazil had to turn its attention to its southern frontiers. Another civil war had begun in Uruguay as its political parties turned against each other. The internal conflict led to
4104-570: A task more noble than to direct young minds and prepare the men of tomorrow." His reign saw the creation of the Brazilian Historic and Geographic Institute to promote research and preservation in the historical, geographical, cultural, and social sciences. The Imperial Academy of Music and National Opera and the Pedro ;II School were also founded, the latter serving as a model for schools throughout Brazil. The Imperial Academy of
4275-413: A victorious outcome in the conflict with Paraguay, he threw his support behind the political parties and factions that seemed to be most useful in the effort. The reputation of the monarchy was harmed and its trusted position as an impartial mediator was severely impacted in the long term. He was unconcerned for his personal position, and regardless of the impact upon the imperial system, he determined to put
4446-630: A white robe that had belonged to his grandfather Francis II , an orange pallium made of feathers from the Guianan cock-of-the-rock (a homage to Brazil's birds and indigenous Brazilian chieftains) woven by Tiriyó Indians especially for the emperor and a green mantle emblazoned with branches of cacao and tobacco, both symbols of the Brazilian empire. After being anointed, he received the Imperial insignia (the Imperial Regalia of Brazil ):
4617-587: A woman who does not hold an academic title. It is commonly used to refer to First Ladies , although it is less common for female politicians. Within the Catholic Church, the prefix Don is usually used for the diocesan priests with their first name, as well as velečasni ( The Reverend ). Dom is used as a title in English for certain Benedictine (including some communities which follow
4788-460: A young and shy boy divided between the fascination of power and the fear of a new world which, unexpectedly, was being opened to him." The "declaration of Pedro II's majority aroused a general euphoria. A feeling of release and renewal united Brazilians. For the first time since the middle of the 1820s the national government at Rio de Janeiro commanded a general acceptance." Pedro II was acclaimed, crowned and consecrated on 18 July 1841. He wore
4959-584: Is S. M. el Rey Felipe VI . Spanish citizens who are Knights and Dames of the Order of Civil Merit , the Order of Charles III , and the Order of Isabella the Catholic are addressed as Don (for Knights) or Doña (for Dames), in the same style as Sir or Dame for knighted British nationals. [2] [3] [4] The Spanish usage is similar among Basque speakers in Spain using don and doña . The honorific
5130-583: Is " Dame " (e.g. Dame Laurentia McLachlan , late Abbess of Stanbrook , or Dame Felicitas Corrigan , author). In the United States , Don has also been made popular by films depicting the Italian mafia , such as The Godfather trilogy, where the crime boss is given by his associates the same signs of respect that were traditionally granted in Italy to nobility. However, the honorific followed by
5301-677: Is an honorific prefix primarily used in Spain and Hispanic America , and with different connotations also in Italy , Portugal and its former colonies, and formerly in the Philippines . Don is derived from the Latin dominus : a master of a household, a title with background from the Roman Republic in classical antiquity . With the abbreviated form having emerged as such in
Pedro II of Brazil - Misplaced Pages Continue
5472-1264: Is bound to show him the utmost respect". Pedro II became a member of the Royal Society , the Russian Academy of Sciences , The Royal Academies for Science and the Arts of Belgium and the American Geographical Society . In 1875, he was elected to the French Academy of Sciences , an honor previously granted to only two other heads of state: Peter the Great and Napoleon Bonaparte . He exchanged letters with scientists, philosophers, musicians and other intellectuals. Many of his correspondents became his friends, including Richard Wagner , Louis Pasteur , Louis Agassiz , John Greenleaf Whittier , Michel Eugène Chevreul , Alexander Graham Bell , Henry Wadsworth Longfellow , Arthur de Gobineau , Frédéric Mistral , Alessandro Manzoni , Alexandre Herculano, Camilo Castelo Branco , and James Cooley Fletcher . His erudition amazed Friedrich Nietzsche when
5643-651: Is no longer a right under Italian law. In practice, however, the style Don/Donna (or Latin Dominus/Domina) was used more loosely in church, civil and notarial records. The honorific was often accorded to the untitled gentry (e.g., knights or younger sons of noblemen), priests, or other people of distinction. It was, over time, adopted by organized criminal societies in Southern Italy (including Naples, Sicily, and Calabria) to refer to members who held considerable sway within their hierarchies. In modern Italy,
5814-507: Is sometimes adapted as on as in the priest and scholar on Joxemiel Barandiaran ( Spanish : Don José Miguel Barandiarán ) or fictional knight On Kixote ( Don Quixote ). The honorific was also used among Ladino -speaking Sephardi Jews , as part of the Spanish culture which they took with them after the expulsion of the Jews from Spain in 1492. The honorific title Don
5985-736: Is still common in Southern Italy, mostly as an honorific form to address the elderly, but it is rarely, if ever, used in Central Italy or Northern Italy . It can be used satirically or ironically to lampoon a person's sense of self-importance. Don is prefixed either to the full name or to the person's given name . The form "Don Lastname" for crime bosses (as in Don Corleone ) is an American custom. In Southern Italy, mafia bosses are addressed as "Don Firstname" by other mafiosi and sometimes their victims as well, while
6156-534: Is to men. Today in the Spanish language, Doña is used to respectfully refer to a mature woman. In present-day Hispanic America, the title Don or Doña is sometimes used in honorific form when addressing a senior citizen. In some countries, Don or Doña may be used as a generic honorific, similar to Sir and Madam in the United States. In Spanish, don and doña convey a higher degree of reverence. Unlike The Honourable in English (but like
6327-464: Is used by nuns of the Order. In Spanish, although originally a title reserved for royalty, select nobles, and church hierarchs, it is now often used as a mark of esteem for an individual of personal, social or official distinction, such as a community leader of long-standing, a person of significant wealth, a noble , or the member of an order of merit . As a style , rather than a title or rank , it
6498-534: Is used for certain higher members hierarchs , such as superiors , of the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches. In Catholic religious orders , such as the Order of Saint Benedict , it is also associated with the status of Dom Frater . Dom is similarly used as an honorific for Benedictine monks within the Benedictine Order throughout France and the English speaking world, such as
6669-454: Is used with, rather than in place of, a person's name. The feminine equivalents are Doña ( Spanish: [ˈdoɲa] ), Donna ( Italian: [ˈdɔnna] ), Doamnă (Romanian) and Dona ( Portuguese: [ˈdonɐ] ) abbreviated 'D.ª', 'Da.', or simply 'D.' It is a common honorific reserved for women, especially mature women. In Portuguese Dona tends to be less restricted in use to women than Dom
6840-413: The principalía (e.g., gobernadorcillo and cabeza de barangay ) were replaced by American political positions such as the municipal president. The practise slowly faded after World War II , as heirs of the principalía often did not inherit the title, and as civic leaders were chosen by popular election. Prior to 1954, the appointment and tenure of mayors was at the pleasure of the president of
7011-463: The City Palace . The frightened young Emperor was displayed along with his sisters at one of the windows of the palace. He stood atop a chair so that he could be seen by the assembled thousands and observe their acclamations. The Brazilians were touched by this "figure of a small orphan who would rule them one day." The entire ordeal, followed by the roar of saluting cannon, was so traumatic to
Pedro II of Brazil - Misplaced Pages Continue
7182-611: The Middle Ages , traditionally it is reserved for Catholic clergy and nobles , in addition to certain educational authorities and persons of high distinction. The older form of Dom is the variant used in Portuguese, which in Brazil is reserved for bishops . The title is also used among Benedictine monks for those members of the community who have professed perpetual religious vows . The equivalent of Doña or Dame
7353-531: The Morro do Queimado colony ("Burnt Hill", now Nova Friburgo ) by the name of Marie Catherine Equey was chosen as his wet nurse. Empress Leopoldina died on 11 December 1826, days after the stillbirth of a male child, when Pedro was one year old. Pedro would have no memory of his mother; only what he was later told about her. Of his father, "he retained no strong images of him" in adulthood, that is, he recalled "no clear visual image" of Pedro I. His father
7524-582: The Platine War and the subsequent overthrow of the Argentine ruler in February 1852. Barman said that a "considerable portion of the credit must be ... assigned to the Emperor, whose cool head, tenacity of purpose, and sense of what was feasible proved indispensable." The Empire's successful navigation of these crises considerably enhanced the nation's stability and prestige, and Brazil emerged as
7695-463: The Puerto Rican industrialist and politician Don Luis Ferré , among many other figures. Although Puerto Rican politician Pedro Albizu Campos had a doctoral degree, he has been titled Don . Likewise, Puerto Rican Governor Luis Muñoz Marín has often been called Don Luís Muñoz Marin instead of Governor Muñoz Marin. In the same manner, Don Miguel Ángel Ruiz is an M.D. Additionally
7866-615: The Rule of St. Benedict ) and Carthusian monks , and for members of certain communities of canons regular . Examples include Benedictine monks of the English Benedictine Congregation (e.g. Dom John Chapman , late Abbot of Downside ). Since the Second Vatican Council , the title can be given to any monk ( lay or ordained ) who has made a solemn profession . The equivalent title for a nun
8037-690: The "Courtier Faction" as they established influence over the young Emperor. Some were very close to him, such as Mariana de Verna and Steward Paulo Barbosa da Silva. Pedro II was deftly used by the Courtiers against their actual or suspected foes. The Brazilian government secured the hand of Princess Teresa Cristina of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies . She and Pedro II were married by proxy in Naples on 30 May 1843. Upon seeing her in person,
8208-439: The "sudden loss of his family was to haunt Pedro II throughout his life". Three of his sisters stayed behind in Brazil with Pedro II: Januária , Paula and Francisca . Pedro II was acclaimed as the new Brazilian Emperor on 9 April. Bewildered by his parents' abandonment and frightened by the large crowds and thundering artillery salutes, he wept inconsolably as he was taken, with Mariana de Verna at his side, by carriage up to
8379-645: The 1880s, they had almost entirely been replaced by a newer generation of politicians who had no experience of the early years of Pedro II's reign. They had only known a stable administration and prosperity and saw no reason to uphold and defend the imperial office as a unifying force beneficial to the nation. To them, Pedro II was merely an old and increasingly sick man who had steadily eroded his position by taking an active role in politics for decades. Before he had been above criticism, but now his every action and inaction prompted meticulous scrutiny and open criticism. Many young politicians had become apathetic toward
8550-475: The Additional Act in 1834, a constitutional amendment that gave higher administrative and political provincial decentralization, exacerbated conflicts between political parties, as whichever dominated the provinces would also gain control over the electoral and political system. Those parties which lost elections rebelled and tried to assume power by force. Rebellious factions, however, continued to uphold
8721-500: The Americas. The economy began growing rapidly and immigration flourished. Railroad, shipping and other modernization projects were adopted. With "slavery destined for extinction and other reforms projected, the prospects for 'moral and material advances' seemed vast." In 1870, few Brazilians opposed slavery and even fewer openly condemned it. Pedro II, who did not own slaves, was one of the few who did oppose slavery. Its abolition
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#17327764805588892-503: The British Government for the crisis between the empires. The Emperor regarded this diplomatic victory over the most powerful nation of the world as sufficient and renewed friendly relations. Against all expectations, the war continued for five years. During this period, Pedro II's time and energy were devoted to the war effort. He tirelessly worked to raise and equip troops to reinforce the front lines and to push forward
9063-459: The British consul in Rio de Janeiro, William Dougal Christie , nearly sparked a war between his nation and Brazil. Christie sent an ultimatum containing bullying demands arising out of two minor incidents at the end of 1861 and beginning of 1862. The first was the sinking of a British merchant barque on the coast of Rio Grande do Sul after which its goods were pillaged by local inhabitants. The second
9234-521: The Catholic Church. The imperial government had embarked upon a program of reform to address these deficiencies. As Catholicism was the state religion, the government exercised a great deal of control over Church affairs, paying clerical salaries, appointing parish priests, nominating bishops, ratifying papal bulls and overseeing seminaries. In pursuing reform, the government selected bishops who satisfied its criteria for education, support for reform and moral fitness. However, as more capable men began to fill
9405-659: The Conservatives to lower the age of majority was defeated in the Senate on 17 May 1840 by a margin of 18 votes to 16. In contrast to the Conservatives, Liberals were unscrupulous in ignoring the law to attain their goals and decided to immediately declare Pedro II of age. To accomplish this required the support of the three most powerful people in the Imperial court: Aureliano de Sousa e Oliveira Coutinho , Paulo Barbosa da Silva and Mariana de Verna. Aureliano Coutinho,
9576-560: The Creator". He was moderate in his religious beliefs but could not accept disrespect to civil law and government authority. As he told his son-in-law: "[The government] has to ensure that the constitution is obeyed. In these proceedings there is no desire to protect masonry; but rather the goal of upholding the rights of the civilian power." The crisis was resolved in September 1875 after the Emperor grudgingly agreed to grant full amnesty to
9747-487: The Emperor and completely changed his view of the Empire's future. Despite his affection for his daughters, he did not believe that Princess Isabel, although his heir, would have any chance of prospering on the throne. He felt his successor needed to be male for the monarchy to be viable. He increasingly saw the imperial system as being tied so inextricably to himself, that it would not survive him. Isabel and her sister received
9918-499: The Emperor was noticeably disappointed. Teresa Cristina was short, a bit overweight, and not considered conventionally pretty. He did little to hide his disillusionment. One observer stated that he turned his back to Teresa Cristina, another depicted him as being so shocked that he needed to sit. That evening, Pedro II wept and complained to Mariana de Verna, "They have deceived me, Dadama !" It took several hours to convince him that duty demanded that he proceed. The Nuptial Mass, with
10089-399: The Emperor's faith in the monarchy's future had evaporated. His trips abroad now made him resentful of the emperorship assigned to him at the age of five. If he previously had no interest in securing the throne for the next generation, he now had no desire to keep it going during his own lifetime. During the 1880s, Brazil continued to prosper, and social diversity increased markedly, including
10260-751: The Empire. Upon arriving in Lisbon , Portugal, he immediately went to the Janelas Verdes palace , where he met with his stepmother, Amélie of Leuchtenberg. The two had not seen each other in forty years, and the meeting was emotional. Pedro II remarked in his journal: "I cried from happiness and also from sorrow seeing my Mother so affectionate toward me but so aged and so sick." The Emperor proceeded to visit Spain, Great Britain, Belgium, Germany, Austria, Italy, Egypt, Greece, Switzerland, and France. In Coburg , he visited his daughter's tomb. He found this to be "a time of release and freedom". He traveled under
10431-526: The English Sir for a knight or baronet ), Don may be used when speaking directly to a person, and unlike Lord it must be used with a given name. For example, "Don Diego de la Vega" or simply "Don Diego" (the secret identity of Zorro ) are typical forms. But a form using the last name (e.g. "Don de la Vega") is not considered correct and rarely would be used by Spanish speakers ("señor de la Vega" would be used instead). Historically, don
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#173277648055810602-752: The Fine Arts , established by his father, received further strengthening and support. Using his civil list income, Pedro II provided scholarships for Brazilian students to study at universities, art schools, and conservatories of music in Europe. He also financed the creation of the Institute Pasteur , helped underwrite the construction of Wagner's Bayreuth Festspielhaus , as well as subscribing to similar projects. His efforts were recognized both at home and abroad. Charles Darwin said of him: "The Emperor does so much for science, that every scientific man
10773-468: The General Assembly declared the Atlantic slave trade illegal. Having dealt with the overseas supply of new slaves, Pedro II turned his attention in the early 1860s to removing the remaining source: enslavement of children born to slaves. Legislation was drafted at his initiative, but the conflict with Paraguay delayed discussion of the proposal in the General Assembly. Pedro II openly asked for
10944-525: The Liberals evolved as a consequence of Bernardo Pereira de Vasconcelos , one of Olinda's ministers, being eager to remove his sworn enemy Paulo Barbosa and the marquis of Itanhaém from the Imperial Household . Olinda's position was precarious. "He lacked the character and skills to impose his authority, while the attempts he did make to take control were seen as presumptuous, a usurpation of
11115-416: The Liberals had also begun to call for lowering the age of majority. They saw an opportunity, given the emperor's age and inexperience, that "he might be manipulated by whoever brought him to power." The Liberals allied themselves with the former Restorationists, now led by Antônio Carlos and Martim Francisco, brothers of the ex-guardian José Bonifácio de Andrada (who had died in 1838). The bill proposed by
11286-519: The Paraguayan army, Pedro II decided to go to the front in person. Upon receiving objections from the cabinet, the General Assembly and the Council of State , Pedro II pronounced: "If they can prevent me from going as an Emperor, they cannot prevent me from abdicating and going as a Fatherland Volunteer"—an allusion to those Brazilians who volunteered to go to war and became known throughout
11457-519: The Paraguayans did not attack him. To avoid further bloodshed, he offered terms of surrender to the Paraguayan commander, who accepted. Pedro II's coordination of the military operations and his personal example played a decisive role in successfully repulsing the Paraguayan invasion of Brazilian territory. Before returning to Rio de Janeiro, he received the British diplomatic envoy Edward Thornton , who apologized on behalf of Queen Victoria and
11628-445: The Philippines , pursuant to Commonwealth Act No. 158 amending Commonwealth Act No. 57., Section 8 of Commonwealth Act No. 158, as amended by Republic Act No. 276. The 1987 Constitution , meanwhile, explicitly prohibits recognition of titles of nobility, thus the terms Don and Doña are now courtesy titles with no requirements for their attainment other than common usage for socially prominent and rich persons. Officially, Don
11799-468: The Prince Imperial, who became Emperor Dom Pedro II. Upon leaving the country, Emperor Pedro I selected three people to take charge of his son and remaining daughters. The first was José Bonifácio de Andrada , his friend and an influential leader during Brazilian independence , who was named guardian. The second was Mariana de Verna , who had held the post of aia ( governess ) since
11970-851: The Restorationists who had been previously known as Bonifacians . Several rebellions erupted during the regency. The first were the Rebellion of Santa Rita (1831), the Revolt of the Year of the Smoke (1833) and the Cabanada (or War of the Cabanos, 1832–34), which sought the return of Pedro I and which had the support of common people, former slaves, and slaves. The death of Pedro I on 24 September 1834 ended their hopes. The promulgation of
12141-423: The Senate to demand a declaration of majority. The "supporters of an immediate majority gathered at the Senate and passed a motion, signed by 17 senators (out of 49) and by 40 deputies (out of 101), calling on the emperor to take full powers." A delegation of eight, led by Antônio Carlos de Andrada carrying this declaration, proceeded to the Imperial Palace of São Cristóvão to ask if Pedro II would accept or reject
12312-779: The Sword (which had belonged to his father ), the Scepter (of pure gold with a wyvern on its tip, symbol of the House of Braganza ), the Imperial Crown (made especially for the coronation with jewels removed from Pedro I’s crown ), the Globe , and the Hand of Justice. Explanatory notes Citations Bibliography Dom (title) The term Don ( Spanish: [don] , literally ' Lord ') abbreviated as D. ,
12483-581: The Throne as a way of giving the appearance of legitimacy to their actions (that is, they were not in revolt against the monarchy per se ). The Cabanagem (1835–40), the Sabinada (1837–38) and the Balaiada (1838–41) all followed this course, even though in some instances provinces attempted to secede and become independent republics (though ostensibly only so long as Pedro II was a minor). The exception
12654-481: The Warspite another five days before leaving for Europe , but they did not see the young emperor during that period … or ever again. For the remainder of his life, Pedro I would become distressed upon his children's absences and fretted about their futures. Pedro II missed his father and stepmother (who had assumed his mother's role), and this may account for his later lack of any emotional display in public. In fact,
12825-466: The affairs" of the court. It became impossible to advance any proposal or decision without having gained their stamp of approval, while they were chiefly concerned with "their own interests and those of their friends." This trio and their adherents became known as the "Courtier Faction" and the "Joana Club" (named Paulo Barbosa’s country house on the Joana river, where they usually met). Their alliance with
12996-543: The age of majority was floated for the first time in 1835 by the conservatives. On 12 October 1835, the liberal Diogo Antônio Feijó was elected sole regent after the 1834 Additional Act dispensed with the triumvirate regency. He "lacked the vision, flexibility, and resources needed to guide Brazil under conditions which had prevailed since the death of Pedro I and the passage of the Ato Adicional " (Additional Act). Feijó resigned his position as regent in 1837, and
13167-433: The assumed name "Dom Pedro de Alcântara", insisting upon being treated informally and staying only in hotels. He spent his days sightseeing and conversing with scientists and other intellectuals with whom he shared interests. The European sojourn proved to be a success, and his demeanor and curiosity won respectful notices in the nations which he visited. The prestige of both Brazil and Pedro II were further enhanced during
13338-620: The birth of Pedro II. As a child, the then-Prince Imperial called her " Dadama ", as he could not pronounce the word dama ( Lady ) correctly. He regarded her as his surrogate mother and would continue to call her by her nickname well into adulthood out of affection. The third person was Rafael, an Afro-Brazilian veteran of the Cisplatine War . He was an employee in the Palace of São Cristóvão whom Pedro I deeply trusted and asked to look after his son—a charge that he carried out for
13509-588: The bishops and the Holy See annulled the interdicts. Once again, the Emperor traveled abroad, this time going to the United States. He was accompanied by his faithful servant Rafael, who had raised him from childhood. Pedro II arrived in New York City on 15 April 1876, and set out from there to travel throughout the country; going as far as San Francisco in the west, New Orleans in the south, Washington, D.C. , and north to Toronto , Canada. The trip
13680-614: The capital and from the provinces an ideal way to keep track of public opinion and the nation's overall situation. Another means of monitoring the Empire was through direct contacts with his subjects. One opportunity for this was during regular Tuesday and Saturday public audiences, where anyone of any social class, including slaves, could gain admittance and present their petitions and stories. Visits to schools, colleges, prisons, exhibitions, factories, barracks, and other public appearances presented further opportunities to gather first-hand information. This tranquility temporarily disappeared when
13851-462: The capital, visiting Espírito Santo , Bahia , Sergipe , Alagoas , Pernambuco , and Paraíba . He returned in February 1860 after four months. The trip was a huge success, with the Emperor welcomed everywhere with warmth and joy. The first half of the 1860s saw peace and prosperity in Brazil. Civil liberties were maintained. Freedom of speech had existed since Brazil's independence and was strongly defended by Pedro II. He found newspapers from
14022-675: The clerical ranks, resentment of government control over the Church increased. The bishops of Olinda and Belém (in the provinces of Pernambuco and Pará , respectively) were two of the new generation of educated and zealous Brazilian clerics. They had been influenced by the ultramontanism , which spread among Catholics in this period. In 1872, they ordered Freemasons expelled from lay brotherhoods . While European Freemasonry often tended towards atheism and anti-clericalism , things were much different in Brazil where membership in Masonic orders
14193-487: The conservative Pedro de Araújo Lima (later Marquis of Olinda) was elected as his replacement. One of the main goals of Olinda was restore respect for Imperial authority, and thus "traditional ceremonies and practices surrounding the monarch, suspended since Pedro I's abdication, were revived." The "campaign to inculcate deference and respect for the young emperor found ready acceptance throughout Brazil." Fearful that their adversaries would perpetuate themselves in power,
14364-429: The constitutional authority to force acceptance of his initiatives without support, and his collaborative approach towards governing kept the nation progressing and enabled the political system to successfully function. The Emperor respected the prerogatives of the legislature, even when they resisted, delayed, or thwarted his goals and appointments. Most politicians appreciated and supported his role. Many had lived through
14535-469: The current first lady-in-waiting, was esteemed by both Aureliano and Paulo Barbosa. Her daughter was married to a nephew of the steward. All "three liked power and influence for its own sake, interpreted any opposition to their dominance in personal terms, and were ruthless in defense of their position at court." This alliance between "Aureliano, D. Mariana, and Paulo Barbosa, with the marquis of Itanhaém as their adherent, rapidly secured them dominance over
14706-460: The dispute over lowering the age of majority directly to the populace, inciting them to place pressure on the politicians. The Brazilian people supported lowering the age of majority and a popular song was heard in the streets: "We want Pedro the Second,/ Although he is not of age;/ The nation excuses the law,/ and long live the majority!" As emperor, Pedro II "was the living symbol of the unity of
14877-624: The early declaration of his majority. Pedro II asked for the opinion of Itanhaém, Friar Pedro Mariana and Araújo Viana (pawns of the "Courtier Faction"), who convinced him to accept and thus prevent new disorders in the country. The emperor would say years later that the Liberals had taken advantage of his immaturity and inexperience. He shyly answered "Yes" when asked if he desired the age of majority to be lowered, and "Now" when asked if he would prefer that it come into effect at that moment or if he would wait until his birthday in December. On
15048-538: The emperor and his sisters closer together and strengthened their sense of family, despite the absence of their parents. The Emperor experienced an unhappy and solitary childhood. He was considered precocious, docile and obedient, but frequently cried and often nothing seemed to please him. He "was not raised in luxury and everything was very simple." As his sisters could not accompany him at other times, he only had permission to meet them after lunch, and even then for only one hour. He had few friends of his age, and
15219-437: The end of his reign, there were three libraries in São Cristóvão palace containing more than 60,000 books. A passion for linguistics prompted him throughout his life to study new languages, and he was able to speak and write not only Portuguese but also Latin , French, German, English, Italian, Spanish, Greek, Arabic, Hebrew , Sanskrit , Chinese, Occitan , and Tupi . He became the first Brazilian photographer when he acquired
15390-730: The entire day studying with only two hours reserved for amusements. He would wake up at 6.30 a.m. and begin studies at seven, continuing until 10 p.m., after which he would go to bed. The disciplines were diverse, including everything from languages, history , philosophy , astronomy , physics , geography and music , to hunting , equestrianism and fencing. Great care was taken to guide him away from his father's example in matters related to education, character and personality. He would learn throughout his life to speak and write not only his native Portuguese, but also Latin, French, German , English , Italian , Spanish , Greek , Arabic , Hebrew , Sanskrit , Chinese , Occitan and
15561-563: The famous Dom Pérignon . In France, it is also used within the male branch of the Carthusian Order. It is also employed for laymen who belong to the royal and imperial families (for example the House of Aviz in Portugal and the House of Braganza in Portugal and Brazil). It was also accorded to members of families of the titled Portuguese nobility . Unless ennobling letters patent specifically authorised its use, Dom
15732-583: The fatherland […] This position gave him, in the eyes of public opinion, a higher authority than that of any regent." The Conservatives weren’t opposed to the Liberal plan, and both (including the regent himself, who would inevitably lose his office) wished to end the regency. Olinda asked Pedro II what he thought about the issue of majority, and he simply answered, "I have not thought about that," and continued, "I have already heard about it, but I have not given it any attention." A crowd of 3,000 people went to
15903-404: The first organized push for women's rights . On the other hand, letters written by Pedro II reveal a man grown world-weary with age and having an increasingly alienated and pessimistic outlook. He remained respectful of his duty and was meticulous in performing the tasks demanded of the imperial office, albeit often without enthusiasm. Because of his increasing "indifference towards the fate of
16074-727: The fitting of new warships for the navy. The rape of women, widespread violence against civilians, ransacking and destruction of properties that had occurred during Paraguay's invasion of Brazilian territory had made a deep impression on him. He warned the Countess of Barral in November 1866 that "the war should be concluded as honor demands, cost what it cost." "Difficulties, setbacks, and war-weariness had no effect on his quiet resolve", said Barman. Mounting casualties did not distract him from advancing what he saw as Brazil's righteous cause, and he stood prepared to personally sacrifice his own throne to gain an honorable outcome. Writing in his journal
16245-443: The five-year-old Pedro awoke on 7 April 1831, beside him on the bed lay his father's imperial crown. Pedro I and his wife had already left Brazilian soil and boarded the British frigate HMS Warspite . Pedro II wrote a letter of farewell to his father aided by Mariana de Verna. On receipt of this, a tearful Pedro I composed a reply, calling the little boy "My beloved son, and my Emperor." His father and stepmother remained on board
16416-466: The following day, 23 July 1840, the National Assembly formally declared the 14-year-old Pedro II of age. A crowd of 8,000 people gathered to witness the act. There, in the afternoon, the young emperor took the oath of office. For a second time, Pedro II was acclaimed by the gentry, the Armed Forces and the Brazilian people. "There was not, this time, the panic and weeping of 1831. There was only
16587-493: The government. Pedro II was seen nationwide as a legitimate source of authority, whose position placed him above partisanship and petty disputes. He was, however, still no more than a boy, and a shy, insecure, and immature one. His nature resulted from his broken childhood, when he experienced abandonment, intrigue, and betrayal. Behind the scenes, a group of high-ranking palace servants and notable politicians led by Aureliano Coutinho (later Viscount of Sepetiba) became known as
16758-435: The gradual eradication of slavery in the speech from the throne of 1867. He was heavily criticized, and his move was condemned as "national suicide." Critics argued "that abolition was his personal desire and not that of the nation." He consciously ignored the growing political damage to his image and to the monarchy in consequence of his support for abolition. Eventually, a bill pushed through by Prime Minister José Paranhos ,
16929-497: The honorific is usually used with people of older age. The same happens in other Hispanic American countries. For example, despite having a doctoral degree in theology , the Paraguayan dictator José Gaspar Rodríguez de Francia was usually styled as "Don". Likewise, despite being a respected military commander with the rank of Brigade General , Argentine Ruler Juan Manuel de Rosas was formally and informally styled "Don" as
17100-464: The idea of a female successor as antithetical to the role required of Brazil's ruler. He viewed the death of his two sons as being a sign that the Empire was destined to be supplanted. Resistance to accepting a female ruler was also shared by the political establishment. Even though the Constitution allowed female succession to the throne, Brazil was still very traditional, and only a male successor
17271-409: The imperial office an unrewarding burden and who was happier in the worlds of literature and science. Pedro II was hard-working and his routine was demanding. He usually woke up at 7:00 and did not sleep before 2:00 in the morning. His entire day was devoted to the affairs of state and the meager free time available was spent reading and studying. The Emperor went about his daily routine dressed in
17442-431: The liberal-dominated regency had become unsustainable due to his leadership of the restorationist faction which sought to recall Pedro I and install him as regent until Pedro II attained majority. the National Assembly ratified Manuel Inácio de Andrade, Marquis of Itanhaém as his replacement. Itanhaém was chosen for the post because he was considered submissive and easily manipulated. The new guardian proved to be
17613-419: The little emperor that it may account for his noted aversion to ceremonies as an adult. His elevation as emperor ushered in a period of crisis, the most troublesome in Brazil's history. As Pedro II could not exert his constitutional prerogatives as Emperor ( Executive and Moderating Power ) until he reached majority, a regency was created. The first regency consisted of a triumvirate, and one of its members
17784-444: The monarchic regime and, when the time came, they would do nothing to defend it. Pedro II's achievements went unremembered and unconsidered by the ruling elites. By his very success, the Emperor had made his position seem unnecessary. The lack of an heir who could feasibly provide a new direction for the nation also diminished the long-term prospects of the Brazilian monarchy. The Emperor loved his daughter Isabel, but he considered
17955-456: The monarchy's future prospects, despite its overwhelming popular support. He did not allow his ouster to be opposed and did not support any attempt to restore the monarchy. He spent the last two years of his life in exile in Europe, living alone on very little money. The reign of Pedro II ended while he was highly regarded by the people and at the pinnacle of his popularity, and some of his accomplishments were reversed as Brazil slipped into
18126-411: The money to build elementary schools. In the 1870s, progress was made in both social and political spheres as segments of society benefited from the reforms and shared in the increasing prosperity. Brazil's international reputation for political stability and investment potential greatly improved. The Empire was seen as a modern and progressive nation unequaled, with the exception of the United States, in
18297-491: The murder of Brazilians and looting of their property in Uruguay. Brazil's government decided to intervene, fearful of giving any impression of weakness in the face of conflict with the British. A Brazilian army invaded Uruguay in December 1864, beginning the brief Uruguayan War , which ended in February 1865. Meanwhile, the dictator of Paraguay, Francisco Solano López , took advantage of the situation to establish his country as
18468-531: The nation as the "Fatherland Volunteers". The monarch himself was popularly called the "number-one volunteer". Given permission to leave, Pedro II disembarked in Rio Grande do Sul in July and proceeded from there by land. He travelled overland by horse and wagon, sleeping at night in a campaign tent. In September, Pedro II arrived in Uruguaiana , a Brazilian town occupied by a besieged Paraguayan army. The Emperor rode within rifle-shot of Uruguaiana, but
18639-430: The national interest ahead of any potential harm caused by such expediencies. His refusal to accept anything short of total victory was pivotal in the outcome. His tenacity was well-paid with the news that López had died in battle on 1 March 1870, bringing the war to a close. Pedro II turned down the General Assembly's suggestion to erect an equestrian statue of him to commemorate the victory and chose instead to use
18810-468: The only one he retained into adulthood was Luís Pedreira do Couto Ferraz , future Viscount of Bom Retiro. However, he was treated tenderly by Mariana de Verna and also by Rafael, who played with him by carrying him on his shoulders and who also allowed Pedro II to hide in his room to escape from studies. For the greater part of his time, he was surrounded by servants who only had permission to speak to him when questioned. The environment in which Pedro II
18981-769: The place of aio (supervisor) formerly held by Friar Antonio de Arrábida (who had tutored Pedro I as a child). General supervision of Pedro II's education fell to Friar Pedro Mariana, and he took personal charge of his Latin , religion and mathematics studies. He was one of the few people outside his family for whom Pedro II held great affection. Among the precepts which Itanhaém and Friar Pedro Mariana sought to instill in Pedro II were: that all human beings should be considered as his equals, that he should seek to be impartial and just, that public servants and ministers of state should be carefully watched, that he should not have favourites , and that his concern should always be for
19152-605: The political scene was an important part of the government's structure, which also included the cabinet, the Chamber of Deputies and the Senate (the latter two formed the General Assembly). He used his participation in directing the course of government as a means of influence. His direction became indispensable, although it never devolved into "one-man rule." In his handling of the political parties, he "needed to maintain
19323-489: The powerful minister of Justice, had managed to appoint Paulo Barbosa (a friend of his brother Saturnino de Sousa e Oliveira Coutinho ) to the position of steward. It was Paulo Barbosa who called the Marquis of Itanhaém to become guardian of the princes and Friar Pedro Mariana to be supervisor of Pedro II. He thought both would submit to his interests. Mariana de Verna, former supervisor and surrogate mother of Pedro II and
19494-398: The press usually refers to them as "Firstname Lastname", without the honorific. Priests are the only ones to be referred as "Don" plus the last name (e.g. Don Marioni), although when talking directly to them they are usually addressed as "Don" plus the first name (e.g. Don Francesco), which is also the most common form used by parishioners when referring to their priest. The usage of Dom
19665-465: The prime ministry of Honório Hermeto Carneiro Leão (then-Viscount and later Marquis of Paraná) the Emperor advanced his own ambitious program: the conciliação (conciliation) and melhoramentos (material developments). Pedro II's reforms aimed to promote less political partisanship, and forward infrastructure and economic development. The nation was being interconnected through railroad , electrical telegraph , and steamship lines, uniting it into
19836-532: The public welfare. Both had as an objective "to make a human, honest, constitutional, pacifist, tolerant, wise and just monarch. That is, a perfect ruler, dedicated integrally to his obligations, above political passions and private interests." Later, in January 1839, Itanhaém called Cândido José de Araújo Viana (later Marquis of Sapucaí) to be instructor of Pedro II's education, and he and the emperor also got on very well. The education of Pedro II began while he
20007-483: The ratification of the vows previously taken by proxy and the conferral of the nuptial blessing, occurred on the following day, 4 September. In late 1845 and early 1846, the Emperor made a tour of Brazil's southern provinces, traveling through São Paulo (of which Paraná was a part at this time), Santa Catarina and Rio Grande do Sul . He was buoyed by the warm and enthusiastic responses he received. By then Pedro II had matured physically and mentally. He grew into
20178-630: The regency period, when the lack of an emperor who could stand above petty and special interests led to years of strife between political factions. Their experiences in public life had created a conviction that Pedro II was "indispensable to Brazil's continued peace and prosperity." The marriage between Pedro II and Teresa Cristina started off badly. With maturity, patience and their first child, Afonso , their relationship improved. Later Teresa Cristina gave birth to more children: Isabel , in 1846; Leopoldina , in 1847; and lastly, Pedro Afonso , in 1848. Both boys died when very young, which devastated
20349-532: The regime" and his lack of action in support of the imperial system once it was challenged, historians have attributed the "prime, perhaps sole, responsibility" for the dissolution of the monarchy to the Emperor himself. After their experience of the perils and obstacles of government, the political figures who had arisen during the 1830s saw the Emperor as providing a fundamental source of authority essential for governing and for national survival. These elder statesmen began to die off or retire from government until, by
20520-451: The respect and admiration of intellectuals such as Charles Darwin , Victor Hugo , and Friedrich Nietzsche , and was a friend to Richard Wagner , Louis Pasteur , and Henry Wadsworth Longfellow , among others. The Emperor was overthrown in a sudden coup d'état that had almost no support outside a clique of military leaders who desired a form of republic headed by a dictator. Pedro II had become weary of emperorship and despaired over
20691-456: The rest of his life. Bonifácio was dismissed from his position in December 1833 and replaced by another guardian. Pedro II spent his days studying, with only two hours set aside for amusements. Intelligent, he was able to acquire knowledge with great ease. However, the hours of study were strenuous and the preparation for his role as monarch was demanding. He had few friends of his age and limited contact with his sisters. All that coupled with
20862-442: The rest of his life. São Cristóvão was Pedro II's primary residence from infancy. At the end of 1832 Princess Paula became severely ill (likely with meningitis) and died three weeks later on 16 January 1833. Her loss reinforced the sense of abandonment already felt by Pedro II and his remaining two sisters. José Bonifácio was dismissed from his position in December 1833. He "brooked no challenge to his omnipotence as guardian. He
21033-508: The rule, such as the mulatto Miguel Enríquez who received the distinction from Philip V due to his privateering work in the Caribbean . It is now often used as a more formal version of Señor , a term which itself was also once used to address someone with the quality of nobility (not necessarily holding a nobiliary title). During the reign of King Juan Carlos of Spain from 1975 until his abdication as monarch on 19 June 2014, he
21204-512: The standard, he lived simply, once having said: "I also understand that useless expenditure is the same as stealing from the Nation". Balls and assemblies of the Court ceased after 1852. He also refused to request or allow his civil list amount of R$ 800,000 per year (US$ 405,000 or £90,000 in 1840) to be raised from the declaration of his majority until his dethronement almost fifty years later. "I
21375-479: The sudden loss of his parents gave Pedro II an unhappy and lonely upbringing. The environment in which he was raised turned him into a shy and needy person who saw books as a refuge and retreat from the real world. The possibility of lowering the young Emperor's age of majority, instead of waiting until he turned 18, had been floated since 1835. His elevation to the throne had led to a troublesome period of endless crises. The regency created to rule on his behalf
21546-430: The title is usually only given to Roman Catholic diocesan priests (never to prelates, who bear higher honorifics such as monsignore , eminenza , and so on). In Sardinia , until recently it was commonly used for nobility (whether titled or not), but it is being presently used mainly when the speaker wants to show that he knows the don 's condition of nobility. Outside of the priesthood or old nobility, usage
21717-444: The title itself had been granted. A well-known exception is the descent of Dom Vasco da Gama . There were many cases, both in Portugal and Brazil, in which the title of Dom (or Dona ) was conceded to, and even bought by, people who were not from royalty. In any case, when the title was officially recognized by the proper authority, it became part of the name. In Portugal and Brazil, Dom ( pronounced [ˈdõ] )
21888-449: The tour when news came from Brazil that the Law of Free Birth, abolishing the last source of enslavement, had been ratified. The imperial party returned to Brazil in triumph on 31 March 1872. Soon after returning to Brazil, Pedro II was faced with an unexpected crisis. The Brazilian clergy had long been understaffed, undisciplined and poorly educated, leading to a great loss of respect for
22059-601: The trade in illegally imported slaves. This had been banned in 1826 as part of a treaty with the United Kingdom. Trafficking continued unabated, however, and the British government's passage of the Aberdeen Act of 1845 authorized British warships to board Brazilian shipping and seize any found involved in the slave trade. While Brazil grappled with this problem, the Praieira revolt erupted on 6 November 1848. This
22230-464: The two met. Victor Hugo told the Emperor: "Sire, you are a great citizen, you are the grandson of Marcus Aurelius ," and Alexandre Herculano called him a "Prince whom the general opinion holds as the foremost of his era because of his gifted mind, and due to the constant application of that gift to the sciences and culture." At the end of 1859, Pedro II departed on a trip to provinces north of
22401-668: Was "an unalloyed triumph", Pedro II making a deep impression on the American people with his simplicity and kindness. He then crossed the Atlantic, where he visited Denmark, Sweden, Finland, Russia, the Ottoman Empire , Greece, the Holy Land , Egypt, Italy, Austria, Germany, France, Britain, Ireland, the Netherlands, Switzerland, and Portugal. He returned to Brazil on 22 September 1877. Pedro II's trips abroad made
22572-416: Was a Portuguese widow who was considered a cultured, honorable and kindly woman. Pedro II called her " Dadama " as he did not pronounce the word " dame " correctly as a child. However, he would continue calling her in this way into adulthood, though out of affection and treating her as his surrogate mother. As was the custom of the time, he was not nursed by his mother. Instead, a Swiss immigrant from
22743-512: Was a conflict between local political factions within Pernambuco province; it was suppressed by March 1849. The Eusébio de Queirós Law was promulgated on 4 September 1850 which gave the Brazilian government broad authority to combat the illegal slave trade. With this new tool, Brazil moved to eliminate importation of slaves. By 1852 this first crisis was over, and Britain accepted that the trade had been suppressed. The third crisis entailed
22914-469: Was a delicate subject. Slaves were used by all classes, from the richest to the poorest. Pedro II wanted to end the practice gradually to soften the impact to the national economy. With no constitutional authority to directly intervene to abolish slavery, the Emperor would need to use all his skills to convince, influence, and gather support among politicians to achieve his goal. His first open move occurred back in 1850, when he threatened to abdicate unless
23085-416: Was a prerogative of princes of royal blood and also of other individuals to whom it had been granted by the sovereign. In most cases, the title was passed on through the male line. Strictly speaking, only females born of a nobleman bearing the title Dom would be addressed as Dona ('D.ª'), but the style was not heritable through daughters. The few exceptions depended solely on the conditions upon which
23256-410: Was also Pedro IV of Portugal) on 28 May 1826. As the only legitimate male child of Pedro I to survive infancy, he became heir to his father's Brazilian crown as Prince Imperial and was officially recognized as such on 6 August 1826. Pedro I invited Dona Mariana de Verna Magalhães Coutinho (later Countess of Belmonte in 1844) to take the position of aia (supervisor) to his son. Mariana de Verna
23427-466: Was also victorious in the Platine War , the Uruguayan War , and the Paraguayan War , as well as prevailing in several other international disputes and domestic tensions. Pedro II pushed through the abolition of slavery despite opposition from powerful political and economic interests. The Emperor established a reputation as a vigorous sponsor of learning, culture, and the sciences, and he won
23598-426: Was baptized a few days later on 9 December. His elder sister Maria was godmother, and his father was named as his godfather. Having been born after the recognition of Brazilian independence , he was considered a foreigner under Portuguese law. However, his elder sister, having been born prior to independence, was able to ascend the throne of Portugal as Maria II upon the abdication of their father (Pedro I, who
23769-533: Was born at 02:30 on 2 December 1825 in the Palace of São Cristóvão , in Rio de Janeiro , Brazil . Named after St. Peter of Alcantara , his name in full was Pedro de Alcântara João Carlos Leopoldo Salvador Bibiano Francisco Xavier de Paula Leocádio Miguel Gabriel Rafael Gonzaga. Through his father, Emperor Dom Pedro I , he was a member of the Brazilian branch of the House of Braganza ( Portuguese : Bragança ) and
23940-494: Was born following a childbirth that lasted for more than five hours at 2:30 a.m. on 2 December 1825. His name, as well as his father's, was a homage to St. Peter of Alcantara . Through his father, Emperor Pedro I , he was a member of the Brazilian branch of the House of Braganza . This, in turn, was an illegitimate branch of the Capetian dynasty . He was thus grandson of João VI and nephew of Miguel I . His mother
24111-556: Was born in Rio de Janeiro, the seventh child of Emperor Dom Pedro I of Brazil and Empress Dona Maria Leopoldina and thus a member of the Brazilian branch of the House of Braganza ( Portuguese : Bragança ). His father's abrupt abdication and departure to Europe in 1831 left the five-year-old as emperor and led to a lonely childhood and adolescence, obliged to spend his time studying in preparation for rule. His experiences with court intrigues and political disputes during this period greatly affected his later character; he grew into
24282-504: Was born to devote myself to culture and sciences," the Emperor remarked in his private journal during 1862. He had always been eager to learn and found in books a refuge from the demands of his position. Subjects which interested Pedro II were wide-ranging, including anthropology , history , geography , geology , medicine , law , religious studies , philosophy , painting , sculpture , theater , music , chemistry , physics , astronomy , poetry , and technology among others. By
24453-528: Was common—although Pedro II himself was not a Freemason. The government headed by the Viscount of Rio Branco tried on two separate occasions to persuade the bishops to repeal, but they refused. This led to their trial and conviction by the Superior Court of Justice . In 1874, they were sentenced four years at hard labor, although the Emperor commuted this to imprisonment only. Pedro II played
24624-459: Was dark-haired, vivacious, and intelligent, and noticeably older in years than he." Pedro I abdicated the Imperial crown on 7 April 1831, after a long conflict with the federalist liberals. He and Amélie immediately departed for Portugal to reclaim the crown of his daughter , which had been usurped by his brother Miguel I. Left behind, Prince Imperial Pedro thus became "Dom Pedro II, Constitutional Emperor and Perpetual Defender of Brazil". When
24795-532: Was enacted as the Law of Free Birth on 28 September 1871, under which all children born to slave women after that date were considered free born. On 25 May 1871, Pedro II and his wife traveled to Europe. He had long desired to vacation abroad. When news arrived that his younger daughter, the 23-year-old Leopoldina, had died in Vienna of typhoid fever on 7 February, he finally had a pressing reason to venture outside
24966-483: Was exceptionally discreet in words and cautious in action." Most importantly, this period saw the end of the Courtier Faction. Pedro II began to fully exercise authority and successfully engineered the end of the courtiers' influence by removing them from his inner circle while avoiding any public disruption. Pedro II was faced by three crises between 1848 and 1852. The first test came in confronting
25137-542: Was heir to his father's throne and was styled Prince Imperial. As member of the Brazilian Royalty, he held the honorific title " Dom ". Pedro II's mother died when he was one year old, and his father remarried, to Amélie of Leuchtenberg , a couple years later. Pedro II formed a strong bond with Empress Amélie, whom he considered to be his mother throughout the remainder of his life. When Pedro I abdicated on 7 April 1831 and departed to Europe with Amélie, Pedro II
25308-551: Was his friend José Bonifácio , whom he nominated as guardian, a position which was later confirmed by the National Assembly . The second was Mariana de Verna, who had occupied the position of aia (supervisor) from the birth of Pedro II. The third person was Rafael, an afro-Brazilian veteran of the Cisplatine War . Rafael was an employee in the Palace of São Cristóvão whom Pedro I deeply trusted and asked to look after his son—a charge which he carried out during
25479-471: Was how the style was used in the Almanach de Gotha for extant families in its third section focused on the 200 non sovereign princely and ducal families of Europe. The last official Italian nobility law (abrogated 1948) stated that the style belonged to members of the following groups: Genealogical databases and dynastic works still reserve the title for this class of noble by tradition, although it
25650-543: Was indispensable for the country's survival". When asked by politicians if he would like to assume full powers, Pedro II accepted. On the following day, 23 July 1840, the General Assembly (the Brazilian Parliament ) formally declared the 14-year-old Pedro II of age . He was later acclaimed, crowned, and consecrated on 18 July 1841. Removal of the factious regency brought stability to
25821-401: Was kept unaware of events occurring outside the palace, including political matters. News which did intrude upon the emperor and his sisters concerned deaths within their family. In December 1834, they learned of the early and unanticipated death of their father. A few months later their grandfather Francis II, who had shown great interest in his grandchildren, died (June 1835). These losses drew
25992-494: Was left behind with his sisters and became the second emperor of Brazil. He was raised with simplicity but received an exceptional education towards shaping what Brazilians then considered an ideal ruler. The sudden and traumatic loss of his parents, coupled with a lonely and unhappy upbringing, greatly affected Pedro II and shaped his character. When he ascended to the throne, Pedro II was only five years old. Until he came of age and would be able to exert his constitutional powers,
26163-446: Was married two and a half years later to Amélie of Leuchtenberg . Prince Pedro spent little time with his stepmother, who would ultimately leave the country two years later. Even so, they had an affectionate relationship and kept in contact with each other until her death in 1873. So strong was Amélie's influence over the young prince that he always considered her to be his mother, and as an adult "the ideal female, whom he ever sought,
26334-421: Was not attributed to members of Portugal's untitled nobility: Since hereditary titles in Portugal descended according to primogeniture , the right to the style of Dom was the only apparent distinction between cadets of titled families and members of untitled noble families. In the Portuguese language, the feminine form, Dona (or, more politely, Senhora Dona ), has become common when referring to
26505-707: Was officially recognized as heir apparent to the Brazilian throne with the title Prince Imperial on 6 August 1826. Empress Maria Leopoldina died on 11 December 1826, a few days after a stillbirth, when Pedro was a year old. Two and a half years later, his father married Princess Amélie of Leuchtenberg . Prince Pedro developed an affectionate relationship with her, whom he came to regard as his mother. Pedro I's desire to restore his daughter Maria II to her Portuguese throne, which had been usurped by his brother Miguel I, as well as his declining political position at home led to his abrupt abdication on 7 April 1831. He and Amélie immediately departed for Europe, leaving behind
26676-408: Was plagued from the start by disputes between political factions and rebellions across the nation. Those politicians who had risen to power during the 1830s had by now also become familiar with the pitfalls of rule. Historian Roderick J. Barman stated that by 1840, "they had lost all faith in their ability to rule the country on their own. They accepted Pedro II as an authority figure whose presence
26847-631: Was presented by Brigadier General Francisco de Lima e Silva , the Empress' veador ( gentleman usher ) to members of the Brazilian government assembled at the Paço de São Cristóvão (Palace of Saint Christopher), home of the Imperial family. He was only 47 centimeters tall and was considered a fragile and sickly child. He had inherited the epilepsy of the Spanish Bourbons , although this would completely disappear at adolescence. He
27018-404: Was quick to take umbrage with those who disputed his prerogatives or challenged his powers, and his dictatorial ways threatened entrenched interests at the court. In particular, he clashed with D. Mariana de Verna Magalhães, who, as first lady of the emperor's bedchamber and supported by numerous relatives, had for several years enjoyed considerable influence in court affairs." His relationship with
27189-480: Was raised turned him into a shy and needy person who saw in "books another world where he could isolate and protect himself." Behind the "pomp of the monarchy, of the self-sufficient appearance, there must have lived an unhappy man." From 7 April 1831 Pedro II was Emperor of Brazil, but he would only be able to exercise his constitutional prerogatives upon reaching the age of majority at 18. This would not occur until 2 December 1843. The possibility of lowering
27360-648: Was referred to using the honorific Dom ( Lord ) from birth. He was the grandson of Portuguese King Dom João VI and nephew of Dom Miguel I . His mother was the Archduchess Maria Leopoldina of Austria , daughter of Franz II , the last Holy Roman Emperor . Through his mother, Pedro was a nephew of Napoleon Bonaparte and first cousin of Emperors Napoleon II of France , Franz Joseph I of Austria-Hungary and Don Maximiliano I of Mexico . The only legitimate male child of Pedro I to survive infancy, he
27531-556: Was reserved to the nobility , the prehispanic datu that became the principalía , whose right to rule was recognised by Philip II on 11 June 1594. Similar to Latin America, the title Don is considered highly honoured, more so than academic titles such as "Doctor", political titles such as "Governor", and even knights titled " Sir ". Usage was retained during the American period , although traditional official positions of
27702-571: Was still heir to throne, and he learned to read and write in Portuguese at age five. His first tutors were Mariana de Verna and Friar Antonio de Arrábida. When he became Emperor he already had several professors. Amongst these were Félix Taunay (father of Alfredo d'Escragnolle Taunay ) and Luís Alves de Lima e Silva (son of the regent Francisco de Lima e Silva), who taught French and Fencing respectively, and towards both of whom he developed lifelong friendship and admiration. Pedro II passed
27873-607: Was the Ragamuffin War , which began as yet another dispute between political factions in the province of Rio Grande do Sul but quickly evolved into a separatist rebellion financed by the Argentine dictator Don Manuel Rosas . But even in this case, the majority of the province's population, including the largest and most prosperous cities, remained loyal to the Empire. Upon leaving the country, Emperor Pedro I selected three people to take charge of his children. The first
28044-446: Was the honorific title exclusively reserved for a member of a high noble family such a principe or a duca , excluding a marchese or a conte (and any legitimate, male-line descendant thereof). A reigning prince or duke would also be entitled to some form of the higher style of Altezza (eg Sua Altezza Serenissima , Sua Altezza Reale ) in addition to the Don. This
28215-405: Was the Archduchess Maria Leopoldina , daughter of Francis II , last Holy Roman Emperor . Through his mother he was a nephew of Napoleon Bonaparte and first cousin of Emperors Napoleon II of France , Franz Joseph I of Austria and Maximilian I of Mexico . Among his ancestors were figures such as Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor and King Louis XIV of France . On the day of his birth Pedro
28386-433: Was the arrest of a group of drunken British sailors who were causing a disturbance in the streets of Rio. The Brazilian government refused to yield, and Christie issued orders for British warships to capture Brazilian merchant vessels as indemnity. Brazil prepared for what was seen as an imminent conflict. Pedro II was the main reason for Brazil's resistance; he rejected any suggestion of yielding. This response came as
28557-626: Was the same Brigadier General Francisco de Lima e Silva who had presented the infant Pedro to the Government more than five years previously. Disputes between political factions resulted in an unstable, almost anarchical, regency. The Liberals who had ousted Pedro I soon split into two factions: moderate liberals (constitutional monarchists who would later split into the Liberal Party and Conservative Party) and Republicans (a small minority, but radical and highly rebellious). There were also
28728-548: Was thought capable as head of state. Early life of Pedro II of Brazil The early life of Pedro II of Brazil covers the period from his birth on 2 December 1825 until 18 July 1841, when he was crowned and consecrated. Born in Rio de Janeiro , the Brazilian Emperor Dom Pedro II was the youngest and only surviving male child of Dom Pedro I , first emperor of Brazil , and his wife Dona Leopoldina , archduchess of Austria . From birth, he
28899-482: Was titled Su Majestad [S. M.] el Rey Juan Carlos (His Majesty King Juan Carlos). Following the abdication, Juan Carlos and his wife are titled, according to the Royal Household website, S. M. el Rey Don Juan Carlos (H.M. King Juan Carlos) and S. M. la Reina Doña Sofía (H.M. Queen Sofía)—the same as during his reign, with the honorific Don / Doña prefixed to the names. Juan Carlos' successor
29070-421: Was used to address members of the nobility, e.g. hidalgos , as well as members of the secular clergy . The treatment gradually came to be reserved for persons of the blood royal , e.g. Don John of Austria , and those of such acknowledged high or ancient aristocratic birth as to be noble de Juro e Herdade , that is, "by right and heredity" rather than by the king's grace. However, there were rare exemptions to
29241-626: Was widely used in Crown documents throughout Hispanic America by those in nobility or landed gentry. It can be found in the many 'Padrones' and "Aguas y Tierras" records in Mexican archives. The honorific in modern times is also widely used throughout the Americas. This is the case of the Mexican New Age author Don Miguel Ángel Ruiz , the Chilean television personality Don Francisco , and
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